Influence of feed form and source of soybean meal on growth performance, nutrient retention, and digestive organ size of broilers. 2. Battery study

Influence of feed form and source of soybean meal on growth performance, nutrient retention, and digestive organ size of broilers. 2. Battery study M. P. Serrano, M. Frikha, J. Corchero, and G. G. Mateos1 Departamento de Producción Animal, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria, 28040 Madrid, Spain ABSTRACT Two experiments were conducted to determine the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of the amino acids (AA) of 4 commercial soybean meals (SBM) from the United States (USA-1, 48.1% CP and USA-2, 46.2% CP), Brazil (BRA, 47.6% CP), and Argentina (ARG, 46.3% CP) and the effects of the inclusion of these SBM in diets in mash, crumble, or pellet form on growth performance, total tract apparent retention of nutrients, and digestive organ size in broilers reared in cages from 1 to 25 d of age. In experiment 1, the AID of Lys was higher (P < 0.05) for the USA-2 than for the BRA SBM, with the SBM from USA-1 and ARG being intermediate. In experiment 2, 12 diets were arranged as a 3 × 4 factorial with 3 feed forms (mash, crumbles, and pellets) and the 4 sources of SBM used in experiment 1. The feeds were isonutritive and the AID of the AA of the SBM obtained in experiment 1 was

used for diet formulation. Broilers fed mash had lower (P < 0.001) ADFI and ADG and poorer (P < 0.001) feed-to-gain ratio than broilers fed crumbles or pellets but source of SBM did not affect growth performance. Nitrogen retention was higher (P < 0.01) in birds fed mash than in birds fed crumbles or pellets at all ages. The total tract apparent retention of nutrients was lower (P < 0.05) for the BRA and ARG SBM diets than for the USA-1 and USA-2 SBM diets. Gizzard empty relative weight (% BW) was higher and gizzard pH lower for broilers fed mash than for broilers fed crumbles or pellets (P < 0.001). The results indicate that crumbling or pelleting of the diets improved growth performance of broilers from 1 to 25 d of age. Diets formulated with analyzed rather than calculated AID of AA of the SBM sources resulted in similar broiler performance.

Key words: amino acid digestibility, broiler performance, feed form, organ size, soybean meal source 2013 Poultry Science 92:693–708 http://dx.doi.org/10.3382/ps.2012-02372

INTRODUCTION

because the experiment was conducted in floor pens. The authors have not found any report in which the effects of feed form (mash, crumbles, or pellets) of the diets on feed wastage, growth performance, and organ digestive traits of broilers from 1 to 25 d of age have been evaluated. The chemical composition and quality of the protein fraction of soybean meal (SBM) depend on numerous factors, including processing conditions (Purushotham et al., 2007; González-Vega et al., 2011), soil characteristics and agronomic practices, and origin of the beans (Grieshop and Fahey, 2001; De Coca-Sinova et al., 2008; Mateos et al., 2011). However, most tables of ingredient composition (NRC, 1994; Sauvant et al., 2002; Fundación Española Desarrollo Nutrición Animal, 2010; Rostagno, 2011) do not take into account the influence of these factors when reporting the chemical composition and nutritive value of the SBM. In this respect, Serrano et al. (2012) reported significant differences in growth performance of broilers fed diets based on 4 different sources of SBM in which it was assumed that all SBM had similar digestible AA profile, irrespective of origin and CP content. However, this assumption

Pelleting is a common practice used to maximize growth performance (Latshaw, 2008; Dozier et al., 2010) and to reduce feed wastage (Mateos et al., 2002) in commercial broiler operations. Heat, moisture, and pressure applied during the pelleting process modify protein structure and increase amino acid (AA) digestibility of the feed (Moran, 1987). Serrano et al. (2012) compared growth performance of broilers fed mash, crumbles, or pellets from 1 to 21 d followed by a common pelleted diet from 21 to 42 d of age and observed a 7.4 and 5.8% increase in ADG with crumbles or pellets, respectively, compared with mash feeding. Also, feedto-gain ratio (F:G) was 3% better for broilers fed pellet than for broilers fed mash, with broilers fed crumbles being intermediate. Feed wastage, which might be relevant in broilers fed mash diets, could not be measured ©2013 Poultry Science Association Inc. Received April 2, 2012. Accepted October 30, 2012. 1 Corresponding author: [email protected]

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might not be correct and differences in AA profile and ileal digestibility of AA of the different SBM used could explain the differences in broiler performance reported by Serrano et al. (2012). We hypothesize that formulating the diets on determined rather than on calculated available AA could reduce or eliminate the differences in growth performance observed in birds fed different commercial batches of SBM. Also, we hypothesized that crumbling or pelleting of diets fed from 1 to 21 d of age could improve broiler performance, primarily because of an increase in ADFI and a reduction in feed wastage. The purpose of this study was to evaluate in 2 experiments 1) the apparent and standardized ileal digestibility of AA of diets with 4 different sources of SBM and 2) the effects of feed form and SBM source of the diets on growth performance, nutrient retention, and digestive organ size of broilers from 1 to 25 d of age.

MATERIALS AND METHODS All the experimental procedures used in this research were approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid and were in compliance with the Spanish Guidelines for the Care and Use of Animals in Research (Boletín Oficial del Estado, 2007). The SBM were obtained from the same batches as Serrano et al. (2012). They were collected from the United States (USA-1 and USA-2), Brazil (BRA), and Argentina (ARG), and contained by analyses 48.1, 46.2, 47.6, and 46.3% CP, respectively. The main chemical characteristics and CP quality values of these meals are shown in Table 1.

Experiment 1 Husbandry, Diets, and Experimental Design. In total, three hundred sixty 1-d-old straight-run broiler chicks (Ross 308) with an initial BW of 42.3 ± 2.7 g were obtained from a commercial hatchery. At arrival at the experimental station, the birds were distributed into 30 replicate cages (1.0 m × 0.9 m, Avícola Grau S.A., Madrid, Spain) as indicated by Serrano et al. (2012). There were 4 treatments based on 4 different commercial SBM (coded USA-1, USA-2, BRA, and ARG) with 6 replicates of 12 birds (half males and half females) each per treatment. In addition, an N-free diet based on corn starch and sucrose was formulated and fed to an additional group (6 cage replicates) of broilers to estimate the basal endogenous losses (BEL) for the determination of the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of the CP and AA. All broilers were fed a standard commercial diet (3,100 kcal of AMEn/kg and 1.35% total Lys) based on corn and SBM in crumble form from 1 to 17 d of age, and then, their respective experimental diets in mash form from 18 to 21 d of age. The experimental diets were based on corn starch and sucrose with the SBM

tested as the only source of CP (Table 2). The SBM samples were analyzed for CP and AA before diet formulation, and diets were formulated to contain 20.5% CP (42.6 to 44.4% SBM inclusion in the diets depending on the CP content of the meals). Celite (2%) was added to all the diets to increase the acid insoluble ash (AIA) content. Laboratory Analyses. The nutritive value of the SBM, including CP quality variables, was determined as indicated by Serrano et al. (2012), and the main results are reported in Table 1. Gross energy of the SBM was measured with an isoperibol bomb calorimeter (model 356, Parr Instrument Company, Moline, IL) and minerals as described by the Official Journal of the European Union (2009). The AA content of SBM and diets was determined by ion-exchange chromatography (Hewlett-Packard 1100, Waldbronn, Germany) after acid hydrolysis, following the procedure described by AOAC International (2003). Briefly, samples of SBM and diets were prepared by hydrolysis with 6 N HCl for 22 h at 110°C under reflux conditions. Nitrogen was bubbled through the mixture during the hydrolysis period. A large acid:sample ratio (400 mL/200 mg, vol/ wt) was used to reduce AA losses in the presence of carbohydrates. Protein hydrolysates and AA calibration mixture were derivatized with o-phthaldialdehyde. For determination of Met and Cys, separate samples were oxidized with performic acid before hydrolysis and measured as Met sulfone and cysteic acid, respectively. Tryptophan content was not determined. Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) was determined as described by Van Soest et al. (1991) and expressed on an ash-free basis. Oligosaccharides (stachyose and raffinose) and sucrose content of the SBM were determined as indicated by De Coca-Sinova et al. (2008) and reactive Lys as described by Fontaine et al. (2007). Particle size distribution and geometric mean diameter of the SBM were determined as indicated by ASAE (1995). Ileal digesta was analyzed for CP and AA (except Trp) using the same procedures indicated for the SBM samples. The AIA content of feeds and excreta were determined as indicated by De Coca-Sinova et al. (2011). All laboratory analyses were conducted in triplicate except for AIA and AA content of the ileal digesta that, because of the limited amount of sample available, were determined in duplicate. Apparent Ileal Digestibility and SID of Nutrients. At 21 d of age, all birds were euthanized by CO2 asphyxiation, and the contents of the lower half of the ileum, defined as the small intestine section extending from the vitelline Meckel’s diverticulum to 4 cm anterior to the ileocecal junction, were immediately removed (Ravindran et al., 1999). The ileal digesta of the 12 birds of each cage were collected by gently flushing the contents with distilled water into plastic containers, pooled, frozen at −20°C, and freeze-dried. Dried ileal digesta samples were ground using a pestle and mortar to pass through a 0.5-mm screen and stored in airtight containers at room temperature until chemical analy-

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FEED FORM AND SOURCE OF SOYBEAN MEAL Table 1. Determined chemical composition and CP quality traits (%, as-fed basis, unless stated otherwise) of the soybean meals (experiments 1 and 2) Soybean meal source1 Item

USA-1

Chemical composition   Gross energy, kcal/kg  DM  Ash  CP  Arg  His  Ile  Leu  Lys  Met  Phe  Thr  Val  Ala  Asp  Cys  Glu  Gly  Pro  Ser   Ether extract   Crude fiber   Neutral detergent fiber  Stacchyose  Raffinose  Sucrose  Calcium  Sodium  Potassium  Magnesium   GMD ± GSD2 CP quality trait3   Protein dispersibility index, %   KOH solubility, %   Urease activity, mg of N/g   Trypsin inhibitor activity, mg/g   Reactive Lys, % total Lys   Nonreactive Lys, % total Lys

 

4,224 88.6 7.1 48.1 3.57 1.32 2.15 3.64 3.02 0.69 2.42 1.93 2.27 2.11 5.58 0.71 8.79 2.07 2.46 2.45 0.9 3.9 8.2 5.9 0.9 7.5 0.35 0.05 2.30 0.28 1,008 ± 2.06   16.6 84.0 0.01 2.7 85.4 7.6

USA-2  

Brazil

4,297 89.0 7.0 46.2 3.50 1.28 2.12 3.58 2.93 0.66 2.40 1.88 2.25 2.08 5.43 0.69 8.57 2.03 2.44 2.39 2.6 4.1 8.0 5.2 0.8 7.9 0.30 0.02 2.04 0.29 1,051 ± 2.06   13.0 79.6 0.01 2.0 86.0 7.9

 

4,481 86.9 6.2 47.6 3.47 1.25 2.24 3.75 2.69 0.62 2.55 1.88 2.28 2.11 5.64 0.63 8.85 2.06 2.43 2.46 2.9 5.2 14.3 3.0 1.0 5.4 0.27 0.03 1.90 0.30 1,249 ± 2.09   8.9 68.1 0.00 2.2 84.1 9.8

Argentina  

4,287 87.4 6.9 46.3 3.44 1.29 2.16 3.66 2.91 0.65 2.44 1.88 2.27 2.11 5.43 0.65 8.60 2.01 2.37 2.39 2.0 4.8 10.5 4.5 1.1 6.6 0.28 0.01 2.27 0.30 1,148 ± 2.11   14.4 77.4 0.00 1.8 86.6 7.2

1The soybean meals were obtained from Owensboro Grains Co. (Owensboro, KY) for USA-1 and from the ports of Norfolk (VA), Santos, and Rosario for USA-2, Brazil, and Argentina, respectively. 2Geometric mean diameter ± GSD = log normal SD. 3Analyzed in duplicate.

ses. The apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of DM, CP, and AA of the diets were calculated as follows: AID (%) = 1 – [(Nutrientd/Nutrientf) × (AIAf/AIAd)], where Nutrientd and AIAd are the concentrations of dietary components (DM, CP, and AA) and of AIA in the ileal digesta, and Nutrientf and AIAf are the concentrations of the same dietary components in the feed, all of them expressed in milligrams per kilogram of DM. The BEL of CP and AA were determined in birds fed the N-free diet as indicated by Adedokun et al. (2008): BEL (mg/kg of DM intake) = Nutrientd × (AIAf/AIAd).

The flow of endogenous CP and AA was calculated by multiplying the BEL of CP and AA by the daily DM intake. The SID was calculated after correcting the AID for the endogenous losses estimates of CP and each particular AA: SID (%) = AID + (BEL/Nutrientf). Statistical Analysis. Data on ileal digestibility were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS (SAS Institute Inc., 1992) with the source of SBM as the main effect. When the model was significant, the Tukey test was used to make pairwise comparisons between treatment means. Differences among treatments were considered significant at P ≤ 0.05. Results in tables are presented as means.

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Table 2. Ingredient composition and calculated CP and amino acid (AA) content of the experimental diets (%, as-fed basis)1 (experiment 1) Soybean meal source2 Item

USA-1

Ingredient   Soybean meal   Corn starch  Sucrose   Common portion3,4 Calculated chemical analysis5  Arg  Ile  Lys  Met  Thr  Val  Cys

 

42.62 23.39 23.39 10.60   1.52 0.92 1.29 0.29 0.82 0.97 0.30

USA-2  

44.37 22.52 22.52 10.60   1.55 0.94 1.30 0.29 0.83 1.00 0.31

Brazil  

43.07 23.17 23.17 10.60   1.49 0.96 1.16 0.27 0.81 0.98 0.27

Argentina  

44.28 22.56 22.56 10.60   1.52 0.96 1.29 0.29 0.83 1.01 0.29

N-free diet  

— 42.75 42.75 14.50   — — — — — — —

1All

diets contained 20.5% CP on calculated bases. The soybean meal tested was the only source of CP in these diets. soybean meals were obtained from Owensboro Grains Co. (Owensboro, KY) for USA-1 and from the ports of Norfolk (VA), Santos, and Rosario for USA-2, Brazil, and Argentina, respectively. 3The common portion of the experimental diets consisted of 5.0% soybean oil, 2% celite (Celite Hispánica S.A., Alicante, Spain), 1.9% dicalcium phosphate, 1% calcium carbonate, 0.50% vitamin and mineral premix, and 0.20% sodium chloride. The common part of the N-free diet included in addition 3% cellulose and 0.9% potassium carbonate. 4The vitamin and mineral premix contained the following (per kg of diet): vitamin A (trans-retinyl acetate), 10,000 IU; vitamin D (cholecalciferol), 3 2,000 IU; vitamin E (all rac-tocopherol acetate), 20 IU; vitamin K (bisulfate menadione complex), 3 mg; riboflavin, 5 mg; pantothenic acid (calcium pantothenate), 10 mg; nicotinic acid, 30 mg; pyridoxine (pyridoxine-HCl), 3 mg; thiamine (thiamine mononitrate), 1 mg; vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin), 12 μg; d-biotin, 0.15 mg; choline (choline chloride), 300 mg; folic acid, 0.5 mg; Se (Na2SeO3), 0.1 mg; I (KI), 2.0 mg; Cu (CuSO4·5H2O), 10 mg; Fe (FeSO4·7H2O), 30 mg; Mn (MnSO4·H2O), 100 mg; Zn (ZnO), 100 mg; and ethoxyquin, 110 mg. 5Calculated by multiplying the analyzed AA content of the soybean meal by the percentage of soybean meal of the diet. 2The

Experiment 2 Husbandry, Diets, and Experimental Design. In total, eight hundred sixty-four 1-d-old Ross 308 straight-run broiler chicks with an initial BW of 44.9 ± 2.84 g were obtained from the same commercial hatchery than birds from experiment 1 and distributed into cages as indicated by Serrano et al. (2012). Chicks were housed in battery cages (1.0 m × 0.9 m, Avícola Grau S.A., Madrid, Spain), whereas in the experiment of Serrano et al. (2012) chicks were housed in floor pens. There were 12 dietary treatments forming a factorial arrangement with 3 feed forms (mash, crumbles, and pellets) and 4 sources of SBM (coded USA-1, USA-2, BRA, and ARG) with 6 replicates of 12 birds each per treatment. Diets used in this experiment had similar composition to those used from 1 to 21 d of age by Serrano et al. (2012), but 1) celite (Celite Hispánica S.A., Alicante, Spain) was included at 1% into the diets to increase their AIA content and 2) diets were formulated based on the determined AA profile and AID of AA of the SBM determined in experiment 1 rather than assuming that all the SBM had a similar digestible AA profile (Table 3). The AMEn contents of the SBM were estimated using the equation proposed by the World’s Poultry Science Association (1986): AMEn, kcal/kg of DM = 15.69 × CP + 19.41 × crude fat + 6.236 × N-free extract.

Growth Performance, Water Intake, and Total Tract Apparent Retention of Nutrients. Body weight and feed consumption were measured by replicate at 1, 3, 6, 12, and 25 d of age. Feed wastage was recorded daily and birds that died during the experiment were weighed. From these data, ADG, ADFI, and F:G were calculated. Also, water and feed intake were measured per cage from 19 to 25 d of age, and the water to feed intake ratio was calculated. At 9 d of age, an enteric disease outbreak, produced by Escherichia coli as assessed by veterinarian inspection, was detected and all replicates were treated immediately via water with colistine (Colivet, Ceva Salud Animal, Barcelona, Spain) for 3 consecutive days. Birds responded to treatment within few days, and no mortality was recorded in this period. At 6, 12, and 25 d of age, samples (100 ± 20 g) of excreta were collected daily during 2 d, pooled and mixed by replicate, homogenized, oven-dried (60°C for 72 h), and ground with a hammer mill (model Z-I, Retsch, Stuttgart, Germany) fitted with a 1-mm screen. The chemical composition of SBM, diets, and excreta, and the quality traits of the CP fraction of the SBM were analyzed as indicated in experiment 1. The total tract apparent retention (TTAR) of DM, N, and gross energy (GE) of the diets were determined as indicated by Jiménez-Moreno et al. (2010) according to the following equation: TTAR = 1 − [(AIAfd/AIAex) × (Nex/Nfd)],

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FEED FORM AND SOURCE OF SOYBEAN MEAL Table 3. Ingredient composition and chemical analyses (%, as-fed basis, unless stated otherwise) of the experimental diets (experiment 2) Soybean meal source1 Item Ingredient  Corn   Soybean meal  Lard  Limestone   Monocalcium phosphate   Sodium chloride   OH-Met, 88%   l-Lys-HCl, 78%   l-Thr, 98%   Vitamin and mineral premix2  Celite Calculated chemical analysis3  AMEn, kcal/kg   Digestible Lys   Digestible Met+Cys   Digestible Thr   Digestible Trp   Neutral detergent fiber  Calcium   Available phosphorus Determined chemical analysis  DM  CP   Ether extract   Neutral detergent fiber

USA-1  

55.89 33.51 4.83 1.60 1.77 0.35 0.35 0.21 0.09 0.40 1.0   3,025 1.14 0.84 0.72 0.21 7.2 1.1 0.50 86.8 19.8 6.7 9.0

USA-2  

53.98 35.34 5.12 1.63 1.76 0.35 0.29 0.12 0.01 0.40 1.0   3,025 1.14 0.84 0.72 0.21 7.1 1.1 0.50 86.3 19.1 6.9 9.2

Brazil  

55.67 33.53 4.74 1.67 1.77 0.35 0.41 0.36 0.10 0.40 1.0   3,025 1.14 0.84 0.72 0.21 9.2 1.1 0.50 86.6 19.6 7.5 11.2

Argentina  

53.99 34.98 5.22 1.65 1.76 0.35 0.38 0.20 0.07 0.40 1.0   3,025 1.14 0.84 0.72 0.21 8.0 1.1 0.50 86.3 20.4 7.2 10.4

1The soybean meals were obtained from Owensboro Grains Co. (Owensboro, KY) for USA-1 and from the ports of Norfolk (VA), Santos, and Rosario for USA-2, Brazil, and Argentina, respectively. 2Contained the following (per kg of diet): vitamin A (trans-retinyl acetate), 10,000 IU; vitamin D (cholecal3 ciferol), 2,000 IU; vitamin E (all-rac tocopherol acetate), 20 IU; vitamin K (bisulfate menadione complex), 3 mg; riboflavin, 5 mg; pantothenic acid (calcium pantothenate), 10 mg; nicotinic acid, 30 mg; pyridoxine (pyridoxineHCl), 3 mg; thiamine (thiamine mononitrate), 1 mg; vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin), 12 μg; d-biotin, 0.15 mg; choline (choline chloride), 300 mg; folic acid, 0.5 mg; Se (Na2SeO3), 0.1 mg; I (KI), 2.0 mg; Cu (CuSO4·5H2O), 10 mg; Fe (FeSO4·7H2O), 30 mg; Mn (MnSO4·H2O), 100 mg; Zn (ZnO), 100 mg; and ethoxyquin, 110 mg. 3Data from Fundación Española Desarrollo Nutrición Animal (2010) for all ingredients except for soybean meal. For this ingredient, the amino acid content and apparent ileal digestibility values determined in experiment 1 were used. The AMEn content of the soybean meals was estimated according to the equation of the World’s Poultry Science Association (1986).

where AIAfd and AIAex represent 2 N HCl insoluble ash content in food and excreta, respectively, and Nex and Nfd are the nutrients in excreta and food, respectively. Organs Size and Gizzard pH. At 6, 12, and 25 d of age, 3, 2, and 2 broilers, respectively, were chosen at random from each replicate and euthanized by asphyxiation in CO2 atmosphere. The digestive tract, from end of the crop to the cloaca, with contents was excised aseptically, cleaned, and dried with desiccant paper and weighed. The empty BW [without liver, pancreas, and gastrointestinal tract (GIT) with contents] was weighed. Prior to digesta emptying, crop, proventriculus, and gizzard were clamped to avoid digesta contamination among segments, and the full proventriculus, gizzard, pancreas, and liver were excised and weighed. Then, the digesta of the proventriculus and gizzard were removed and the organs were dried with desiccant paper and weighed. The weights of the empty organs were expressed relative to live BW (% BW). The pH of the gizzard digesta of the same birds per replicate

used for organ size determination was measured in duplicate using a digital pH meter (model 507, Crison Instruments S. A., Barcelona, Spain). The pH values obtained from the 3, 2, and 2 birds at 6, 12, and 25 d of age, respectively, were averaged and used for statistical analysis as indicated by Jiménez-Moreno et al. (2009c). Statistical Analysis. Pens were allocated to treatments randomly and treatments were arranged as a factorial with 3 feed forms and 4 sources of SBM. Data on TTAR and digestive organ traits were analyzed by age (6, 12, and 25 d) as a CRD and main effects (feed form and source of SBM) and their interaction were studied using the MIXED procedure of SAS (SAS Institute Inc., 1992). Mortality showed no normal distribution, and therefore, data were analyzed using the CATMOD procedure of SAS. The experimental unit was the cage for all traits. When the model was significant, the Tukey test was used to make pairwise comparisons between treatment means. Differences among treatments were considered significant at P ≤ 0.05. Results in tables are presented as means.

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RESULTS The determined chemical analyses of major components and protein quality variables of the 4 SBM batches are shown in Table 1. The SBM from BRA had less sucrose, more NDF, lower protein dispersibility index, KOH solubility, and reactive Lys values than the SBM from the United States or ARG. When calculated using the World’s Poultry Science Association (1986) equation, the AMEn of the SBM were 2,575, 2,580, 2,649, and 2,598 kcal/kg of DM for USA-1, USA-2, BRA, and ARG meals, respectively.

Ileal Digestibility of Amino Acids: Experiment 1 The AID (Table 4) and SID (Table 5) of most limiting AA tended to be lower for the BRA than for the USA-2 meal, with values for USA-1 and ARG meals being intermediate, but only for Lys did the differences detected reach significance (85.0, 89.0, 87.7, and 88.0% for AID and 89.3, 92.9, 91.8, and 92.0% for SID, respectively; P < 0.05). The AID and SID of Glu and the SID of Asp were higher (P < 0.05) for the USA-2 and ARG meals than for the BRA meal, with USA-1 meal being intermediate. Also, the SID of His (P = 0.07) and Ser (P < 0.05) were higher for the USA-2 meal than for BRA meal, with USA-1 and ARG meals being intermediate.

Growth Performance: Experiment 2 The interaction between feed form and source of SBM was not significant for all the response criteria

studied, and therefore, only main effects are presented (Table 6). For the entire experimental period (1 to 25 d of age), ADFI and ADG were higher (P < 0.001) for broilers fed pellets than for broilers fed crumbles, and both were higher than for broilers fed mash. Also, F:G was better (P < 0.01) for broilers fed crumbles than for broilers fed mash, with broilers fed pellets being intermediate. Feed wastage, however, was lower (P < 0.001) for broilers fed pellets than for broilers fed mash or crumbles. Mortality was higher (P < 0.05) in broilers fed pellets than in broilers fed mash, with broilers fed crumbles being intermediate (4.83, 0.48, and 2.42%, respectively). From 1 to 3 d of life, ADG was higher (P < 0.05) for chicks fed crumbles than for chicks fed mash, with chicks fed pellets being intermediate. In this period, feed wastage was higher for chicks fed pellets than for chicks fed mash and crumbles (13.6 vs. 10.9 and 11.6 g/chick per day; P < 0.001). From 3 to 25 d of age, broilers fed pellets had higher (P < 0.001) ADFI and ADG than broilers fed crumbles, and both were higher than broilers fed mash (data not presented). From 19 to 25 d of age, water intake was lower for broilers fed mash than for broilers fed crumbles and pellets (131.2 vs. 146.5 and 150.0 g/d; P < 0.01), but water intake to feed intake ratio was not affected (data not presented). From 1 to 25 d of age, broilers fed diets containing SBM from USA-1 tended to have higher ADG than broilers fed diets containing the others SBM sources (P = 0.06), but ADFI and F:G ratio were not affected. Also, broilers fed SBM from BRA or ARG drank more water than broilers fed USA-1 SBM, with broilers fed USA-2 SBM being intermediate (147.4 or 147.9 vs. 136.0 vs. 138.9 g/d; P < 0.05; data not presented).

Table 4. Apparent ileal digestibility (%) of CP and amino acids (AA) of the soybean meals (experiment 1)1 Item

USA-1

USA-2

Bazil

Argentina

SEM2

P-value

CP Indispensable AA  Arg  His  Ile  Leu  Lys  Met  Phe  Thr  Val Dispensable AA  Ala  Asp  Cys  Glu  Gly  Pro  Ser

84.1

83.7

82.0

84.0

0.90

0.35

90.1 86.2 85.5 85.5 87.7ab 87.8 85.0 79.4 83.9

91.7 88.0 87.5 87.5 89.0a 88.7 86.9 81.3 85.9

89.3 84.5 85.2 85.5 85.0b 87.0 85.2 79.5 83.6

90.9 87.3 86.4 86.3 88.0ab 88.0 86.4 80.1 84.5

0.75 0.97 0.95 0.96 0.95 1.25 0.94 1.21 1.07

0.17 0.10 0.34 0.44 0.04 0.81 0.43 0.67 0.44

84.3 83.5 70.7 88.1ab 81.1 84.1 84.0

85.9 85.2 72.0 89.8a 82.8 86.2 85.6

83.5 81.7 67.3 86.3b 79.8 83.1 82.7

84.5 84.9 68.1 89.5a 81.6 85.0 84.8

1.09 0.94 1.58 0.79 1.16 0.89 0.88

0.47 0.07 0.15 0.02 0.36 0.12 0.16

a,bMeans

within a row not sharing a common superscript are different (P < 0.05). soybean meals were obtained from Owensboro Grains Co. (Owensboro, KY) for USA-1 and from the ports of Norfolk (VA), Santos, and Rosario for USA-2, Brazil, and Argentina, respectively. 2Six replicates of 12 birds each per treatment. 1The

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Table 5. Endogenous amino acid (AA) flow (mg/kg of DM intake) and standardized ileal digestibility (%) of CP and amino acid (AA) of the soybean meals (experiment 1) Source of soybean meal1 Item CP Indispensable AA  Arg  His  Ile  Leu  Lys  Met  Phe  Thr  Val Dispensable AA  Ala  Asp  Cys  Glu  Gly  Pro  Ser

Endogenous AA flow

USA-1

USA-2

Bazil

Argentina

SEM2

P-value

8,282

91.9

91.5

89.6

91.9

0.70

0.10

251 125 342 360 265 128 355 503 426

93.4 90.6 92.6 90.2 91.8ab 96.0 91.9 91.5 92.2

94.8 92.3 94.2 92.0 92.9a 96.8 93.4 93.1 93.3

92.5 89.0 91.1 89.8 89.3b 95.6 91.3 91.3 91.4

94.2 91.6 93.1 90.7 92.0ab 96.3 92.9 92.0 92.4

0.68 0.87 0.80 0.86 0.86 1.08 0.80 0.92 0.89

0.12 0.07 0.16 0.34 0.04 0.89 0.27 0.54 0.31

286 564 176 717 351 318 378

90.6 88.2ab 82.3 91.9ab 89.0 89.9 91.3ab

92.0 89.8a 83.4 93.0a 90.5 91.7 92.6a

89.5 86.1b 79.7 89.8b 87.4 88.7 89.6b

90.6 89.5a 80.3 93.2a 89.4 90.8 92.0ab

0.95 0.83 1.25 0.71 0.97 0.75 0.71

0.34 0.02 0.16 0.006 0.19 0.06 0.04

a,bMeans

within a row not sharing a common superscript are different (P < 0.05). soybean meals were obtained from Owensboro Grains Co. (Owensboro, KY) for USA-1 and from the ports of Norfolk (VA), Santos, and Rosario for USA-2, Brazil, and Argentina, respectively. 2Six replicates of 12 birds each per treatment. 1The

TTAR of Nutrients: Experiment 2 The TTAR of DM, N, and GE increased (P < 0.001) with age (data not presented). Multiple interactions between feed form and source of SBM were detected at all ages (Figures 1, 2, and 3; Table 7). For example, at 6 and 12 d of age TTAR of N was higher for the USA-1 SBM than for the USA-2, BRA, or ARG SBM when mash or pellet diets were fed. However with crumble diets, N retention was higher for USA-2 SBM than for the other SBM. At 25 d of age, TTAR DM (P < 0.001) and N (P < 0.05) were higher for the mash than for the crumble and pellet diets. Also, TTAR of nutrients at this age were lower for the BRA and ARG meal diets than for the USA-1 and USA-2 meal diets (P < 0.05).

Development of the Organs of the GIT: Experiment 2 The relative weight of the digestive tract, liver, pancreas, proventriculus, and gizzard decreased (P < 0.001) with age (data not presented). No interactions between feed form and SBM source were detected for any of the traits studied. At 6 and 12 d of age, the digestive tracts were lighter (P < 0.001) for broilers fed pellets than for broilers fed mash or crumbles (Table 8). Also at 25 d of age, broilers fed mash had heavier (P < 0.001) digestive tracts than broilers fed crumbles, and heavier for both than for broilers fed pellets. The liver (% BW) was heavier (P < 0.05) in broilers fed pellets than in broilers fed mash or crumbles at all ages. At 25 d, pancreas weight was higher (P < 0.001) for broilers fed mash than for broilers fed crumbles or pellets, but no differences were detected at 6 or 12 d of

age. The pH values of the gizzard contents were higher (P < 0.001) at all ages for broilers fed pellets than for broilers fed mash (Table 9). Source of SBM had little effect on the relative weight of the digestive organs or on pH value of the gizzard contents. In fact, the only effect observed was for the digestive tracts at 6 d of age that were heavier (P < 0.01) in chicks fed ARG SBM than in chicks fed USA-1 and USA-2 SBM, with chicks fed the BRA SBM being intermediate.

DISCUSSION Ileal Digestibility of Amino Acids: Experiment 1 The AID and SID of CP and all indispensable AA were lower for the BRA meal than for the other meals but only for Lys the differences observed reached significance. The AID of Lys varied from 85% for the BRA meal to 89% for the USA-2 meal. De Coca-Sinova et al. (2008) compared the AID of the AA of 6 SBM from 3 different sources (USA, BRA, and ARG) in broilers and reported AID values for Lys that ranged from 77.8 to 85.1% with the highest value observed for the USA SBM. Frikha et al. (2012) observed that the SID of Lys of 22 commercial SBM samples from 3 different origins (USA, BRA, and ARG) varied from 89.1 to 94.0%. The differences in CP and AA digestibility observed among SBM sources might be related to differences in the chemical composition and structure of the original beans (Thakur and Hurburgh, 2007; De Coca-Sinova et al., 2010) or to the conditions applied during the oil extraction process, which might reduce at different

<0.001 0.10 <0.01 0.13 <0.001 0.86 <0.001 0.06

within a column not sharing a common superscript are different (P < 0.05). soybean meals were obtained from Owensboro Grains Co. (Owensboro, KY) for USA-1 and from the ports of Norfolk (VA), Santos, and Rosario for USA-2, Brazil, and Argentina, respectively. 2Six replicates per treatment with 12, 9, and 7 birds each, from 1 to 6, 6 to 12, and 12 to 25 d of age, respectively. 3The interactions between feed form and SBM source were not significant (P > 0.05). 1The

a–cMeans

0.04 0.52

0.48b 2.42ab 4.83a   1.29 3.22 1.93 3.86 — 3.1a 2.5a 0.0b   2.1 1.4 1.1 2.9 0.90   1.66a 1.58b 1.62ab   1.59 1.64 1.62 1.65 0.0324 52.0c 58.1b 62.7a   57.7 57.2 57.7 57.8 1.04 31.4c 36.8b 38.7a   36.5 35.0 35.9 35.2 0.75

Feed form                             9.9 1.29 10.9b   18.9c 30.4c 1.62a 4.7a   43.7c 73.4c 1.68 2.7a  Mash 7.7b  Crumbles 8.5a 10.7 1.26 11.6b   21.9b 33.3b 1.53b 4.1a   51.4b 82.7b 1.61 2.5a  Pellets 8.1ab 10.0 1.24 13.6a   23.6a 35.5a 1.51b 0.1b   53.9a 89.6a 1.67 0.0b SBM source1                           USA-1 8.4 10.2 1.22 12.2   21.7 33.2 1.54 3.2   51.0 82.0 1.61 1.8  USA-2 8.5 10.7 1.27 11.7   21.5 33.1 1.55 2.1   48.4 81.0 1.68 2.2  Brazil 7.8 9.9 1.28 11.8   21.6 33.1 1.54 2.2   50.2 82.2 1.65 1.4  Argentina 7.7 9.9 1.29 12.5   21.1 32.8 1.56 4.4   49.1 82.5 1.68 1.7  SEM2 0.44 0.61 0.0526 0.99   0.61 0.79 0.0303 2.05   1.35 1.80 0.0437 0.55 Effect3 (P-value)   Feed form 0.03 0.13 0.39 <0.001   <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.01   <0.001 <0.001 0.05 <0.001  SBM 0.09 0.31 0.43 0.76   0.71 0.94 0.78 0.52   0.09 0.75 0.19 0.37   source

F:G ADFI F:G ADFI Treatment

ADG

ADFI

F:G

Feed wastage

ADG

3 to 12 d

Feed wastage

ADG

12 to 25 d

Feed wastage

 

ADG

 

ADFI

 

F:G

1 to 25 d

Feed wastage

 

Mortality

Serrano et al.

1 to 3 d

Table 6. Influence of feed form and source of soybean meal (SBM) of the diet on ADG (g), ADFI (g), feed-to-gain ratio (F:G), feed wastage (g/broiler per day), and mortality (%) of broilers from 1 to 25 d of age (experiment 2)

700

extent the content in antinutritional factors (Opapeju et al., 2006; González-Vega et al., 2011). Moreover, an increase in the severity of the heating process increases the formation of Maillard reaction, which in turn may result in a reduction of the nutritive value of the CP fraction, especially of Lys, which is the AA more affected by an excess of heat (Parsons et al., 1992). Probably, the conditions applied to the beans during the process were less severe for the 2 USA meals than for the BRA meal. This suggestion is consistent with the lower PDI, KOH solubility, and reactive Lys values observed for the BRA meal compared with the USA meals. Also, NDF content was higher in the BRA meal than in the USA meals, with ARG meal being intermediate. Dilger et al. (2004) and De Coca-Sinova et al. (2008) reported that the AID of CP of SBM was negatively correlated with the NDF content. Similarly, Fan and Sauer (1999) reported in peas that NDF content was negatively correlated with the AID of most indispensable AA, including Lys.

Effects of Feed Form: Experiment 2 Growth Performance. From 1 to 25 d of age, broilers fed pellets had higher ADFI and ADG than broilers fed mash or crumbles, data that are consistent with most published reports comparing mash and pellets (Lemme et al., 2006; Amerah et al., 2007; Abdollahi et al., 2011). Cerrate et al. (2009) observed that from 0 to 13 d of age broilers fed pellets consumed more feed than broilers fed mash, with broilers feed crumbles being intermediate, consistent with the results of the current experiment. Also, Cerrate et al. (2009) observed that from 0 to 13 d of age broilers fed crumbles or pellets were more efficient than broilers fed mash, and Hamilton and Proudfoot (1995) reported that pelleting improved F:G ratio at 21 d of age compared with mash diets. The authors have not found any research studying the effects of feed form and characteristics of the pellets on feed wastage during the initial stages of life. From 1 to 3 d of age, chicks fed crumbles had higher ADG than chicks fed mash, with chicks fed pellets being intermediate. It was noticed that in this short initial period of time chicks fed pellets had difficulties in obtaining and swallowing the feed. Probably, the length of the pellets (5.3 mm) did not fit well the beak of the bird at these younger ages, resulting in a reduction in voluntary feed intake (Moran, 1982; Workman and Rogers, 1990). This suggestion is consistent with the 25 and 17% higher feed wastage observed in this period for chicks fed pellets than for chicks feed mash or crumbles, respectively. In the current experiment, most of the mortality occurred from 3 to 12 d of age and was higher in broilers fed pellets than in broilers fed mash with broilers fed crumbles being intermediate. Broilers fed pellets had 11% higher ADFI and 16% better ADG from 3 to 12 d of age than broilers fed mash or crumbles. An increase in metabolic rate might increase the incidence of meta-

FEED FORM AND SOURCE OF SOYBEAN MEAL

701

Figure 1. Interactions between feed form and source of soybean meal of the diet on total tract apparent retention (TTAR, %) of DM, N, and gross energy (GE) of the diet at 6 d of age in experiment 2. Six replicates of 12 birds each per treatment. The soybean meals were obtained from Owensboro Grains Co. (Owensboro, KY) for USA-1 and from the ports of Norfolk (VA), Santos, and Rosario for USA-2, Brazil, and Argentina, respectively. Color version available in the online PDF.

Figure 2. Interactions between feed form and source of soybean meal of the diet on total tract apparent retention (TTAR, %) of DM, N, and gross energy (GE) of the diet at 12 d of age in experiment 2. Six replicates of 12 birds each per treatment. The soybean meals were obtained from Owensboro Grains Co. (Owensboro, KY) for USA-1 and from the ports of Norfolk (VA), Santos, and Rosario for USA-2, Brazil, and Argentina, respectively. Color version available in the online PDF.

702

Serrano et al.

Figure 3. Interactions between feed form and source of soybean meal of the diet on total tract apparent retention (TTAR, %) of N and gross energy (GE) of the diet at 25 d of age in experiment 2. Six replicates of 12 birds each per treatment. The soybean meals were obtained from Owensboro Grains Co. (Owensboro, KY) for USA-1 and from the ports of Norfolk (VA), Santos, and Rosario for USA-2, Brazil, and Argentina, respectively. Color version available in the online PDF.

bolic problems resulting in increased mortality (Leeson et al., 1999; Bennett et al., 2002; Engberg et al., 2002). In fact, Scott (2000) reported that feeding mash instead of pellets reduced the incidence of mortality caused by sudden death syndrome from 0 to 21 d of age. TTAR of Nutrients. Nutrient retention increased with age, in agreement with data of Batal and Parsons (2002) and Gracia et al. (2009). Numerous interactions between feed form and SBM source on TTAR of DM, N, and GE were observed at all ages. The authors do not have a clear explanation for these observations but could be related to the different effects of heat and pressure applied during the pelleting and crumbling processes on the structural components and antinutritional factors contained in the SBM (Ravindran et al., 2006; Frikha et al., 2012). Zelenka (2003) reported that pelleting increased crude fat digestibility and AMEn content of the diet compared with mash feeding. Also, Adeyemi et al. (2008) reported that ether extract retention increased from 60.4 to 72.0% when the feed was pelleted. In contrast, Abdollahi et al. (2011) reported that the AID of starch was higher for mash than for pellets. The reasons for the differences in nutrient retention observed among authors are not known. Heat and pressure applied during the pelleting process might affect the physical structure of the ingredients, reducing particle size and releasing the encapsulated lipid fractions and increasing nutrient digestibility. On the other hand, fine particles are retained for less time in the gizzard than coarse particles and consequently, gizzard function and the intensity of the antiperistaltic movements in the GIT might be reduced (Nir et al., 1994a; Jiménez-Moreno et al., 2009a,b). Both effects of pelleting, better access to nutrients but lower retention time in the gizzard, might counteract each other and result in different final effect on nutrient retention depending on the conditions of the experiment (Abdollahi et al., 2010; Mateos et al., 2012). Nitrogen retention was higher in broilers fed mash than in broilers fed crumbles or pellets at 25 d of age, in agreement with data of Abdollahi et al. (2011) com-

paring mash and pelleted diets. In contrast, no effects of feed form on N retention were detected by Woyengo et al. (2010) in broilers or by Favero et al. (2012) in turkeys. Moreover, Adeyemi et al. (2008) reported that N retention increased from 60.5 to 68.7% when the feed was pelleted. In the current experiment, broilers fed mash had lower gizzard pH than broilers fed pellets. A lower pH value in the upper part of the GIT improves protease activation, which in turn might result in higher N retention (Svihus, 2011). In addition, an excess of heat during the pelleting process might negatively affect N retention. Pellet quality usually improves when high temperatures are applied to the mash, but the availability of the protein fraction might decrease. In this respect, Abdollahi et al. (2011) reported that the AID of N decreased from 85.2 to 83.5% when the conditioning temperature was increased from 75 to 90°C. Development of the Organs of the GIT. The relative weight of the different segments of the GIT decreased with age, in agreement with data reported by Ravindran et al. (2006) and Gracia et al. (2009). Pellets reduced the relative weight of the GIT, consistent with data of Amerah et al. (2007) and Abdollahi et al. (2011). At 25 d, pancreas was heavier for broilers fed mash than for broilers fed crumbles or pellets suggesting a greater activity of the pancreas with mash diets. This observation is consistent with data of Engberg et al. (2002) who reported higher amylase, lipase, and chymotrypsin activities in broilers fed mash than in broilers fed pellets. Also, the liver was larger in broilers fed pellets than in broilers fed mash or crumbles consistent with the higher ADFI of broilers fed pellets. In addition, heat processing, friction, and pressure applied during the pelleting process might have solubilized part of the fibrous fraction of the diet, increasing digesta viscosity in the small intestine. An increase in the viscosity of the GIT might stimulate bile acid production, resulting in an increase in liver weight (González-Alvarado et al., 2008). In general, broilers fed pellets had smaller gizzards than broilers fed crumbles and both smaller than

 

                                                         

75.7 75.3 72.7 72.1   73.5 76.3 73.9 73.9   75.8 74.2 75.6 74.9     74.0 b 74.4b 75.1a   75.0a 75.3a 74.1b 73.6b 0.28 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001

DM  

0.001 <0.001 <0.001

74.1 72.4 70.2 68.1   68.3 73.0 68.9 69.4   71.8 68.5 69.2 69.4     71.2a 69.9b 69.7b   71.4a 71.3a 69.4b 69.0b 0.58

N

     

                                                   

 

<0.001 <0.001 <0.001

78.0 77.6 75.4 75.3   75.8 79.0 75.6 75.9   78.7 76.8 78.3 76.9     76.6b 76.6b 77.7a   77.5a 77.8a 76.4b 76.0b 0.32

GE

     

                                                   

 

0.77 <0.001 <0.001

78.0 77.5 74.4 74.9   76.0 78.8 74.9 75.5   78.2 76.4 76.4 74.8     76.2 76.3 76.4   77.4a 77.6a 75.2b 75.1b 0.47

DM

     

                                                   

 

<0.001 <0.001 <0.001

75.2 74.6 70.8 71.3   69.9 73.7 69.8 70.6   73.7 69.8 70.3 69.8     72.9a 71.0b 70.9b   73.0a 72.7a 70.3b 70.6b 0.63

N

12 d of age

     

                                                   

 

0.014 <0.001 <0.001

80.5 80.8 78.0 79.3   79.3 81.9 79.1 79.6   82.7 80.5 80.6 78.8     79.6b 80.0ab 80.6a   80.8a 81.1a 79.2b 79.2b 0.48

GE

     

                                                   

 

<0.001 <0.001 0.15

78.9 78.7 76.4 76.3   76.9 77.7 75.4 75.9   77.4 76.1 74.8 73.3     77.6a 76.5b 75.4c   77.7a 77.5a 75.5b 75.2b 0.53

DM

     

                                                   

 

0.002 0.02 0.10

75.4 74.3 72.7 74.1   72.3 74.2 72.9 70.5   73.1 72.9 70.9 72.3     74.1a 72.5b 72.3b   73.6a 73.8a 72.2b 72.3b 0.78

N

25 d of age

     

                                                   

 

1The

82.1 82.4 80.6 80.0   81.3 82.7 80.0 80.6   82.6 81.6 80.1 79.0     81.3 81.2 80.8   82.0a 82.2a 80.2b 79.9b 0.46

GE

0.35 <0.001 0.10

within a column not sharing a common superscript are different (P < 0.05). SBM were obtained from Owensboro Grains Co. (Owensboro, KY) for USA-1 and from the ports of Norfolk (VA), Santos, and Rosario for USA-2, Brazil, and Argentina, respectively. 2Six replicates per treatment with 12, 9, and 7 birds each, at 6, 12, and 25 d of age, respectively.

a–cMeans

Mash diet  USA-1  USA-2  Brazil  Argentina Crumble diet  USA-1  USA-2  Brazil  Argentina Pellet diet  USA-1  USA-2  Brazil  Argentina Main effect   Feed form   Mash   Crumbles   Pellets   SBM source1   USA-1   USA-2   Brazil   Argentina   SEM2 Effect (P-value)   Feed form   SBM source   Feed form × SBM source

Item

6 d of age

Table 7. Influence of feed form and source of soybean meal (SBM) of the diet on total tract apparent retention (%) of DM, N, and gross energy (GE) of the diet at different ages (experiment 2)

FEED FORM AND SOURCE OF SOYBEAN MEAL

703

 

                   

<0.001   0.008  

62.2b 69.4b 71.6a   70.2ab 70.7a 69.5b 69.8ab 0.44

Empty BW1

 

<0.001 0.008

24.5ª 24.0a 21.1b   22.8b 22.6b 23.4ab 24.0a 0.55

Digestive tract2                          

  5.6b 5.6b 6.0a   6.0a 5.7b 5.6b 5.7ab 0.14   <0.001 0.012

Liver                          

  0.61 0.60 0.60   0.59 0.62 0.59 0.60 0.017   0.49 0.07

Pancreas                          

  77.7 78.8 78.9   78.2 79.4 77.9 78.5 0.84   0.08 0.16

Empty BW1                          

  17.5a 17.0a 15.9b   16.6 16.4 17.3 16.8 0.46   <0.001 0.09

Digestive tract2                          

  4.5b 4.6b 5.2a   4.9 4.8 4.7 4.7 0.17   <0.001 0.68

Liver

12 d of age

                         

  0.55 0.50 0.51   0.52 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.027   0.08 0.99

Pancreas                          

 

83.4b 85.2ab 85.6a   85.2 84.8 84.4 84.7 1.09   0.013 0.86

Empty BW1                          

 

13.3a 12.4b 10.8c   12.1 12.0 12.3 12.3 0.31   <0.001 0.55

Digestive tract2                          

 

3.4b 3.6ab 3.7a   3.7 3.6 3.5 3.5 0.15   0.02 0.38

Liver

25 d of age

                         

 

0.38a 0.34b 0.33b   0.35 0.35 0.36 0.34 0.014   <0.001 0.72

Pancreas

1Body

within a column not sharing a common superscript are different (P < 0.05). weight without the digestive tract and its contents. 2From end of crop to cloaca with contents. 3The soybean meals were obtained from Owensboro Grains Co. (Owensboro, KY) for USA-1 and from the ports of Norfolk (VA), Santos, and Rosario for USA-2, Brazil, and Argentina, respectively. 4Six replicates per treatment with 3, 2, and 2 broilers each, at 6, 12, and 25 d of age, respectively. 5The interactions between feed form and SBM source were not significant (P > 0.05).

a–cMeans

Feed form  Mash  Crumbles  Pellets SBM source3  USA-1  USA-2  Brazil  Argentina  SEM4 Effect5 (P-value)   Feed form   SBM source

Treatment

6 d of age

Table 8. Influence of feed form and source of soybean meal (SBM) of the diet on relative weight (% of BW) of empty BW, digestive tract, liver, and pancreas of broilers at different ages (experiment 2)

704 Serrano et al.

    <0.001 0.71     0.90 0.21     <0.001 0.96     <0.001 0.48     0.02 0.05     <0.001 0.31     <0.001 0.28     <0.001 0.08

within a column not sharing a common superscript are different (P < 0.05). soybean meals were obtained from Owensboro Grains Co. (Owensboro, KY) for USA-1 and from the ports of Norfolk (VA), Santos, and Rosario for USA-2, Brazil, and Argentina, respectively. 2Six replicates per treatment with 3, 2, and 2 broilers each, at 6, 12, and 25 d of age, respectively. 3The interactions between feed form and SBM source were not significant (P > 0.05). 1The

a–cMeans

<0.001 0.52

2.62c 3.07b 3.75a   3.26 3.13 3.17 3.04 0.18                     2.26c 2.63b 3.15a   2.65 2.69 2.72 2.65 0.19 3.25a 2.72b 2.54b   2.88 2.76 2.88 2.82 0.11 0.86a 0.80b 0.80b   0.80 0.80 0.87 0.81 0.032 2.54b 2.82a 2.97a   2.81 2.83 2.68 2.76 0.11 4.47a 3.93b 3.63c   4.00 3.83 4.03 4.11 0.12                     1.28a 1.28a 1.14b   1.22 1.19 1.27 1.26 0.041

Feed form  Mash  Crumbles  Pellets SBM source1  USA-1  USA-2  Brazil  Argentina  SEM2 Effect3 (P-value)   Feed form   SBM source

Item

 

Proventriculus (% BW)

 

Gizzard (% BW)

                   

 

Gizzard digesta pH

                   

 

Proventriculus (% BW)

                   

 

Gizzard (% BW)

                   

 

Gizzard digesta pH

                   

 

0.51 0.52 0.52   0.52 0.51 0.55 0.50 0.029

 

2.18a 1.77b 1.65c   1.88 1.85 1.90 1.84 0.073

                   

 

Gizzard digesta pH Gizzard (% BW) Proventriculus (% BW)

25 d of age 12 d of age 6 d of age

Table 9. Influence of feed form and source of soybean meal (SBM) of the diet on empty relative weight (% BW) of proventriculus, empty relative weight of gizzard, and digesta pH of gizzard of broilers at different ages (experiment 2)

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broilers fed mash, in agreement with data of Engberg et al. (2002) and Abdollahi et al. (2011) comparing mash and pellets. However, Choi et al. (1986) reported heavier gizzards for broilers fed mash than for broilers fed crumbles. Pelleting reduced feed particle size and small particles are retained in the gizzard for less time than coarse particles, resulting in less mechanical stimulation (Svihus et al., 2004; González-Alvarado et al., 2007; Mateos et al., 2012) and reduced organ size (Nir et al., 1994b; Jiménez-Moreno et al., 2010; Svihus, 2011). Gizzard pH increased with pelleting, in agreement with data of Huang et al. (2006) and Mateos et al. (2012), and consistent with the observed reduction of the size of this organ.

Effects of SBM Source Growth Performance. From 1 to 25 d of age, broilers fed diets containing SBM from USA-1 tended to have higher ADG than broilers fed the other diets but no differences were observed for ADFI or F:G ratio. Serrano et al. (2012) reported that growth performance of broilers fed isonutritive diets on calculated bases varied with the source of SBM used to formulate the diets. Also, no effects of SBM source on growth performance were observed in the current study. In the research of Serrano et al. (2012), it was accepted that all the SBM had similar digestible AA profile, irrespective of source and CP content of the meals. Consequently, it was accepted that all diets had similar amount of indispensable key AA per unit of energy. In contrast, in the current research, diets were formulated based on determined AA profile and AID of the AA of the SBM. Therefore, better performance should be expected for birds fed the higher quality SBM in the experiment of Serrano et al. (2012) but not in the current experiment. The trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) content of the SBM is one of the main factors affecting broiler performance (Leeson and Atteh, 1996; Marsman et al., 1997; Valencia et al., 2009). In the current experiment, the TIA of the 4 SBM tested was low (<2.7 mg/g), and therefore, no differences in growth performance were expected because of TIA values. These results, together with those of Serrano et al. (2012), confirm that when the nutrient contents of the SBM are evaluated correctly, no differences in broiler performance among SBM sources should be expected. In this respect, Liu et al. (2012) reported differences in growth performance of broilers fed SBM from India, the United States, ARG, and Malaysia when the diets were formulated using book values. However, when the diets were formulated using ME and digestible AA values predicted by NIR, growth performance was independent of the type of SBM. TTAR of Nutrients. At 25 d of age, diets based on the 2 USA meals had higher TTAR of N than the BRA or ARG meals, although all diets had similar levels of available indispensable AA. Similar results have been reported in pigs by Karr-Lilienthal et al. (2004) com-

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paring SBM from USA, BRA, and ARG. Also, GE digestibility was higher for the USA meals than for the BRA and ARG meals, consistent with the higher N retention of these meals. The USA meals had higher sucrose content than the BRA and ARG meals, and sucrose is well utilized by poultry (Coon et al., 1990). Also, the BRA and ARG meals had higher NDF than the USA meals and an increase in NDF reduces energy digestibility (Dilger et al., 2004). Therefore, GE digestibility should be higher for the USA meals than for the BRA and ARG meals. The data indicate that the use of the equation proposed by the World’s Poultry Science Association (1986) to estimate the energy content of the SBM might not be correct. This equation is based primarily on total CP and N-free extract content and does not take into account the quality of the protein (i.e., digestibility) and the composition of the carbohydrate fraction (i.e., sucrose vs. NDF content) of the meals. Therefore, the equation penalizes those SBM with higher contents in digestible nutrients. Development of the Organs of the GIT. Source of SBM affected the relative weight of several organs of the GIT in chicks. At 6 d of age, chicks fed SBM from BRA and ARG had heavier GIT than chicks fed SBM from USA, a finding that is consistent with the higher fiber content of the South American meals (Hetland and Svihus, 2001; González-Alvarado et al., 2007, 2008). On the other hand, pancreas weight was not affected by source of SBM at any age consistent with the similar and low TIA content of all the meals. Small changes in the relative weight of the liver were detected among SBM sources, but the differences reported were of little practical interest and disappeared with the age. We conclude that feeding pellets improved growth performance of broilers from 1 to 25 d of age. Therefore, the use of crumbles or pellets is recommended in starter diets for broilers. The AID of Lys was higher for the SBM from USA-2 than for the SBM from BRA, with that of USA-1 and ARG being intermediate. When diets were formulated using analyzed AID of AA values of the SBM rather than calculated values, no differences in growth performance were detected. Therefore, nutritionists should analyze the chemical composition of commercial batches of SBM before using them in feed formulation.

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