Influence of geomorphic and anthropogenic activities on channel morphology of River Jhelum in Kashmir Valley, NW Himalayas

Accepted Manuscript Influence of geomorphic and anthropogenic activities on channel morphology of River Jhelum in Kashmir Valley, NW Himalayas Reyaz Ahmad Dar, Sareer Ahmad Mir, Shakil Ahmad Romshoo PII:

S1040-6182(18)30582-2

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2018.12.014

Reference:

JQI 7678

To appear in:

Quaternary International

Received Date: 28 April 2018 Revised Date:

14 December 2018

Accepted Date: 17 December 2018

Please cite this article as: Dar, R.A., Mir, S.A., Romshoo, S.A., Influence of geomorphic and anthropogenic activities on channel morphology of River Jhelum in Kashmir Valley, NW Himalayas, Quaternary International (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2018.12.014. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Influence of geomorphic and anthropogenic activities on channel morphology of River Jhelum in Kashmir Valley, NW Himalayas Reyaz Ahmad Dar*, Sareer Ahmad Mir*, Shakil Ahmad Romshoo*# #

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Corresponding author: [email protected]

*Department of Earth Sciences, University of Kashmir- Srinagar, India-190006 Abstract

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The Srinagar reach of the River Jhelum in Kashmir Valley, India exhibits complex

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meandering and variable width (47-180m) and depth (0.76-6.09m). The reach is characterized

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by sharp bends in the river course, channel sinuosity, linearity of meander bends, linear

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truncation of braid-bars, and concavities and convexities in the river channel reflecting varied

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river geomorphic processes. During the extreme hydrological event of September 2014,

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alarge number of river breaches occurred along the river Jhelum, particularly in the Srinagar

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stretch of the river, due to the floodwaters overflowing the banks and the consequent bank

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erosion. The flooding situation was aggravated over the years by anthropogenic influences

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like the extensive urbanization of the Jhelum floodplains, encroachment of river banks and

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siltation of water courses due to the deforestation in the catchment and the shrinkage of

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wetlands which usually act as sponge during the flooding events. To establish a relationship

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between the geomorphic processes and anthropogenic activities on river morphology, we

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used various geomorphic parameters andtechniques like river profiling, bathymetric profiling,

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lateral entrenchment ratio, water velocity, sinuosity index, supported by GPS and other field

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measurements. The impact of the geomorphic and human induced changes on the channel

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morphology was corroborated with the data from the river breaches that occurred during the

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2014 flooding, a few of which occurred at the locations where geological structures

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(lineaments/faults) cut across the river banks. Based on the investigations from this study, it

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is suggested that varied geomorphic processes and the unchecked anthropogenic activities in

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT the vicinity and catchment have significantly impacted the channel morphology of the river

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Jhelum in Kashmir Valley increasing the vulnerability of the Srinagar city to flooding.

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Key words: River morphology; Anthropogenic activities; Meander bends; Bathymetry;

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Srinagar city

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1. Introduction

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River channel morphology results from a complex interplay of tectonic, geomorphic

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and anthropogenic processes that occur in a basin at various spatial and temporal scales

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(Achyuthan, 2003; Lbisate, et al., 2011; Joshi and Kotlia, 2014; Kale et al., 2014; Wolf and

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Faust, 2016; Prizomwala et al., 2015; Kothyari et al., 2016; Dubey et al., 2017; Joshi and

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Kotlia 2018; Romshoo et al., 2018). Deformation of the valley floor by active tectonics

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causes either steepening or reduction of the valley gradient, which in turn destabilizes the

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natural equilibrium of rivers. In order to maintain the equilibrium, the rivers change their

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course, cross-sectional shape, roughness, slope, bed load size, bank and bed erosion,

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meandering pattern etc (Juyal et al., 2010; Ray and Srivastava 2010; Whipple et al., 2013).

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These geomorphic changes caused due to active deformation are reflected in variations in the

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channel morphology, channel pattern, aggradation and degradation (Schumm, 1986). Due to

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geomorphic processes like deposition of debris and sediments by tributary rivers, the main

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river raises its bed thereby decreasing the depth and increasing the oscillation of the river

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waters which can ultimately lead to flooding and river bank erosion (Brookes et al., 2003;

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Hanks and Webb, 2006). Moreover, prolonged and high-intensity rainfall, unsustainable

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socioeconomic development, encroachment of the water courses, reckless land system

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changes in the flood plains and catchment would aggravate the flooding situation under

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different scenarios (Konrad and Booth, 2002; Turowski et al., 2009; Rather et al., 2016,

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Romshoo et al., 2018).These processes and activities inevitably result in channel instability,

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river bank breaches, and elevated flood peaks thereby increasing the vulnerability of large

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areas, infrastructure and people to riverine hazards (Hooke, 1980; Liao, 2014). The intermontane Kashmir Valley is characterized by hilly and mountainous areas

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with axial part of the valley occupied by a large alluvial plain deposited by Jhelum and its

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tributaries (Singh, 1982).The alluvium occurs as alluvial tracts, floodplains and river terraces

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comprising of clay, silt, and sand with occasional gravels (Dar et al., 2014). Karewa Group

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of sediments, Paleozoic Sedimentaries and Panjal Volcanics also occur as isolated patches in

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the valley floor (Agrawal et a., 1989; Stojanovic et al., 2016). The Karewas are

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unconsolidated gravel-sand-mud successions of Plio-Pleistocene age, making large plateau-

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like terraces in the Kashmir Valley (Kotlia, 1985a,b; Agrawal et a., 1989; Kotlia, 1990;

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Kotlia and Mathur, 1992; Basavaiah et al., 2010; Kotlia, 2013; Dar et al., 2013). Descriptions

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of various litho-stratigraphic sequences of Karewa Group are discussed in detail by Singh

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(1982).Studies carried out in the Kashmir Valley suggest that the valley floor is characterised

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by numerous lineaments and faults some of which follow and others cut across the course of

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River Jhelum (Dubey, 2017).Tectonic deformation and movement along the active structures

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(Ganju and Khar, 1984; Agrawal and Agarwal, 2004; Alam et al., 2015; Dar et al., 2016;

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Dubey et. al., 2017) are responsible for the prevailing anomalous nature of drainage pattern

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and the uneven topographic setup of the valley with southwestern side relatively uplifted with

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respect to the northeastern side (Dar et al., 2015a,b,c). The comparatively low-lying

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(subsided) northeastern side of the valley is more vulnerable to flooding because the

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subsidence of the area has led to aggradation and shallowness of river channel. Due to the

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increase in population over the last several decades, the area under settlements has

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significantly increased especially on the low-lying alluvial plains (Romshoo et al., 2018).

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Located in the axial part of the Kashmir Valley (Fig. 1), the Srinagar city is settled on the

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banks and floodplainsof the River Jhelum. The mean elevation of the city is 1580 m above

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mean sea level. The reach of the River Jhelum in Srinagar city is nearly flat bounded by the

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Zabarwan mountain range in the north and Karewas in the south. Recently, some workers have reported the relationship between the extreme rainfall

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eventsand the river flooding in the Kashmir Valley (Bhatt et al., 2016; Kumar and Acharya,

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2016; Romshoo et al., 2018). Dubey et al. (2017), on the basis of detailed morphometric

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analysis of various river geomorphic features, suggested the active nature of the Kashmir

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Valley. However, with the exception of the work of Dubey et al. (2017), no research work

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has been done till date to understand the impact of active tectonics and anthropogenic

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activities on river morphology in the Kashmir Valley. Since the valley is experiencing slow

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deformation due to Himalayan tectonic activity, the effects of the active tectonics on the

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valley slope are reflected by geomorphic features such as longitudinal river profile, meander

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characteristics, sinuosity, pattern changes etc. Additionally, the widespread and reckless land

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system changes observed in the Jhelum floodplain during the last few decades have severely

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affected the Jhelum river course and its hydrological functionality. Therefore, in order to

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better understand the combined effect of anthropogenic activities and geomorphic (tectonic)

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processes on river morphology and the consequent flooding, we used land-system change

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data of the Jhelum flood plain, various geomorphic techniques and parameters supplemented

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with the detailed field observations. The geomorphic parameters and techniques used include

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sinuosity index (SI), lateral entrenchment ratio (ER), stream water velocity, river width

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profile, and bathymetric measurements. These parameters and techniques are widely used to

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evaluate the river response to active tectonics as has been previously tested elsewhere in areas

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experiencing slow deformation and tectonic uplift (Schumm, 1986; Rhea, 1993;Maher and

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Harvey, 2008).It is hoped that the knowledge about the impact of geomorphic processes and

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anthropogenic activities on river morphology and flooding situation in the Jhelum basin,

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hitherto unstudied, would provide valuable information for reducing the risk of people,

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infrastructure and places to future riverine hazards in the valley and other basins with similar

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geomorphic setting.

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2. Materials and Methods To assess the combined impact of the geomorphic processes and anthropogenic

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activities on river morphology and flooding situation in Srinagar stretch of the River Jhelum,

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Indian Remote sensing LISS-III Satellite Image (2005), ASTER Digital Elevation Model

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(DEM), Global Positioning System (GPS), Google Earth (GE) imagery, Laser Distance Meter

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(LDM), measuring tape and graduated bamboo stakes were used. The data regarding the

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longitudinal river profile, river bathymetry, stream water velocity, sinuosity index (SI), lateral

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entrenchment ratio (ER), river bank breaches etc. was obtained from the analysis of the DEM

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and high resolution satellite data supported by the detailed field measurements. The details of

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the methodology are discussed below:

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Rivers, being dynamic, actively respond to the forces that tend to alter their morphological

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character (Snyder et al., 2000; Seong et al., 2011; Dar et al., 2013; Hajdukiewicz et al., 2017).

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Bathymetric profiles are recognized as reliable sources to obtain information about the

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geological setup, structure and the tectonic deformation of a river channel (Magirl et al.,

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2009). Accordingly, bathymetric profile, was measured for the river Jhelum along a stretch of

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42km (Kandizal to Shalteng) using the graduated bamboo stake at a spatial sampling interval

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of 50m (Fig. 2). GPS was used to record the exact coordinates of the river bathymetry

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measurement locations. Besides the water surface profile was also plotted on the GE imagery

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to validate the convexities and concavities observed during the bathymetric measurements.

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The concept being that the presence of convexities and concavities in the channel bed can

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result in breaking waves, air entrainment and changes in the water surface slope (Magirl et

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al., 2009).

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Stream water velocity, a product of discharge and slope, is an essential hydraulic

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parameter to understand channel dynamics especially concavities and convexities. When

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channel slope is altered due to tectonic activity and/or due to sediment deposition, a change in

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stream water velocity is induced which in turn influences the geomorphic work of a river

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(Fuller, 2007). We measured water velocity of the Jhelum in the study reach to augment the

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observations derived from river bathymetric measurements. By determining the water

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velocity, the anomalous reaches (convexities) of the river channel were also identified and

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validated. Stream velocity is calculated from the following equation:

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Stream Velocity: (V = D/T)……………..(1)

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Where V is the velocity of water, D is the distance travelled by a particular water drop and T

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is the time taken by that water drop. Instead of a water drop, a tennis ball was used to obtain

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the stream velocity. The stream water velocity was calculated at two locations in the Srinagar

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reach of the river Jhelum; one upstream and another downstream of the Batwara locality

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(Fig.1).

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Sinuosity Index (SI) is a measure of deviation of a river from its ideal path of

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movement. Practically, the straight-line path is not possible because the river is affected by a

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number of geomorphic factors which cause it to deviate from the straight line path (Rhea,

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1993). SI was calculated to highlight the irregularities in the channel path. Mathematically, SI

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is calculated using the following equation:

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SI = CL/SL…………(2)

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Where CL is Actual Channel Length between two points (source and mouth) and SL is

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Straight line length between the same two points. SI value of 1.0 indicates that there is no

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shifting of the channel at all and a value greater than 1.0 indicates river shifting. For

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calculating the sinuosity index, three reaches of river Jhelum were chosen starting from

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Kandizal to Pantha Chowk (1), Pantha Chowk to Chatabal (2) and Chatabal to Shalteng (3)

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shown on Fig. 2. The Lateral entrenchment ratio was also calculated to help determine the overall

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impact of channel sinuosity on channel erosion and channel shifting. Lateral entrenchment

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ratio (ER) is a measure of the ratio between lengths of the two banks of a river (Pan, 2013)

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along the reach and is expressed as: ER= LL/LR

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……………(3)

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Where LL= Length of the left bank and LR= Length of the right bank. The lateral

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entrenchment ratio helps to identify the amount of bank shifting of a river. If the ER value is

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1, it means that there is no bank shifting. If ER is greater or smaller than 1, it means that the

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channel has shifted either towards its left or right bank. On the other hand, the entrenchment

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ratio is a field measurement of channel incision. Specifically, it is defined as the flood-prone

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width divided by the bank full width. Lower and higher entrenchment ratios indicate channel

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incision and a well-developed floodplain respectively. The entrenchment ratio was calculated

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using the flood inundation map prepared after the 2014 September flood and the values of the

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bank full width of the river.

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Field observations and high-resolution Google Earth (GE) imagery was used to

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validate and corroborate the results of the geomorphic parameter analysed in this study.

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Geological and active tectonic information was obtained from the existing geological and

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tectonic maps of the Kashmir Himalayas (Ganju and Khar, 1984; Alam et al., 2017; Dubey et

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al., 2017).GE imagery supported by detailed field observations were used to identify the

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locations where tectonic-geomorphic or human activities are affecting the general course of

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the river Jhelum. The information about the large scale land-system changes observed in the

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Jhelum basin during the last few decades was obtained from the data published recently by

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Romshoo et al. 2018. The location of the river bank breaches which occurred during the 2014

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT floods, provided in Romshoo et al., 2018, was used to validate the location of some of the

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faults/lineaments crossing the river Jhelum. The basic premise being that the

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faults/lineaments crossing the riverbank make the bank material erodible and more permeable

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owing to the slow deformation and thus higher vulnerability to breaching. The flood markers

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left by the floodwaters on the trees, buildings, walls etc. were measured using a measuring

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tape and recorded using GPS and were finally integrated in the GIS environment to prepare

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the flood map of the study area, by applying appropriate interpolation techniques (Bobach

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and Umlauf, 2006).

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3. Results

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The results of the geomorphic parameters and indices quantified to assess the impact of

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geomorphic processes and anthropogenic activities on river morphology in the Srinagar

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stretch of the river Jhelum are presented and discussed in the following sections.

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3.1. River profiling and river bathymetry

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The river Jhelum exhibits high variability in its width ranging from 47 m to 180 m in the

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Srinagar reach. Examination of the river width measurements (Fig. 2) between Amira Kadal

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and Chatabal showed that the river is very narrow (47 m) compared to the river width above

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and below this stretch. As a result of this narrowness, the water carrying capacity of the river

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between these two locations is significantly reduced compared to the upper reaches, thereby

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causing a flooding like scenario in the stretch due to the overflow of the floodwaters above

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the river bank even under moderate rainfall.

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The bathymetric profile of the River Jhelum in the Srinagar reach in general reveals

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shallow depth, ranging from 0.76m to 4.57m. However, the section between Batwara and

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Gandbal, a stretch of ~650 m, and near Amira Kadal and Zaina Kadal, the river shows

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significant change in water depth from 0.76 m to 6.09m (Fig. 2) revealing the presence of a

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concave (deeper) section along the river course. Various minor and three major convexities at

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Batwara and one major convexity at Kandizal were also observed during the bathymetric

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survey (Fig. 2). The convexities have led to varied erosion along the bed and triggers bank

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erosion of the river near these locations. These convexities were also validated by plotting the

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water slope profile of the Srinagar reach of the Jhelum (Fig. 2). It is evident that the

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perturbations in the channel bed have resulted in localized drop and steepening of the water

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surface slope.

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The narrowing and widening of the river could be the result of both anthropogenic

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encroachments of the river banks and varied geomorphic processes. The other possible

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reasons might be the presence of geological structures which lead to narrowing and widening

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especially when the faults follow or cut across the river course. Tectonic-geomorphic studies

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carried out in the Kashmir Valley suggest the presence of numerous lineaments/faults, some

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of which run through the axial part of the valley (Ganju and Khar, 1984; Alam at al., 2016;

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Dubey at al., 2017) and follow the river course at certain locations (Fig. 1). These geological

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structures favor down cutting of the river bed instead of the side cutting, causing narrowing

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and deepening of the river channel. At certain locations, some of the lineaments/faults cut

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across the river course resulting in the formation of perturbations and convexities in the river

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bed (Fig. 2). These convexities along the river profile are geomorphic manifestation of the

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river bank incision, aggradation and degradation. River convexities are usually unstable and

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necessitate active and powerful geologic processes to equilibrate them (Hank and Webb,

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2006). The convexities can form on relatively faster timescales, but the alluvial system can

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remain in disequilibrium long after the initial disturbance due to the shifting of convexities

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upstream and downstream (Montgomery and Buffington, 1998; Collins and Montgomery,

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2011).

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3.2. Sinuosity Index (SI)

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Linear streams are essentially associated with straight banks with least sinuosity, but

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the meandering rivers like the Jhelum have variable sinuosity in different reaches. The

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Sinuosity values of 1.69 (section 1), 1.81 (section 2) and 1.21 (section 3) were measured for

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the three stretches of the river Jhelum. It is evident from the sinuosity index that the river

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Jhelum is highly sinuous particularly in sections 1 and 2. Normally, streams have a natural

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tendency to meander, however some stream anomalies like straight segments, sudden sharp

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bends, and linear arrangement of meander bends allude to the presence of a geological

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structures (lineament/fault). Ahmad et al. (2009) and other afore mentioned researchers have

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suggested that the channel morphology of River Jhelum is affected by numerous faults that

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follow or cut across it from south to north, but most of the suggested faults are difficult to

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observe because of the thick alluvium cover of the valley floor. Using the geomorphic

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manifestations, such as sharp stream bends, vegetation alignment, linear truncation of river

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banks, location, shape and truncation of braided bars etc. identified from the Google Earth,

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and field observations, we tried to find the impact of these and other faults observed in the

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study on the channel morphology (Fig. 3a). As is evident from the figure 3b, c, the river

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Jhelum takes a sharp bend near Kandizal and Sempora suggesting the presence of a

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lineament/fault. Geomorphic manifestations of this lineament/fault are reflected in linearity

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of vegetation on immediate ground, fault scarp as well as the linear truncation of river banks

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and braid bar observed in the river channel itself (field photographs, Fig. 4). The convexities

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observed in river channel during the bathymetric survey near Batwara and Gandbal, and a

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recent caving in incident of the river bank near Lasjan Bridge (Fig. 3c,d, red dotted lines, Fig.

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6a) also fall along the trend followed by this lineament. Linear arrangement of meandering

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bends at other locations and the presence of a pond suggests another possible lineament

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which is affecting the river course (Fig. 3d). It is believed that these geological structures

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have influenced the general course, prevented the infinite growth of meander bends and the

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT shape of the River Jhelum in its Srinagar reach. It has been observed that lineaments and

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faults that coincide with the long linear drainage lines, channel point bars, linear or

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curvilinear vegetation patterns and sudden river bends and channel perturbations are potential

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fault zones (Papadaki et al., 2011).

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3.3. Stream Water Velocity

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The stream water velocity values obtained upstream and downstream of Batwara

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channel convexity (observed during the bathymetric surveys) are 1.5m/s and 0.75m/s

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respectively. However, the velocity values of 1.5–1.9 ms−1 were measured over the deeper

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sections of the river in the reach. Many eddies were observed in this section during the

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fieldwork indicating strong turbulence and energy dissipation. The velocity of water

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decreases below Batwara thereby increasing the deposition of bed load in this stretch. Our

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observations during the bathymetric survey and fieldwork suggest that the change in the

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velocity of water near Batwara is because of the presence of a convexity which causes a

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change in the river gradient. An abrupt change in the channel depth was also observed during

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the bathymetric survey at Zainakadl and Safakadal (Fig. 2). As pointed out by Kowalski and

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Radzikowska (1968), alluvium will be thickest over down-thrown or down-folded zones and

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thinnest over areas of uplift.

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Previously, Ganju and Khar (1984) have shown that the River Jhelum itself flows

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along or parallel at many places to a lineament or fault known as Jhelum Lineament/fault in

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the Kashmir Valley. However, a recent study by Alam et al. (2015) have suggested the

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presence of the dextral strike–slip fault (named as Central Kashmir Fault), which stretches

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centrally through the length of the Kashmir basin and almost follows the course of River

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Jhelum. They also observed significant valley deformation due to the strike–slip motion

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along this Central Kashmir Fault (CKF). We believe that the movement along the CKF fault

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is affecting the course and geomorphic work of the river Jhelum. Besides tectonic,

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geomorphic processes and anthropogenic activities, the lithology (mostly unconsolidated

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sediments) of the area, being highly prone to erosion (Zaz and Romshoo, 2012), favors

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erosion and incision of the river banks.

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3.4. Lateral Entrenchment ratio The overall impact of the channel sinuosity on channel incision was also corroborated

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from the lateral entrenchment ratio. The lateral entrenchment ratio was calculated for three

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stretches (1-3) of the river Jhelum (Fig. 2). The lateral entrenchment ratio (ER) of the three

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stretches is 1.08, 1.02 and 1.04 respectively. Analysis of the lateral entrenchment ratio

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suggests that the right bank of the river has experienced more incision relative to the left

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bank. The incision and meander growth on the right side of the river is due to the general tilt

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of the valley towards the northeast. This has concentrated the river activity on the down-tilted

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side of the valley, which is towards the Great Himalayan side of the Kashmir Valley. It is

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well substantiated by the presence of the concave side of most of the meanders on the right

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side of the river. Besides, the entrenchment ratio of the river Jhelum in its Srinagar reach is

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67.09 (Flood-prone width = 5166 m, Bank full width = 77m), suggesting that most of the

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Srinagar city situated on banks of the river Jhelum is prone to flooding because of the very

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low gradient of the river. Aggradation of the river is more than erosion which has reduced the

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carrying capacity of river Jhelum in the reach.

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3.5. River bank erosion

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The bed and banks of the river Jhelum are composed of sediments transported by the

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river and its associated tributaries. The river is thus sensitive to changes in the sediment load,

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water discharge, and slope variations of the valley floor. A large number of river bank

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breaches occurred in the Srinagar stretch of the river during the 2014 flooding event (Fig. 5a,

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Fig. 6b, d). The existence of a large number of river breaches on the right side could be

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attributed to several factors like the general slope of the valley, the presence of

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lineaments/faults, the anthropogenic activities like encroachment and excavation of the

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riverbed and banks, downstream variations of the river discharge and the amount and type of

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the sediment load transported and deposited by the tributary rivers. During the field surveys, immediately after the 2014 flood, water depth and

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inundation extent of the floodwaters in the stretch was also recorded using flood markers

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(Fig. 7). Subsequently, a detailed flood map of the Srinagar city was generated from the field

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observations as shown in Fig. 5b. As is evident from the map, vast areas of the low-lying

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areas in the Srinagar city were inundated and the situation was exacerbated due to the river

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bank breaches that occurred in this stretch of the river. It is pertinent to mention here that the

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flood depth recorded in the field is the top level of the floodwater during the 2014 Jhelum

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flooding. Flood marks, left by the floodwaters during stagnant conditions on buildings, walls,

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tree trunks etc., were measured and interpolated for the estimation of flood depth in GIS

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which ranges from 0.3 m to 5.88m in the study reach.The scenario was very grim in terms of

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the depth of the floodwaters in the highly sinuous reach of the river Jhelum in the Srinagar

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city where maximum number of river bank breaches occurred (Fig. 5a).

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3.6. Large-Scale Land System Changes

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Anthropogenic pressures, like unplanned urbanization, encroachment of the river banks,

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water bodies, wetlands and deforestation in the basin can alter discharge and sediment load

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relationships thereby commencing quiescent instability on the fluvial system which is usually

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manifested during an extreme hydrological event (Ortega et al., 2014). Due to the urban

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sprawl, the expansion of concrete and impervious surfaces especially in the south of the

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Srinagar having increased from 34% in 1992 to more than 65% in 2010. Besides, the Jhelum

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floodplain has lost ~22 km2 of wetlands from 1972 to 2013 and almost a score of the

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wetlands have been converted to concrete jungle in the vicinity of the Srinagar city. The

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built-up has increased almost 4times during the same period and the population has increased

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT from 11,29,947 in 1981 to 30,21,335 in 2011in the basin (Romshoo et al., 2018). The other

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land cover changes in the catchment like deforestation and conversion of paddy lands to

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horticulture have triggered accelerated erosion, especially on the Karewa slopes, favouring

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intensive soil detachment. These all anthropogenic pressures have not only increased the

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siltation load but have also led to the decrease in the active channel capacity and reduced

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channel width of the river Jhelum. Anthropogenic pressures in combination with channel

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morphometric aspects like sinuosity, varying width and bathymetry etc have blighted the

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channel stability and thus, magnifying the effects of flooding.

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4. Discussions

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River morphology studies suggest that spatial variations in climatic conditions,

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geomorphology, downstream changes in bedrock lithology, tectonic processes and

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anthropogenic activities along a river stretch can lead to steeper, or flatter longitudinal river

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profiles (Selander, 2004; Hossain et al., 2013; Dar et al., 2014; Besné and Ibisate,

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2015;Yanagida, 2016. Morriss and Wegmann, 2017; Žibret and Žibret, 2017; Romshoo et al.,

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2018). The tectonic activity in the Kashmir Himalaya and more particularly the uplift of the

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Pir Panjal Range have controlled the shape, size and morphology of the drainage system of

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the Kashmir Valley from the last 4 Ma up to present (Burbank and Johnson, 1983). The

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drainage pattern of Jhelum and its tributaries have undergone varied changes because of this

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tectonic activity (Dar et al., 2014). Studies carried out on the longitudinal river profiles of the

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Jhelum river system reveal that most of its tributaries are characterised by steeper gradients,

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rapids, waterfalls and knick-points (Romshoo et al., 2012; Ahmad et al., 2014; Dar et al.,

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2014; Meraj et al., 2015; Dubey et al., 2017) reflecting the effects of active tectonics. Several

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superimposed fluvio-glacio-lacustrine Karewa sediments deposited during the Quaternary

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Period have been heavily dissected, by fluvial networks and the amount of fluvial deepening

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varies on both the sides of the river Jhelum. The widespread cutting of the forest vegetation

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT in the recent times in the basin has significantly decreased the water retention capacity and

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increased soil erosion from the catchment areas. These factors in turn control the connectivity

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between slope, floodplain, hydrology, channel morphology and the efficiency of sediment-

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water transfer along the river longitudinal profile. It has been found that the course of river

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Jhelum is also affected by several lineaments observed in the valley floor (Ganju and Khar,

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1984). The convexities and concavities identified during the bathymetric survey of the River

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Jhelum coincide with some of the subsurface structures (lineaments/faults) observed in the

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study reach and also reported by other researchers (Ganju and Khar, 1984; Alam et al., 2016;

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Dubey et al., 2017). The development of concavities and convexities cause erosion and bring

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about a change in the channel pattern, stream velocity, and stream incision leading to varied

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geomorphic response of a river channel to a flooding event as was observed during the 2014

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floods. The geomorphic activity of landscape reconstruction, river bank encroachment and

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the regional trend of some lineaments parallel to the river course have led to the narrowing

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down of the river channel at certain locations. This process has resulted in reduction of the

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carrying capacity of the river especially in the middle reach of the river.

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River sinuosity is also sensitive to the valley deformation and slope. In order to

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maintain a constant gradient, a river that is being steepened by a downstream tilt will increase

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its sinuosity (Adams, 1980).The overall tilt of the Kashmir valley caused by the rapid uplift

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of the Pir Panjal Range as compared to the Great Himalayan Range has resulted in the overall

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deviation of the river Jhelum from its normal course and the formation and migration of the

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meanders. This phenomenon is also elucidated by the recent work (Dar et al., 2014) which

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suggests that the river Jhelum has an asymmetric shape in the valley lying more towards

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north-east (Great Himalayan side) with an asymmetric factor greater than 50. Studies carried

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out on the major rivers of the world viz., Mississippi River, Rio Grande, Amazon, Niger,

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Tigris, Euphrates, Rhine, and Indus, suggest that these rivers follow structural lows and the

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT high discharge of these rivers permits these rivers to maintain their courses in spite of active

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tectonics (Schumm, 1986). However, these major rivers because of their low gradient are

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most significantly affected by the minor changes in slope caused by active deformation and

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human interferences in the catchment (Schumm, 1986).The phenomenon is also well

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observed in the Jhelum river in its Srinagar reach. During the last few decades, there has been

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a significant transformation of the landscape around Jhelum in the Srinagar city with large

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tracts of agriculture lands particularly converted to other uses without any consideration to

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the land use suitability. These land system changes, especially loss of wetlands, deforestation

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in the catchment, conversion of paddy lands to horticulture, rapid development of the human

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settlements and silting of the infrastructure development projects like railways and 4-laning

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of the national highways have all constrained the course of Jhelum and its associated

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tributaries (Badar et al. 2013; Rather et al. 2016; Romshoo et al., 2018).

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The analysis of the River Jhelum bathymetric data and the 2014 flood depth data in

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the Srinagar stretch of the river showed an inverse relationship. The areas where the observed

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water depth of the river is more, the flood depth of the surrounding areas is low because the

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flood waters didn’t overflow the river banks in the stretch, resulting in low or no inundation

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of the surrounding areas. The overall gradient of the river being very gentle (0 to 6.6 degree)

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in the Srinagar stretch, the velocity of the water remains mostly low; consequently a portion

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of the bed load transported by the river from the upper catchment is deposited in this stretch

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of river, further reducing the river depth in the stretch. The adjacency of the sediment sources

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eroded from the loose Karewa deposits present on both the sides of the Jhelum River all

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along its course leads to the influx of large amount of sediment load from the tributary

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catchments into the water courses. The low slope of the Srinagar reach and the turbulent

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discharge of the high gradient tributary rivers, particularly in the south, high sinuosity and

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varying bathymetry of River Jhelum directly influence the behavior of the river in this stretch

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during flooding. The hydrographic features and drainage characteristics of the river Jhelum shows that

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the frequency of floods has been very high ever since the valley assumed its present form due

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to its tectonic setting. There are records of more than 25 major floods in Jhelum with the

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mean expectancy of an average magnitude flood being 1 in 4.3 years (Moonis et al., 1975).

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During the 2014 September floods, the entire Srinagar city was affected with the floodwaters

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on an average about 3.09 m deep inundating the city for about a week. The high intensity

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rainfall in the first week of September, 2014 found conducivegeomorphic response from the

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river due to its high sinuosity, width and depth variability as well as from the terrain

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conditions transforming the city stretch into an overwhelming flood. It is suggested that the

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river breaches that occurred during the 2014 flooding and the possible locations of the future

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breaches (places where lineaments/faults cross the river) could be prevented by applying both

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structural and non-structural measures. Structural measures include the strengthening and

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raising of the existing embankments, retention walls, training the main channel in the city and

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the non-structural measures include systematic de-siltation of main Jhelum and its tributaries

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on scientific basis such that the carrying capacity of the river and its tributaries is enhanced,

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massive afforestation of the tributary catchments to reduce the sediment load, afforestation of

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the embankments so that bank material does not erode easily, restoration of the wetlands in

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the upper as well as middle reaches of the river.

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5. Conclusion

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The channel morphology of the river Jhelum is affected by river geomorphic

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processes and anthropogenic activities operating at different spatial and temporal scale as was

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observed from the field observations and laboratory analysis of the data used in this study. As

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a result of the impacts of varied geomorphic processes and anthropogenic activities, the width

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to 6.09m.The human induced changes resulting in the increase in siltation due to the

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deforestation and erosion of the unconsolidated Karewa sediments in the catchment,

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unplanned urbanization, rampant land system changes, encroachment and siltation of the

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wetlands in the floodplains, development of mega road and railway infrastructure projects in

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the floodplains and encroachment and excavation of the river banks have altered the river

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channel morphology and dynamics. Presence of concavities and convexities, sudden shifts in

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river course, linear truncation of river banks and braided bars and linear arrangement of

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vegetation on ground, linearity of meander bends reflects the impact of lineaments/faults on

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the river morphology. The river being highly sinuous in the city stretch entails the impact of

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changes in the valley slope. The right bank of the River Jhelum in the city suffered most of

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the breaches during 2014 flooding due to the shifting of the river bank and also due to the

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presence of concave side of most of the meanders on this side of the river. Based on the

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integrated analyses of the varied factors, it is concluded that the channel morphology of the

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river Jhelum is affected by tectonic, geomorphic and anthropogenic activities. The study on

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the influence of the geomorphic processes and anthropogenic factors on flooding behavior

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carried out in the Srinagar stretch of the river Jhelum should inform and guide the flood

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control and mitigation strategies for the entire Jhelum and other river systems elsewhere with

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similar geomorphic, tectonic and socio-economic settings.

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Acknowledgements:

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The research work was conducted as part of the Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India

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sponsored research project titled “Assessing the Climate Change Impacts on Hydrology of Jhelum

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Basin” and the financial assistance received from the Ministry under the project to accomplish this

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research is thankfully acknowledged. The authors express gratitude to the anonymous reviewers for

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their valuable comments and suggestions on the earlier version of the manuscript that greatly

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improved the content and structure of this manuscript.

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Zaz, S.N., Romshoo, S. A., 2012. Assessing the Geoindicators of Land Degradation in the Kashmir Himalayan Region, India. Natural Hazards 64(2), 1219-1245 Žibret, G.,Žibret, L., 2017. River gradient anomalies reveal recent tectonic movements when assuming an exponential gradient decrease along a river course. Geomorphology 281, 43-52.

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Fig 1. Location map of the Kashmir Valley (a) showing the trend of lineaments modified after Chandra at al., 2018, (b) the course of River Jhelum and the geological formations on two sides of river banks in Srinagar City.

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Fig. 4. Field photographs showing the geomorphic expression of a lineament/fault and its effect on the river course near Kandizal, (a and b) linear vegetation pattern along the lineament (dotted lines) on ground and the location of the river bend in relation to the lineament, (c) sharp river bend and the presence of the possible fault scarp of this lineament near the river bend, (d) linear truncation of the river bank and (e) the linear truncation of the braid bar along the trend of the lineament as shown by vegetation pattern on ground (a and b). (f) Sharp river bend near Sempora. Linear truncation and subsidence of the river bank is also visible in the photograph.

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Fig. 5.(a) Google Earth Imagery showing the river bank breaches in one of the meandering loops of the river Jhelum in Srinagar city during 2014 flood. (b)flood inundation map showing flood depth at various places in Srinagar city during the same extreme hydrological event.

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Fig. 2.Showing the sinuous course of the river Jhelum in the Srinagar city. The solid lines 1,2 and 3 represent the river sections where various parameters including sinuosity index, lateral entrenchment ratio were calculated. Width profile of the river Jhelum, the longitudinal water surface profile and the bathymetric profile are also shown in the map. The major convexities (Kandizal and Batwara, Zainakadal) as observed along the river course are visible from the water surface profile and bathymetric profile.

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Fig. 3. (a) Landsat imagery of the study area showing the location of places where the river course is affected by lineaments/faults. (b) Google Earth Imagery showing the location of lineament which has affected the river course near Kandizal. The linear arrangement of vegetation, braid bar and sharp bend in river course has been found associated with this lineament/fault. The dotted red line shows the possible continuity of this fault up to fig. d where the two major convexities (Fig. 2c) are observed. Fig. 3c also shows the sharp bend in river course and the possible location of another fault, (d) shows the possible location of another fault as is evident from the linear arrangement of meandering bends and the pond has been found along the trend of this fault. Note, the dotted red lines (b-c) also point to the possible future river breaches as was observed from the recent collapse of the bank near Lasjan Bridge where from the lineamnet crossses the river bank.

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Fig. 7. Flood depth measurement taken at various location of Srinagar City immediately after the 2014 flooding.

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