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Industry and environment in Arctic Alaska
Industry and Environ ment in Arctic Alaska Recent discoveries of huge oil reserves on the Arctic coasts of Alaska and western Canada have caused attention to be focussed on this hitherto little known land. Within the next few years development of resources in this Arctic region will require intensive activity. Two major problems are the severe climate and the remoteness of the area. The harsh climate, with long, dark winters and short summers results in deep, continuous permafrost (Fig. 1) which presents serious problems to transportation and development of resources. ,,..o.
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Fig. 1. Outline map of Alaska emphasizing Prudhoe Bay area, pipeline route, Valdez terminal site, and types and distribution of permafrost. A, Continuous; B, discontinuous; C, sporadic; D, absent. The North Slope oilfield is shaded. Activities associated with early oil exploration demonstrated the frail equilibrium existing in the tundra and Arctic environment. A single passage of tracked vehicles in winter leaves a permanent mark, and travel during thawed periods destroys the thin tundra mat of vegetation, resulting in water-filled ditches as the permafrost melts. Such evidence of instability has attracted the attention of conservationists and government agencies who are making an effort to protect environmental resources of the region.
Exploration and development Progress is being made by government and industry to invoke constructive measures which are designed to correct or prevent damage to Arctic ecosystems as exploration continues and development commences. Damage was minimized during the discovery operations by the movement of drill rigs into position when the tundra was frozen and by restriction of seismic exploration to winter months. With increasing activity before the historic sale of oil leases in September 1969, however, it becam e necessary to drill in the summer, and a road net was established. At present these roads consist of up to 1.5 m of gravel fill laid directly on undisturbed tundra so as to maintain the permafrost and stability of the road. Drilling rigs have been set on piling, and ancillary structures placed on gravel pads. Such measures are expensive but essential if the tundra is to remain undamaged. The ecological point of view, which has been known for some time, is becoming apparent to industry. Environmental preservation is beneficial to all concerned. As the oil industry prepares to enter the production stage several serious pollution problems are anticipated. With full development the population of the Arctic slope will increase, thereby increasing pollution pressures. During 68
most of the year, all water is frozen except for that in lakes more than 610 m across and more than about 2 m deep and in a few of the larger streams. Heat present in deep lakes and large streams has destroyed the permafrost under them. This results in a cylindrical mass of unfrozen material beneath lakes and narrow, linear channel-shaped masses of unfrozen gravel beneath large streams. Ground water is a potential source of water supplies in both of these conditions, but poses some problems of pollution. In winter, wastes discharged to the environment are quickly frozen. In summer, however, the tundra becomes a huge bog of supersaturated soil underlain by the impermeable permafrost and d o t t e d by many interconnecting lakes and ponds. Wastes discharged to the surface and frozen in winter melt and, in the ubiquitous surface water, become a hazard to potable water supplies. A lake used as a supply of water can easily become polluted unless preventive measures are taken, such as adequate treatment of waste before disposal. Unfrozen gravel beneath large streams may be polluted in a similar way where ground water is available. Should this water become polluted serious health hazards and economic problems will be added to an already complicated situation. Methodology necessary to overcome this dilemma is required by State and F ederal agencies. Because of the climatic restrictions and economics, waste treatment in some parts of the Arctic will eventually combine re-use of water, concentration of solid wastes, extensive treatment of waste water and incineration of all solid waste at high temperatures. The technology is available to do this, but those currently involved in industrial development in the Arctic must be convinced of both the economic feasibility and environmental desirability. Progress is being made, however, and industry will probably accept the recommendations of State and Federal regulatory bodies.
Transporting oil to markets Two methods of transport have been proposed: marine, by tanker or submarine, and overland, by pipeline. Both methods are being viewed seriously by industry and by those concerned about future oil pollution. If it proves feasible, transport by supertanker is considered to be the cheapest method. Loss of a supertanker in ice-covered seas would, however, constitute a serious oil pollution hazard. Nobody knows the ultimate fate of oil in Arctic water. Spills would probably threaten most marine life in the immediate area. Research into the effects of such a spill will commence in the summer of 1971 on the Arctic coast of Alaska. A pipeline, 1287.5 km long, has been proposed to extend from the Arctic oilfields on the North Slope of Alaska to the ice-free port of Valdez in South-Central Alaska. Such a pipeline is likely to be the first means of transporting oil to markets on the west coast of America. The line is considered feasible, but many engineering problems remain to be solved. One major problem is maintaining the integrity of the line in permafrost areas where silty soils contain large ice massses. Several such areas are known to exist along the proposed route. At present, it can only be conjectured how a pipeline, 1.2 m in diameter, filled with hot oil (60-80 deg. C) will react when buried in permafrost. All the indications show that some of the ice will melt and no amount of insulation can prevent this. Objections are being raised by many conservationists who point out the hazards of building a line in existing environmental conditions. A list of stipulations has been drawn up by government agencies to protect other resources along the route of the pipeline. The southern
terminal at Valdez is a commercial and sport fishing area and steps are being taken to prevent Valdez Arm and the estuary from being polluted by careless handling or accidental spilling of oil. The northern terminal and gathering pipeline network are adjacent to the Arctic Ocean, posing a pollution hazard in the form of possible oil spills. Major spills at any point would constitute a disaster in any climate, b u t in the Arctic problems would be magnified. Extreme cold might prevent cleanup procedures; the oil would congeal at the low temperatures (down to - 2 1 deg. C is common in this region). These foreseeable eventualities are causing serious concern to government and private groups who are interested in protecting all of Alaska's resources. Ecologists are urging that development take a deliberate pace to avoid unnecessary damage, caused by hurried development. Duplication of seismic work is offered as one example of unnecessary damage to the tundra.
oil fields. Knowledgeable people working in the Arctic realize that working with rather than against nature makes industrial development economically more feasible. Although this concept is not new, such an approach is unusual on the scale taken by industry - deliberately to prevent damage to the ecosystems in which they are working. Future events and performance will test the sincerity of all concerned; scepticism is being voiced by many who cite history as evidence that hurried development inevitably results in serious, and o f t e n unnecessary devastation. Public attention is now sufficiently intense to cause industrial development to be thoroughly scrutinized to prevent pollution of the environment and to show that progress is possible without spoiling the landscape. Such a changing attitude can only lead to progress in management of the economy of natural resources. As these attitudes become universally accepted the Earth ecosystem will recover from its present polluted state.
a n d prospects This is one of the first times that industry, government and conservationists have been jointly involved during the planning of such a large venture. Many problems remain to be solved, but all parties are talking with one another - a constructive and initial step in preventing unnecessary damage to other resources during and after development of
US Department of the Interior, Frederick B. Lotspeich Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Northwest Region, Alaska Water Laboratory, College, Alaska 99701, USA.
Trends
Oil poses Urgent Problems in Canada The stranding of the tanker Arrow in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia on 4 February, 1970 occasioned the largest oil spill in Canadian waters so far. The vessel, which WaS carrying 3.8 million gallons of bunker C oil broke up, with the immediate release of a substantial proportion of its cargo. The stern section sank, more or less intact, during a gale on 12 February. Oil continued to escape from both halves and by 14 February an estimated 1,5 million gallons had escaped. The wreck received much publicity in Canada. Chedabucto Bay is not of great importance to the tourist industry but several hundred people depend for their livelihood on a nearby fish-packing plant that uses local supplies, so there has been much concern about the effect of the accident on local fishing. Ascertained losses of wildlife have not been very heavy, if only because the bay is much less frequented by wintering birds than many other parts of the Nova Scotian coast. The best estimate of birds killed by 14 February was 2,300 - principally sea ducks, grebes and auks. An aerial survey on 15 February found almost 2,000 live birds in the bay (710 gulls, 420 oldsquaws, 410 goldeneyes, 387 other ducks, a few cormorants and grebes, b u t only one auk). Casualties are expected to continue and may yet be much heavier because large numbers of waterfowl pass along the coast during their spring migration. Much will depend on the speed and effectiveness of the cleaning up operations that are continuing, and the extent to which safe removal of oil still in the sunken vessel is successful. Oil in cold waters The wreck of the Arrow has emphasized the technical difficulties of containing and cleaning up heavy oil at low water temperatures. A Federal contingency plan for combating spills of oil and toxic material was prepared in 1969. This helped to impose some coherence on official activities although, not surprisingly, much remains to be done to increase the effectiveness of response to future
mishaps. More baffling than uncertain responsibilities and conflicting counsels was the physical behaviour of the oil itself. Although ice fields were limited to the shallowest and most sheltered parts of the bay, not directly exposed to the escaping oil, the temperature of the surrounding water was close to freezing point. It proved impossible to pump oil from the stranded vessel into another tanker, and early attempts to ignite masses of oil on the shore and slicks on the water were even less successful than such exercises in warmer situations. Imperial Oil Ltd, which owned the contents of the tanker, has conducted trials of alternative cleaning up procedures, including dispersants, b u t no cheap, efficient technique is yet in sight. Cleaning of the shores is continuing under the direction of the Canadian Department of Transport. On the few sandy beaches in the area this has made quite good progress, but the shores are generally rocky and a great deal of oil remains covering the boulders and pebbles. Although fishermen were apprehensive at first, fisheries officials are reasonably confident that the lobster and inshore fisheries will have received little damage. The attempt to recover oil from the sunken stern of the tanker has been remarkably successful. It was announced on Monday 13 April that the operation was complete after 1.3 million gallons had been pumped away. The treatment of spills off the Atlantic coast and in the Gulf of St Lawrence may well parallel the techniques adopted in western Europe. Further north, massive new hazards, presenting far greater technological difficulties, are approaching rapidly. Alaska already has a coastal oil extraction industry, with offshore rigs that have been operating commercially since 1962 in Cook Inlet, in the south of the state. There is also the confirmed find of very large reserves of oil near Prudhoe Bay, on the North Slope, in the summer of 1968. The oil bearing potential of the Canadian Arctic is believed to be immense, so that very extensive areas of the mainland and islands have been leased for exploration. Offshore drilling in northern Canadian waters has only 69
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Fig. 1. Outline map of Alaska emphasizing Prudhoe Bay area, pipeline route, Valdez terminal site, and types and distribution of permafrost. A, Continuous; B, discontinuous; C, sporadic; D, absent. The North Slope oilfield is shaded. Activities associated with early oil exploration demonstrated the frail equilibrium existing in the tundra and Arctic environment. A single passage of tracked vehicles in winter leaves a permanent mark, and travel during thawed periods destroys the thin tundra mat of vegetation, resulting in water-filled ditches as the permafrost melts. Such evidence of instability has attracted the attention of conservationists and government agencies who are making an effort to protect environmental resources of the region.
Exploration and development Progress is being made by government and industry to invoke constructive measures which are designed to correct or prevent damage to Arctic ecosystems as exploration continues and development commences. Damage was minimized during the discovery operations by the movement of drill rigs into position when the tundra was frozen and by restriction of seismic exploration to winter months. With increasing activity before the historic sale of oil leases in September 1969, however, it becam e necessary to drill in the summer, and a road net was established. At present these roads consist of up to 1.5 m of gravel fill laid directly on undisturbed tundra so as to maintain the permafrost and stability of the road. Drilling rigs have been set on piling, and ancillary structures placed on gravel pads. Such measures are expensive but essential if the tundra is to remain undamaged. The ecological point of view, which has been known for some time, is becoming apparent to industry. Environmental preservation is beneficial to all concerned. As the oil industry prepares to enter the production stage several serious pollution problems are anticipated. With full development the population of the Arctic slope will increase, thereby increasing pollution pressures. During 68
most of the year, all water is frozen except for that in lakes more than 610 m across and more than about 2 m deep and in a few of the larger streams. Heat present in deep lakes and large streams has destroyed the permafrost under them. This results in a cylindrical mass of unfrozen material beneath lakes and narrow, linear channel-shaped masses of unfrozen gravel beneath large streams. Ground water is a potential source of water supplies in both of these conditions, but poses some problems of pollution. In winter, wastes discharged to the environment are quickly frozen. In summer, however, the tundra becomes a huge bog of supersaturated soil underlain by the impermeable permafrost and d o t t e d by many interconnecting lakes and ponds. Wastes discharged to the surface and frozen in winter melt and, in the ubiquitous surface water, become a hazard to potable water supplies. A lake used as a supply of water can easily become polluted unless preventive measures are taken, such as adequate treatment of waste before disposal. Unfrozen gravel beneath large streams may be polluted in a similar way where ground water is available. Should this water become polluted serious health hazards and economic problems will be added to an already complicated situation. Methodology necessary to overcome this dilemma is required by State and F ederal agencies. Because of the climatic restrictions and economics, waste treatment in some parts of the Arctic will eventually combine re-use of water, concentration of solid wastes, extensive treatment of waste water and incineration of all solid waste at high temperatures. The technology is available to do this, but those currently involved in industrial development in the Arctic must be convinced of both the economic feasibility and environmental desirability. Progress is being made, however, and industry will probably accept the recommendations of State and Federal regulatory bodies.
Transporting oil to markets Two methods of transport have been proposed: marine, by tanker or submarine, and overland, by pipeline. Both methods are being viewed seriously by industry and by those concerned about future oil pollution. If it proves feasible, transport by supertanker is considered to be the cheapest method. Loss of a supertanker in ice-covered seas would, however, constitute a serious oil pollution hazard. Nobody knows the ultimate fate of oil in Arctic water. Spills would probably threaten most marine life in the immediate area. Research into the effects of such a spill will commence in the summer of 1971 on the Arctic coast of Alaska. A pipeline, 1287.5 km long, has been proposed to extend from the Arctic oilfields on the North Slope of Alaska to the ice-free port of Valdez in South-Central Alaska. Such a pipeline is likely to be the first means of transporting oil to markets on the west coast of America. The line is considered feasible, but many engineering problems remain to be solved. One major problem is maintaining the integrity of the line in permafrost areas where silty soils contain large ice massses. Several such areas are known to exist along the proposed route. At present, it can only be conjectured how a pipeline, 1.2 m in diameter, filled with hot oil (60-80 deg. C) will react when buried in permafrost. All the indications show that some of the ice will melt and no amount of insulation can prevent this. Objections are being raised by many conservationists who point out the hazards of building a line in existing environmental conditions. A list of stipulations has been drawn up by government agencies to protect other resources along the route of the pipeline. The southern
terminal at Valdez is a commercial and sport fishing area and steps are being taken to prevent Valdez Arm and the estuary from being polluted by careless handling or accidental spilling of oil. The northern terminal and gathering pipeline network are adjacent to the Arctic Ocean, posing a pollution hazard in the form of possible oil spills. Major spills at any point would constitute a disaster in any climate, b u t in the Arctic problems would be magnified. Extreme cold might prevent cleanup procedures; the oil would congeal at the low temperatures (down to - 2 1 deg. C is common in this region). These foreseeable eventualities are causing serious concern to government and private groups who are interested in protecting all of Alaska's resources. Ecologists are urging that development take a deliberate pace to avoid unnecessary damage, caused by hurried development. Duplication of seismic work is offered as one example of unnecessary damage to the tundra.
oil fields. Knowledgeable people working in the Arctic realize that working with rather than against nature makes industrial development economically more feasible. Although this concept is not new, such an approach is unusual on the scale taken by industry - deliberately to prevent damage to the ecosystems in which they are working. Future events and performance will test the sincerity of all concerned; scepticism is being voiced by many who cite history as evidence that hurried development inevitably results in serious, and o f t e n unnecessary devastation. Public attention is now sufficiently intense to cause industrial development to be thoroughly scrutinized to prevent pollution of the environment and to show that progress is possible without spoiling the landscape. Such a changing attitude can only lead to progress in management of the economy of natural resources. As these attitudes become universally accepted the Earth ecosystem will recover from its present polluted state.
a n d prospects This is one of the first times that industry, government and conservationists have been jointly involved during the planning of such a large venture. Many problems remain to be solved, but all parties are talking with one another - a constructive and initial step in preventing unnecessary damage to other resources during and after development of
US Department of the Interior, Frederick B. Lotspeich Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Northwest Region, Alaska Water Laboratory, College, Alaska 99701, USA.
Trends
Oil poses Urgent Problems in Canada The stranding of the tanker Arrow in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia on 4 February, 1970 occasioned the largest oil spill in Canadian waters so far. The vessel, which WaS carrying 3.8 million gallons of bunker C oil broke up, with the immediate release of a substantial proportion of its cargo. The stern section sank, more or less intact, during a gale on 12 February. Oil continued to escape from both halves and by 14 February an estimated 1,5 million gallons had escaped. The wreck received much publicity in Canada. Chedabucto Bay is not of great importance to the tourist industry but several hundred people depend for their livelihood on a nearby fish-packing plant that uses local supplies, so there has been much concern about the effect of the accident on local fishing. Ascertained losses of wildlife have not been very heavy, if only because the bay is much less frequented by wintering birds than many other parts of the Nova Scotian coast. The best estimate of birds killed by 14 February was 2,300 - principally sea ducks, grebes and auks. An aerial survey on 15 February found almost 2,000 live birds in the bay (710 gulls, 420 oldsquaws, 410 goldeneyes, 387 other ducks, a few cormorants and grebes, b u t only one auk). Casualties are expected to continue and may yet be much heavier because large numbers of waterfowl pass along the coast during their spring migration. Much will depend on the speed and effectiveness of the cleaning up operations that are continuing, and the extent to which safe removal of oil still in the sunken vessel is successful. Oil in cold waters The wreck of the Arrow has emphasized the technical difficulties of containing and cleaning up heavy oil at low water temperatures. A Federal contingency plan for combating spills of oil and toxic material was prepared in 1969. This helped to impose some coherence on official activities although, not surprisingly, much remains to be done to increase the effectiveness of response to future
mishaps. More baffling than uncertain responsibilities and conflicting counsels was the physical behaviour of the oil itself. Although ice fields were limited to the shallowest and most sheltered parts of the bay, not directly exposed to the escaping oil, the temperature of the surrounding water was close to freezing point. It proved impossible to pump oil from the stranded vessel into another tanker, and early attempts to ignite masses of oil on the shore and slicks on the water were even less successful than such exercises in warmer situations. Imperial Oil Ltd, which owned the contents of the tanker, has conducted trials of alternative cleaning up procedures, including dispersants, b u t no cheap, efficient technique is yet in sight. Cleaning of the shores is continuing under the direction of the Canadian Department of Transport. On the few sandy beaches in the area this has made quite good progress, but the shores are generally rocky and a great deal of oil remains covering the boulders and pebbles. Although fishermen were apprehensive at first, fisheries officials are reasonably confident that the lobster and inshore fisheries will have received little damage. The attempt to recover oil from the sunken stern of the tanker has been remarkably successful. It was announced on Monday 13 April that the operation was complete after 1.3 million gallons had been pumped away. The treatment of spills off the Atlantic coast and in the Gulf of St Lawrence may well parallel the techniques adopted in western Europe. Further north, massive new hazards, presenting far greater technological difficulties, are approaching rapidly. Alaska already has a coastal oil extraction industry, with offshore rigs that have been operating commercially since 1962 in Cook Inlet, in the south of the state. There is also the confirmed find of very large reserves of oil near Prudhoe Bay, on the North Slope, in the summer of 1968. The oil bearing potential of the Canadian Arctic is believed to be immense, so that very extensive areas of the mainland and islands have been leased for exploration. Offshore drilling in northern Canadian waters has only 69