- Email: [email protected]
Increasing the involvement of IOC member states in GOOS through capacity building: the Indonesian experience
656
Operational Oceanography. The Challengefor European Co-operation edited by J.H. Stel, H.W.A. Behrens, J.C. Borst, L.J. Droppert, J. v.d. Meulen 9 1997 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
I n c r e a s i n g the i n v o l v e m e n t o f I O C m e m b e r states in G O O S t h r o u g h c a p a c i t y building: the I n d o n e s i a n e x p e r i e n c e
Dr. Aprilani Soegiarto* *Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Jl. Gatot Subroto l 0, Jakarta 12710 - Indonesia
Indonesia is the largest archipelago in the world. The 3,1 million km 2 seas cover about two thirds of its territory. The 200 miles exclusive economic zone (EEZ) adds another 2.7 million km 2. Thus, the marine and coastal environments are the dominant physical features of the archipelago. Therefore, it is only natural that marine related programmes in Indonesia become large and are receiving high priorities and government supports. A concerted effort in the national capacity building in marine science through bilateral, regional and international co-operations, has been carried out in the last twenty years. It included among others, upgrading the quantity and quality of manpower, expanding and improving research thcilities, establishing a National Marine Data Center, and improving communications and co-operation throughout the marine science community. At present Indonesia operates: 9 A network ot'tide gauges and current meter stations. 9 Two satelite ground stations. 9 "l'ropical radar wind profiling stations. 9 A network of marine pollution stations. 9 A number of ocean going, coastal and fisheries research vessels. 9 Six Seawatch monitoring buoys. These thcilities will be used tbr the Indonesian particitation in the Global Ocean Observing System and other related international marine programmes. "I'his paper gives a brief review of the Indonesian experience in developing a national marine capacity through bilateral, regional and international partnerships. A proposal for developing a co-operative programme with EuroGOOS is also discussed.
1. I N T R O D U C T I O N Geographically, the Indonesian archipelago is situated between the Asian and the Australian continents and between the Pacific and the Indian Oceans. It is located between 94~ and 141~ and 6~ and I I~ The archipelago consists of 17.508 islands with more than 81,000 km of coastlines. The Indonesian waters cover two-thirds of its territory. Therefore, sustainable use of this resource will not only affect the Indonesians economy in the coming decade, but also its ability to meet the increasing demand for food and raw
657 materials, its position and influence in the region, its national resilience and the environmental quality of the country as a whole. For centuries the rich and diversified life of the Indonesian seas has been an important source of food such as fishes, crustaceans, molluscs, and seaweeds. In addition minerals and hydrocarbors currently exploited from the shallower parts o f the archipelago waters. Aside from these renewable and non-renewable resources, the archipelagic seas have many other roles, such as for inter-islands, regional and international shiping, communications, recreation and tourism. In order to enhance and speed up the return of the marine sector, Indonesia has consistently developed a national capacity in these fields. Manpower and infrastructure development took place through bilateral, regional and international cooperation.
2. T H E O C E A N O G R A P H I C F E A T U R E S r
Nearly all types of topographical t~atures are found in the Indonesian seas, such as shallow continental shelves, deep sea basins, troughs, trenches, continental slopes and volcanic and coral islands. The distribution of water and land alone makes the Indonesian archipelago one of the most complex structures on earth. The numerous large and small islands divide the waters into different seas connected by many channels, passages, and straits. The complexity of the region is the reason why it has drawn many major international oceanographic expeditions, such as the Challenger (1872-1875), the Gazelle (1885), the Valdivia (1899), the Siboga (1989-1900), the Planet (1906-1907), the Snellius (1929-30), the Albatross (1948), the Spencer F. Baird (1947-50), and the Galathea (1951). In recent years, a tbw oceanographic cruises have also been organized locally or as part of some co-operative regional studies. Examples of the latter are the Co-operative Study of the Kuroshio which also covered the South China Sea of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC), the International Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE) and the Indonesian-Dutch Snellius II expedition (1984-1985). Indonesia is thus fortunate to have a fairly good picture of the general oceanographic characteristics of its waters (Wyrtki, 1961; Soegiarto and Birowo, 1975). The Indonesian archipelago is strongly governed by the monsonal climate. The northwest monsoon lasts from December to February/March and the southeast monsoon from June to August. The rests of the year represents the transition periods from the northwest to the southeast monsoon (March to May) and from the southeast to the northwest monsoon (September to November). The monsoons strongly affect the oceanographic features of the Indonesian region (Soegiarto, 1985; Soegiarto and Birowo, 1975). As a consequence the Indonesian waters are ideal for studying the effects of the monsoons on both water circulation and the seasonal distribution of its physical, chemical, and biological properties.
The Indonesian seas tbrm the onliest tropical inter-ocean link, connecting the reservoir of the warm surfhce water mass of the western Pacific with the eastern Indian Ocean, while transforming it through vertical mixing and air-sea interaction on its way. The heat and water mass flux between both oceans through this link is estimated to be considerable and has a large, perhaps even global scale impact on the ocean climate. A well known example of this is the "Southern Oscillation" or "El Nifio" which generates adverse climate effects locally, regionally (Pacific) and even globally. Therefore, regional and international studies on the "El
658 Nifio Southern Oscillation" (ENSO) are undertaken throughout the Pacific and the Indian Ocean.
3. PRIORITIES FOR D E V E L O P M E N T IN M A R I N E S E C T O R
In 1993 Indonesia completed her First 25 Year Long Term Development Plan (1969-1993), which was divided into "Five Year Development Plans". Agriculture, small and basic industries were the priorities of this development plan. The second 25 Year Long Term Development Plan (1994-2020) has been formulated and approved by the Supreme People Council in March, 1993. For the first time Science and Technology becomes one of the major Programme Areas (Bidang) and Marine Affairs is one of the Sectors in the Economic Development. Therefore, one of the priorities for the next 25 years is the rational development and utilization of the marine and coastal resources, including the development of maritime industries such as fisheries and aquaculture; oil and gas industries; ship-building, sea communication and port development; tourism; deti~nce and; security and mineral resources. 3.1 Fisheries and Aquaculture The Indonesian marine environment oflizrs a vast potential tbr the development ot" fishing activities. Similarly the almost 81,000 km of coastlines oflizrs unique opportunities tbr aquaculture and marine tarming activities. The total output of fisheries and aquaculture was 3.3 million metric tons in 1991, with an export value of [JS$ 1,807 million. In 1995 the total production has reached 4,2 million tons with an export value of [JS 1,808 million. The fishery production consists of about 77% marine and 23% ti'eshwater fishes. The exports are dominated by prawns and tuna (Murdjijo, 1996). In addition, the fisheries and aquaculture industries contribute significantly to the urgently needed protein sources of the country. The average consumption in 1996 is 19.39 kg ot" fish/cap./year. Many coastal communities are totally dependent on the food fi'om the sea. The sustained potential of marine fish production per year has been estimated to be 4.5 million tons from the archipelagic waters and 2.1 million tons from the EEZ. The aquaculture and marine thrming activities potentially can produce as much as 2.5 million tons per year. 3.2 Oil and gas In the critical period in the 1970"s, oil has financed and fueled the Indonesian economic development. In those time oil revenues contributed over 80% of the national revenues. With the growth of the non-oil sectors, the oil industry now contributes a substantial, but much lower, 25% of the national revenues. Almost 35% of the oil production is derived from offshore fields, in particular from the Java Sea and Makassar Strait. Another large percentage comes from coastal areas. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) play an increasing important role as a catalist tbr national development. The Indonesian's share of the international market for LNG and LPG has grown rather spectacularly. By 1987 Indonesia ranked as the world's leader of LNG and LPG exporter holding over 40% of the global market. Oil and gas resources from offshore areas are not yet maximally exploited. Data show that Indonesia has 60 Tertiary sedimentary basins, which are rich in hydrocarbon and natural gases.
659
Seventy three percent of the basins are located offshore. Many of them are still untouched due to their location in deep water. Out of the 60 basins, fourteen are already producing, seven have been drilled and proven oil productive, fifteen are in an explorative drilling phase and twenty-four are still untouched. The proven reserve of these basins is estimated to be 11.4 billion barrels of oils and 101.6 trillion cubic feet of gas (Soegiarto and Soegiarto, 1996). The activities of the oil and gas industries in Indonesia include extensive offshore explorations and productions, heavily used inter-island tanker routes as well as serving Pacific Rim nations and refineries and large scale terminal operations. Each of these operations potentially can result in oil spills. In addition, the development of onshore petroleum facilities, such as oil terminals and refinery facilities, potentially can effect the local ecosystems through chronic discharge of pollutants etc. This may lead to possible loss of income from fishing and food sources for local residents as well as marketable products due to tainting or mortality o f commercial species. 3.3 Shippings and Ports Indonesia as an archipelagic nation, relies on shipping as an important mode of transportation of natural resources, goods and people. Therefore, it is essential to develop shipping and port systems for facilitating the use of Indonesia's nat~ral resources to promote economic development, to reduce cost of trade and to increase oil and gas as well as non oil exports. In 1992 there were registered 344 inter-islands vessels with 843,000 DWT (Dead Weight Ton): 1,119 local transportation vessels with a capacity of 180,000 DWT: 3,974 vessels (209,000 DWT) tbr transporting people, and 27 international vessels (347,000 DWT) in the Indonesian waters. Currently, Indonesia has 538 ports of which 131 are open tbr international trade. "l'he development and maintenance of ports, ship constructions, transportation technology and management is very important as traffic of container ships in the Asia and Pacific region has increased substantially. 3.4 Tourism Since 1988 tourism has been the fourth largest source of tbreign exchange in Indonesia. By 1994, at the end of the Fifth Five Year Development Plan, Indonesia has welcomed over tbur million foreign visitors, who collectively have spent an estimated US$ 4.6 billion in tbreign exchange during their travels in the archipelago. At present Indonesia ranks as the sixth tourist destination in Asia. Since 1995 the growth of tourism in Indonesia was an impressive 17.8% per year. Indonesia has abundant resources tbr the development of marine and coastal tourism, including white sandy beaches, coral reefs, island ecosystems, etc. A number of beach and island resorts have been developed and can be reached relatively easily from the main gateway cities of Medan, Jakarta, Surabaya, Denpasar, Menado, and more recently also Batam, near Singapore. It is projected that tourism will overtake oil and gas as the principal sources of income within the next decade.
4.
E F F O R T S OF D E V E L O P I N G A N A T I O N A L C A P A C I T Y IN M A R I N E S C I E N C E
The basis for the various maritime industries is a strong marine scientific and technological manpower, infrastructure and support system. When Indonesia claimed its independence in 1945, its economy as well as the capable manpower were still limited. Even when Indonesia started its First 25 Year Long Term
660 Development Plan in 1969, the average yearly income of the population of 100 million people was less than US$ 70. In 1995 the population was 195 million people with an average annual income close to US$ 1,000. Indonesia has now become a newly industrialised country with an average economic growth of seven percent per year. This success story is attributed to a number of factors, such as: 9 Political stability. 9 Abundant and diverse natural resources. 9 Sound planning and economic policy. 9 International and regional co-operation and support. 9 Strong manpower development as well as of a scientific and technological infrastructure. Serious efforts in the national capacity building in marine science and technology started in 1974 when six leading universities were requested to develop marine science and technology as their primary programmes. These universities are the University of Riau in Riau Province, Sumatra; the Bogor Agriculture University in West Java; the Diponegoro University in Central Java; the Hasanuddin University in Macassar, South Celebes; the Sam Ratulangi University in Manado, North Celebes, and the Pattimura University in Ambon, the Mollucas. In addition, two technical institutes (Bandung Institute of Technology and Surabaya Institute of Technology) have been assigned to develop marine engineering and technology. At~er 20 years of continuous and concerted efforts these universities and institutes now start to produce enough excellent graduates. They will become the main source of manpower in the marine sector. Eftbrts in developing expertise in marine scientific studies is a long term all'air. Apart from establishing in-country marinc and technological programmcs, Indoncsia has also scnt thousands of young and bright students abroad (Europe, USA, Japan, Canada and Australia) to be trained and to acquire advance degrees in various fields. In addition, Indonesia utilised the many opportunities of developing capabilities through bilateral, regional and international cooperation. Some of the successful examplcs are: 9 The Indonesian-Dutch Snellius II Programme, 1982-1987. 9 The French-lndonesian co-operation in oceanographic research, CORINDON (Coriolis Cruises in Indonesia)campaigns, 1978-1990; JADE (Java-Australia Ocean-Dynamic Experiment), 1990-1995. 9 Co-operation with Japan on bathymatric mappings, fisheries and mari-cuiture. 9 Co-operation with Germany, on fishery stock assessments, geophysics, shipbuilding, etc.. 9 Co-operation with the Great-Britain in marine science education. 9 Co-operation with the USA in relation to throughflow experiments in the Indonesian waters. As an integral part of capacity building efforts, Indonesia also participated in a number of regional and international programmes, such as the ASEAN-Australia Coastal Resources Programme, the ASEAN-Australia Regional Ocean Dynamics, the ASEAN-US Coastal Resources Management Programme, the ASEAN-Canada Marine Science programme, etc.. Indonesia also has actively participated in the activities of the Sub-Commission for the Western Pacific of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC-WESTPAC), and international research programmes such as TOGA (Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere) and WOCE (World Ocean Current Experiments).
661 Marine scientific research is pre-requisite for a rational development and management of marine resources and the protection of the marine environment. To facilitate a return from the maritime opportunities, Indonesia has given thigh priority to develop its marine science and technology capability during the last 20 years. Currently Indonesia operates the following facilities: 9 A network of marine meteorological monitoring stations. 9 A network of tide gauges and current meter stations. 9 Two satellite ground stations. 9 Tropical radar wind profiling stations. 9 A network of marine pollution stations. 9 A number of ocean going, coastal and fisheries research vessels. In 1996 Indonesia will deploy six Seawatch buoys in various parts of the archipelago. It is the intention to install twelve buoys by the year 2000. This programme is a co-operation between Indonesia and Norway. During the first phase Norway will provide the monitoring sensors, while Indonesia constructs the buoys. Later, however, Indonesia also intends to manufacture the sensors. The Seawatch system as well as other facilities, will be part of the Indonesian contribution to GOOS and will also be used in other international and regional programmes. Based upon the Indonesian experience in using bilateral, regional and international cooperation as a instrument for capacity building, it is proposed that EuroGOOS develops a programme, such as the 'Seawatch' monitoring scheme, to strengthen the marine capabilities of developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America, and by this to assist them to fully participate in the international GOOS programme.
5.
CONCLUSION
Indonesia realizes that science and technology are a pre-requisite tbr national development. Since the 1970's a planned effort for national capacity building in marine science and technology has been carried out consistently. Bilateral, regional and international co-operation was an integral and important part of the capacity building effort. The marine sectors have contributed substantially to the national development during the First Long Term Development Plan (1969-1994) of Indonesia. It is expected that this contribution will be enhanced during the second Long Term Development Plan (1995-2020). To facilitate the economic return form the marine and coastal sectors as well as to strengthen the development of curiosity driven marine research, Indonesia has established a number of modern research facilities which will also be used to actively participate in international marine research programmes and GOOS. To participate fully in the GOOS initiative, it is proposed that EuroGOOS develops a capacity building programme which among others offers equipment and training facilities.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author is indebted and grateful for the financial supports given by the IOC of UNESCO, the director of the Netherlands Geosciences Foundation and the Organiser which enabled him to participate in the First International Conference on EuroGOOS.
662 REFERENCES
1. Murdjijo, The development of fishery sector in the Sixth Five Year Development Plan, Lecture presented in the 2nd Workshop on the Development of Indonesian Maritime Continents, Jakarta, 15pp. (Indonesian), 23-24 July 1996. 2. A. Soegiarto, Oceanographic assessment of the East Asian Seas. In: Dahl, A.L. and J. Carew-Reid (Eds.). Environment and Resources in the Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Programme Studies No. 68, pp. 173-184, 1985. 3. A. Soegiarto and S. Birowo (Eds.), Atlas oceanology of the Indonesian and the adjacent waters. Book 1. The present state of knowledge of oceanology in Indonesia. Nat. Inst. Oceanology, Jakarta-Indonesia, 79 pp + 39 maps (Indonesian), 1975. 4. A. Soegiarto and A. Kinarti, Pollution risk assessment and management in the Strait of Malacca: Present Status, Strategies and Management Practices. The Indonesian Draft Inputs, 65pp., 1996. 5. K. Wyrtki, Physical Oceanography of the Southeast Asian Waters. Naga Report No. 2, Scrips Inst. Oceanography, La Jolla - California, USA, 195pp + 44 plates, 1961.
Operational Oceanography. The Challengefor European Co-operation edited by J.H. Stel, H.W.A. Behrens, J.C. Borst, L.J. Droppert, J. v.d. Meulen 9 1997 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
I n c r e a s i n g the i n v o l v e m e n t o f I O C m e m b e r states in G O O S t h r o u g h c a p a c i t y building: the I n d o n e s i a n e x p e r i e n c e
Dr. Aprilani Soegiarto* *Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Jl. Gatot Subroto l 0, Jakarta 12710 - Indonesia
Indonesia is the largest archipelago in the world. The 3,1 million km 2 seas cover about two thirds of its territory. The 200 miles exclusive economic zone (EEZ) adds another 2.7 million km 2. Thus, the marine and coastal environments are the dominant physical features of the archipelago. Therefore, it is only natural that marine related programmes in Indonesia become large and are receiving high priorities and government supports. A concerted effort in the national capacity building in marine science through bilateral, regional and international co-operations, has been carried out in the last twenty years. It included among others, upgrading the quantity and quality of manpower, expanding and improving research thcilities, establishing a National Marine Data Center, and improving communications and co-operation throughout the marine science community. At present Indonesia operates: 9 A network ot'tide gauges and current meter stations. 9 Two satelite ground stations. 9 "l'ropical radar wind profiling stations. 9 A network of marine pollution stations. 9 A number of ocean going, coastal and fisheries research vessels. 9 Six Seawatch monitoring buoys. These thcilities will be used tbr the Indonesian particitation in the Global Ocean Observing System and other related international marine programmes. "I'his paper gives a brief review of the Indonesian experience in developing a national marine capacity through bilateral, regional and international partnerships. A proposal for developing a co-operative programme with EuroGOOS is also discussed.
1. I N T R O D U C T I O N Geographically, the Indonesian archipelago is situated between the Asian and the Australian continents and between the Pacific and the Indian Oceans. It is located between 94~ and 141~ and 6~ and I I~ The archipelago consists of 17.508 islands with more than 81,000 km of coastlines. The Indonesian waters cover two-thirds of its territory. Therefore, sustainable use of this resource will not only affect the Indonesians economy in the coming decade, but also its ability to meet the increasing demand for food and raw
657 materials, its position and influence in the region, its national resilience and the environmental quality of the country as a whole. For centuries the rich and diversified life of the Indonesian seas has been an important source of food such as fishes, crustaceans, molluscs, and seaweeds. In addition minerals and hydrocarbors currently exploited from the shallower parts o f the archipelago waters. Aside from these renewable and non-renewable resources, the archipelagic seas have many other roles, such as for inter-islands, regional and international shiping, communications, recreation and tourism. In order to enhance and speed up the return of the marine sector, Indonesia has consistently developed a national capacity in these fields. Manpower and infrastructure development took place through bilateral, regional and international cooperation.
2. T H E O C E A N O G R A P H I C F E A T U R E S r
Nearly all types of topographical t~atures are found in the Indonesian seas, such as shallow continental shelves, deep sea basins, troughs, trenches, continental slopes and volcanic and coral islands. The distribution of water and land alone makes the Indonesian archipelago one of the most complex structures on earth. The numerous large and small islands divide the waters into different seas connected by many channels, passages, and straits. The complexity of the region is the reason why it has drawn many major international oceanographic expeditions, such as the Challenger (1872-1875), the Gazelle (1885), the Valdivia (1899), the Siboga (1989-1900), the Planet (1906-1907), the Snellius (1929-30), the Albatross (1948), the Spencer F. Baird (1947-50), and the Galathea (1951). In recent years, a tbw oceanographic cruises have also been organized locally or as part of some co-operative regional studies. Examples of the latter are the Co-operative Study of the Kuroshio which also covered the South China Sea of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC), the International Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE) and the Indonesian-Dutch Snellius II expedition (1984-1985). Indonesia is thus fortunate to have a fairly good picture of the general oceanographic characteristics of its waters (Wyrtki, 1961; Soegiarto and Birowo, 1975). The Indonesian archipelago is strongly governed by the monsonal climate. The northwest monsoon lasts from December to February/March and the southeast monsoon from June to August. The rests of the year represents the transition periods from the northwest to the southeast monsoon (March to May) and from the southeast to the northwest monsoon (September to November). The monsoons strongly affect the oceanographic features of the Indonesian region (Soegiarto, 1985; Soegiarto and Birowo, 1975). As a consequence the Indonesian waters are ideal for studying the effects of the monsoons on both water circulation and the seasonal distribution of its physical, chemical, and biological properties.
The Indonesian seas tbrm the onliest tropical inter-ocean link, connecting the reservoir of the warm surfhce water mass of the western Pacific with the eastern Indian Ocean, while transforming it through vertical mixing and air-sea interaction on its way. The heat and water mass flux between both oceans through this link is estimated to be considerable and has a large, perhaps even global scale impact on the ocean climate. A well known example of this is the "Southern Oscillation" or "El Nifio" which generates adverse climate effects locally, regionally (Pacific) and even globally. Therefore, regional and international studies on the "El
658 Nifio Southern Oscillation" (ENSO) are undertaken throughout the Pacific and the Indian Ocean.
3. PRIORITIES FOR D E V E L O P M E N T IN M A R I N E S E C T O R
In 1993 Indonesia completed her First 25 Year Long Term Development Plan (1969-1993), which was divided into "Five Year Development Plans". Agriculture, small and basic industries were the priorities of this development plan. The second 25 Year Long Term Development Plan (1994-2020) has been formulated and approved by the Supreme People Council in March, 1993. For the first time Science and Technology becomes one of the major Programme Areas (Bidang) and Marine Affairs is one of the Sectors in the Economic Development. Therefore, one of the priorities for the next 25 years is the rational development and utilization of the marine and coastal resources, including the development of maritime industries such as fisheries and aquaculture; oil and gas industries; ship-building, sea communication and port development; tourism; deti~nce and; security and mineral resources. 3.1 Fisheries and Aquaculture The Indonesian marine environment oflizrs a vast potential tbr the development ot" fishing activities. Similarly the almost 81,000 km of coastlines oflizrs unique opportunities tbr aquaculture and marine tarming activities. The total output of fisheries and aquaculture was 3.3 million metric tons in 1991, with an export value of [JS$ 1,807 million. In 1995 the total production has reached 4,2 million tons with an export value of [JS 1,808 million. The fishery production consists of about 77% marine and 23% ti'eshwater fishes. The exports are dominated by prawns and tuna (Murdjijo, 1996). In addition, the fisheries and aquaculture industries contribute significantly to the urgently needed protein sources of the country. The average consumption in 1996 is 19.39 kg ot" fish/cap./year. Many coastal communities are totally dependent on the food fi'om the sea. The sustained potential of marine fish production per year has been estimated to be 4.5 million tons from the archipelagic waters and 2.1 million tons from the EEZ. The aquaculture and marine thrming activities potentially can produce as much as 2.5 million tons per year. 3.2 Oil and gas In the critical period in the 1970"s, oil has financed and fueled the Indonesian economic development. In those time oil revenues contributed over 80% of the national revenues. With the growth of the non-oil sectors, the oil industry now contributes a substantial, but much lower, 25% of the national revenues. Almost 35% of the oil production is derived from offshore fields, in particular from the Java Sea and Makassar Strait. Another large percentage comes from coastal areas. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) play an increasing important role as a catalist tbr national development. The Indonesian's share of the international market for LNG and LPG has grown rather spectacularly. By 1987 Indonesia ranked as the world's leader of LNG and LPG exporter holding over 40% of the global market. Oil and gas resources from offshore areas are not yet maximally exploited. Data show that Indonesia has 60 Tertiary sedimentary basins, which are rich in hydrocarbon and natural gases.
659
Seventy three percent of the basins are located offshore. Many of them are still untouched due to their location in deep water. Out of the 60 basins, fourteen are already producing, seven have been drilled and proven oil productive, fifteen are in an explorative drilling phase and twenty-four are still untouched. The proven reserve of these basins is estimated to be 11.4 billion barrels of oils and 101.6 trillion cubic feet of gas (Soegiarto and Soegiarto, 1996). The activities of the oil and gas industries in Indonesia include extensive offshore explorations and productions, heavily used inter-island tanker routes as well as serving Pacific Rim nations and refineries and large scale terminal operations. Each of these operations potentially can result in oil spills. In addition, the development of onshore petroleum facilities, such as oil terminals and refinery facilities, potentially can effect the local ecosystems through chronic discharge of pollutants etc. This may lead to possible loss of income from fishing and food sources for local residents as well as marketable products due to tainting or mortality o f commercial species. 3.3 Shippings and Ports Indonesia as an archipelagic nation, relies on shipping as an important mode of transportation of natural resources, goods and people. Therefore, it is essential to develop shipping and port systems for facilitating the use of Indonesia's nat~ral resources to promote economic development, to reduce cost of trade and to increase oil and gas as well as non oil exports. In 1992 there were registered 344 inter-islands vessels with 843,000 DWT (Dead Weight Ton): 1,119 local transportation vessels with a capacity of 180,000 DWT: 3,974 vessels (209,000 DWT) tbr transporting people, and 27 international vessels (347,000 DWT) in the Indonesian waters. Currently, Indonesia has 538 ports of which 131 are open tbr international trade. "l'he development and maintenance of ports, ship constructions, transportation technology and management is very important as traffic of container ships in the Asia and Pacific region has increased substantially. 3.4 Tourism Since 1988 tourism has been the fourth largest source of tbreign exchange in Indonesia. By 1994, at the end of the Fifth Five Year Development Plan, Indonesia has welcomed over tbur million foreign visitors, who collectively have spent an estimated US$ 4.6 billion in tbreign exchange during their travels in the archipelago. At present Indonesia ranks as the sixth tourist destination in Asia. Since 1995 the growth of tourism in Indonesia was an impressive 17.8% per year. Indonesia has abundant resources tbr the development of marine and coastal tourism, including white sandy beaches, coral reefs, island ecosystems, etc. A number of beach and island resorts have been developed and can be reached relatively easily from the main gateway cities of Medan, Jakarta, Surabaya, Denpasar, Menado, and more recently also Batam, near Singapore. It is projected that tourism will overtake oil and gas as the principal sources of income within the next decade.
4.
E F F O R T S OF D E V E L O P I N G A N A T I O N A L C A P A C I T Y IN M A R I N E S C I E N C E
The basis for the various maritime industries is a strong marine scientific and technological manpower, infrastructure and support system. When Indonesia claimed its independence in 1945, its economy as well as the capable manpower were still limited. Even when Indonesia started its First 25 Year Long Term
660 Development Plan in 1969, the average yearly income of the population of 100 million people was less than US$ 70. In 1995 the population was 195 million people with an average annual income close to US$ 1,000. Indonesia has now become a newly industrialised country with an average economic growth of seven percent per year. This success story is attributed to a number of factors, such as: 9 Political stability. 9 Abundant and diverse natural resources. 9 Sound planning and economic policy. 9 International and regional co-operation and support. 9 Strong manpower development as well as of a scientific and technological infrastructure. Serious efforts in the national capacity building in marine science and technology started in 1974 when six leading universities were requested to develop marine science and technology as their primary programmes. These universities are the University of Riau in Riau Province, Sumatra; the Bogor Agriculture University in West Java; the Diponegoro University in Central Java; the Hasanuddin University in Macassar, South Celebes; the Sam Ratulangi University in Manado, North Celebes, and the Pattimura University in Ambon, the Mollucas. In addition, two technical institutes (Bandung Institute of Technology and Surabaya Institute of Technology) have been assigned to develop marine engineering and technology. At~er 20 years of continuous and concerted efforts these universities and institutes now start to produce enough excellent graduates. They will become the main source of manpower in the marine sector. Eftbrts in developing expertise in marine scientific studies is a long term all'air. Apart from establishing in-country marinc and technological programmcs, Indoncsia has also scnt thousands of young and bright students abroad (Europe, USA, Japan, Canada and Australia) to be trained and to acquire advance degrees in various fields. In addition, Indonesia utilised the many opportunities of developing capabilities through bilateral, regional and international cooperation. Some of the successful examplcs are: 9 The Indonesian-Dutch Snellius II Programme, 1982-1987. 9 The French-lndonesian co-operation in oceanographic research, CORINDON (Coriolis Cruises in Indonesia)campaigns, 1978-1990; JADE (Java-Australia Ocean-Dynamic Experiment), 1990-1995. 9 Co-operation with Japan on bathymatric mappings, fisheries and mari-cuiture. 9 Co-operation with Germany, on fishery stock assessments, geophysics, shipbuilding, etc.. 9 Co-operation with the Great-Britain in marine science education. 9 Co-operation with the USA in relation to throughflow experiments in the Indonesian waters. As an integral part of capacity building efforts, Indonesia also participated in a number of regional and international programmes, such as the ASEAN-Australia Coastal Resources Programme, the ASEAN-Australia Regional Ocean Dynamics, the ASEAN-US Coastal Resources Management Programme, the ASEAN-Canada Marine Science programme, etc.. Indonesia also has actively participated in the activities of the Sub-Commission for the Western Pacific of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC-WESTPAC), and international research programmes such as TOGA (Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere) and WOCE (World Ocean Current Experiments).
661 Marine scientific research is pre-requisite for a rational development and management of marine resources and the protection of the marine environment. To facilitate a return from the maritime opportunities, Indonesia has given thigh priority to develop its marine science and technology capability during the last 20 years. Currently Indonesia operates the following facilities: 9 A network of marine meteorological monitoring stations. 9 A network of tide gauges and current meter stations. 9 Two satellite ground stations. 9 Tropical radar wind profiling stations. 9 A network of marine pollution stations. 9 A number of ocean going, coastal and fisheries research vessels. In 1996 Indonesia will deploy six Seawatch buoys in various parts of the archipelago. It is the intention to install twelve buoys by the year 2000. This programme is a co-operation between Indonesia and Norway. During the first phase Norway will provide the monitoring sensors, while Indonesia constructs the buoys. Later, however, Indonesia also intends to manufacture the sensors. The Seawatch system as well as other facilities, will be part of the Indonesian contribution to GOOS and will also be used in other international and regional programmes. Based upon the Indonesian experience in using bilateral, regional and international cooperation as a instrument for capacity building, it is proposed that EuroGOOS develops a programme, such as the 'Seawatch' monitoring scheme, to strengthen the marine capabilities of developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America, and by this to assist them to fully participate in the international GOOS programme.
5.
CONCLUSION
Indonesia realizes that science and technology are a pre-requisite tbr national development. Since the 1970's a planned effort for national capacity building in marine science and technology has been carried out consistently. Bilateral, regional and international co-operation was an integral and important part of the capacity building effort. The marine sectors have contributed substantially to the national development during the First Long Term Development Plan (1969-1994) of Indonesia. It is expected that this contribution will be enhanced during the second Long Term Development Plan (1995-2020). To facilitate the economic return form the marine and coastal sectors as well as to strengthen the development of curiosity driven marine research, Indonesia has established a number of modern research facilities which will also be used to actively participate in international marine research programmes and GOOS. To participate fully in the GOOS initiative, it is proposed that EuroGOOS develops a capacity building programme which among others offers equipment and training facilities.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author is indebted and grateful for the financial supports given by the IOC of UNESCO, the director of the Netherlands Geosciences Foundation and the Organiser which enabled him to participate in the First International Conference on EuroGOOS.
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