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Information is a prerequisite for water demand management: experiences from four cities in Southern Africa
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 28 (2003) 827–837 www.elsevier.com/locate/pce
Information is a prerequisite for water demand management: experiences from four cities in Southern Africa Bekithemba Gumbo a, Dinis Juizo b, Pieter van der Zaag a
a,*
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Zimbabwe, P.O. Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe b Centre for Engineering Studies, Eduardo Mondlane University, C. Postal 257, Maputo, Mozambique
Abstract Implementation of urban water demand management (UWDM) in Southern Africa has been dismal since the inception of its promotion and advocacy as part of the broad framework of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) after the Rio Earth Summit in the early 1990s. Part of the reason for this failure is the absence of proper information system and technology within urban water utilities. This paper outlines a possible Management Information System (MIS) for effective implementation and monitoring of Water Demand Management (WDM) in urban centres of Southern Africa. The paper exposes why a MIS for WDM is the technology backbone for implementation and monitoring and this is substantiated by observations made on four case studies namely Bulawayo, and Mutare in Zimbabwe, Maputo in Mozambique and Windhoek in Namibia and through a survey of available MIS modules. The four case studies reveal that cities with a comprehensive MIS and WDM strategy have a sustained long term successful WDM programme. This paper is an extract of a report directed and funded by the World Conservation Union (IUCN). Ó 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Information technology; Management information system; Southern Africa; Urban water; Water demand management
1. Introduction Water demand management (WDM) is relevant in the Southern Africa region, which is characterised by frequent droughts, floods and erratic, unevenly distributed rainfall (Conley, 1995; Ashton, 2001; Pallett, 1997). WDM features prominently in the Southern Africa Vision for Water, Life and the Environment in the 21st Century. The argument is sound and convincing: if there is shortage of water for urban supplies, do not limit the solution to supply options only (develop the next source of water), but also consider demand-side options, such as minimising water losses, and influencing demand to more desirable levels through structural (e.g. retrofitting of water appliances, recycling and re-use, active or reactive leak detection and repair), socio-cultural (e.g. education and awareness campaigns, creative and innovative presentation of utility bills), legal (e.g. restrictions on use) and economic (e.g. water tariff structure policy i.e. pricing) measures (Gumbo and van der Zaag, 2002). *
Corresponding author. Tel.: +263-4-336725; fax: +263-4-336740. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (B. Gumbo), [email protected] (D. Juizo), [email protected] (P. van der Zaag). 1474-7065/$ - see front matter Ó 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.pce.2003.08.010
So far the good intentions: we all embrace the concept of water demand management. However, it is seldom implemented in practice (Brooks et al., 1997; Arlosoroff, 1998; Stiles, 1996; Falkenmark, 1989). Why has rhetoric not matched reality over the more than 10 years of promotion? Research on why demand-side measures have had little success is ongoing whilst at the same time a number of successful cases have been reported throughout the region (Macy, 1999; Goldblatt et al., 2000; Rothert and Macy, 2000). Many theories and facts have been postulated or put forward about the possible constraints to adoption of WDM in urban centres of the region (MAWAC, 1999; WUP, 1995; ICLEI, 1998; Gumbo and van der Zaag, 2002; Hazelton et al., 2002; Rothert and Macy, 2000; UNCHS and UNEP, 1999; Turton, 2001; Ashton and Haasbroek, 2002). The definition of WDM observed in this paper is that, it is a management approach that aims to conserve water by influencing demand. It involves the application of selective incentives to promote efficient and equitable use of water. WDM has the potential to increase water availability through more efficient allocation and use. This is guided by economic efficiency; equity and access; environmental protection and sustainable ecosystems
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functioning; governance based on maximum participation, responsibility and accountability and political acceptability (IUCN, 2001). Urban water demand-oriented projects adopted in the various cases within the region have demonstrated that water demand management, is not necessarily less challenging than supply-oriented management. Interventions such as water monitoring and audit systems, leakage control, replacement of old pipes, retrofitting of water appliances in households, and awareness campaigns do require political commitment, engineering inputs as well as finance, but these interventions cannot easily be Ôboxed’ into discrete time-and-space-bound projects. Demand-oriented solutions may require many small engineering inputs, many relatively small financing deals, and a continued commitment from politicians (Gumbo and van der Zaag, 2002). Above all water authorities or utilities require a certain level of sophistication in order to make informed decisions on which demand management interventions to adopt, when and where to start implementation and lastly how to monitor the response of the targeted users. What is choice without good, clear information, especially when a holistic approach is required? This paper argues that without such a comprehensive framework which includes a management information system (MIS) for WDM, water authorities and users in the urban centres of the region will continue to view demand-side measures as being obscure, elusive, difficult to decide on the many options available, and having little impact as compared to supply-side options. For water utilities to function efficiently information systems that address and integrate, seamlessly, on a transaction processing level, the operational, engineering, commercial and strategic planning functions need to be systematically deployed and commissioned (Sternburg, 2002a; Xulu, 2001). Since the ultimate goal of WDM is to ensure sustainability, it follows that equity on the resource use has to be addressed as well, especially with regard to the urban poor. In essence this means that between the equitable share grant and cross subsidisation from tariff charges to paying consumers, the service provider must be in a position to at least continue to provide an acceptable level of service to all consumers. Appropriate and efficient billing, customer services and management system will have to be in place to administer and control the system commercially (Sternburg, 2002b). Africa lags behind other regions of the world in usage of Information Technology (IT) and Information Systems (IS). The World Bank reported that the information revolution offers Africa a dramatic opportunity to leapfrog into the future, breaking out of decades of stagnation or decline. It warned, though, that Africa must seize this opportunity quickly (Royce, 2001). Despite the benefits of IS and IT, some continue to ques-
tion whether its development should be a priority for African countries. Why, some ask, should resources be devoted to IS and IT when tens of millions of Africans lack running water and electricity? So far, it is emerging that IS and IT are increasingly central to economic growth, which is a prerequisite to addressing environmental and the myriad of other challenges that Africa faces which include WDM. This paper by no means suggest that the panacea to urban WDM within the region is simply a case of finding all the information and data, putting it together in a GIS and/or relational database and then disseminating it? Several barriers exist in setting up a unified MIS for WDM, these range from information sharing, technology, understanding, psychology, politics, geographic separation and above all human resource capacity requirements.
2. The form of MIS for WDM Water demand management, in the urban centres of the region tends to suffer from a chronic failure to establish meaningful programme objectives due to lack of data and a comprehensive information system to aid decision-making. In order for a water authority to function properly it requires information. This information is derived from data, such that the data has to be collected, processed and interpreted via IS and IT to provide this information (Johnson, 2002). A water authority is dependent upon information to carry out its scientific, engineering and operational functions (Fig. 1). The provision of information for a water authority is something that has to be organised rather than just allowed to happen. Since an MIS for WDM does not operate in a vacuum it has to be founded within an effective and dynamic institution, which is guided by a healthy legislative framework.
3. Data for WDM The data required for WDM can be categorised into three broad categories, namely, commercial data, network data and mission specific data. Commercial data is defined as all data describing a consumer connection. Network data being all data representing the infrastructure that conveys water from source to consumer including bulk conveyance and storage, distribution pipes and reservoirs, pump stations, and valves. Mission specific data is all peripheral data required to satisfy a certain specific mission or goal. This may include water quality, return flow and effluent characteristics, cadastral and other GIS based datasets. Within a commercial database four attributes can be distinguished. Firstly the plot and property database i.e. data associated with each plot (commercial, industrial,
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a more efficient means for demarcating meter and pressure zones thereby prioritising and reducing unaccounted-for water. Mission specific data can be used to improve the database and information derived there from like a GIS based system, linked to a street address and other cadastral information, information on consumers on pension or social welfare etc. Data collection and processing has to be well planned and sufficient training given to individuals tasked with data collection (e.g. meter reading), data screening and logging, and data transfer. Checking, normalizing and validating data is a huge challenge, particularly where resources are limited (especially human). Validation is a process comprising the reconciliation, through dedicated software applications and field survey of all types of data.
4. MIS for WDM
Fig. 1. The role of an information system in the decision making process for WDM.
residential or informal). This data forms the basis for many commercial and engineering functions such as tariff assignment, billing and demand analysis. The most fundamental of all databases is the connection database, which comprises of a unique number or permanent identifier for each water connection––usually a concatenation of plot/property and a unique identifier. It should not be associated with a meter serial number as this generally changes with time. A meter database, which includes data relating to a meter like its size, make, serial number and installed location. Lastly a customer database consisting of the name and identification number of property owner responsible for the water account, by default or a tenant leasing the property responsible for consumption and payment thereof (Xulu, 2001; Hydro-Comp, 2002). Commercial data is the essence of billing consumers for measured consumption and is not only required for the production of bills but also allows the provider to trace queries and manage debt. Reliable data will mean accurate bills, satisfied customers, maximised revenue, real water consumption and efficient meter management. This is the cash register of water provision and the essence of water balances or audits and monitoring of unaccounted-for water (Xulu, 2001; WMS, 2001). Network data enables the accurate representation and modelling of system performance. This in turn provides
There is no doubt that a suite of modules has to be assembled so as to satisfy the intricacies and interactions demanded by WDM. Usually some of the individual modules are proprietary and can be used independently as stand alone programmes whilst others are inter-linked and only operate within a fixed framework. Interactions and complementary nature of these separate modules within the entire MIS is crucial, especially in a local authority environment. It is rare for local authorities or water utilities to embark on a drive to modernise their IT and IS, specifically to implement WDM measures. However within the broad framework of improving the data and information handling facilities opportunities to tag-along data and information for WDM can present themselves. A number of software programmes, which can be used for WDM implementation and monitoring, have been developed internationally and within the region, mainly in South Africa. Although they differ in terms of construction, capabilities, sophistication and off-course cost some general features of these software can be summarised by Fig. 2. A summary of some MIS modules identified during the IUCN WDM study by Gumbo et al. (2002) are given in Table 1. These are listed in broad categories namely, meter and distribution system management, hydraulic analysis, treasury interface and demand management module and presentation and reporting module. 4.1. Meter and distribution system management This module is basically a combination of water meter management and billing component (commercial data) and the network asset management component (network data). The basic functionality of the meter and distribution systems management module should
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ideal Network asset management module deals with capturing, structuring and management of water and sewer network asset data, including pipes, valves, pumps, bulk meters, etc., which can be integrated with GIS. Utility mapping using a GIS based system is not absolutely essential although it could be useful in the long term (Buckle, 2002). The system must store all network activities in a historical database in space and time. This can then be used to schedule replacements, short and long-term maintenance requirements (HydroComp, 2002; WMS, 2001; Rand Water, 2002). Fig. 2. Ideal schematic representation of software modules for WDM information system.
include: integrated database structure with link to treasury system, stores, vehicle fleet etc.; job card based maintenance management system; Preventative maintenance and meter replacing scheduling; meter evaluation, water balancing, leakage control and detection; reporting of performance indicators and information must be possible through open-ended structures including querying via the Internet (Rand Water, 2002). A comprehensive billing system should cover all facets of revenue management, including debt, management, customer services and management reporting. The system should ensure paperless bi-directional transfer of data and information between the treasury system and the engineering system (WMS, 2001). An
4.2. Hydraulic and network analysis The minimum functionality of the Hydraulic network analysis module according to Rand Water (2002) includes: evaluation, design, planning and analysis (both static and dynamic) of water networks; realistic balancing of flows and pressures within a distribution system, with all components included, must be possible given output requirements at well distributed nodes; balancing must be performed in static ‘‘snapshot’’, as well as time simulation mode; populating of the water demand at nodes through a direct interface with a demand management module should be possible. 4.3. Treasury interface and demand management Minimum functionality of the Treasury Interface and Demand Management module includes: analysis of
Table 1 List of some identified MIS modules for WDM Category
Product
Company
Location
1. Meter and distribution system management
WMS IBIS EDAMS UtiLion IWAMS NETBASE
Water management services CC (WMS) External Management Support CC (XMS) Hydro-Comp Enterprises Stewart Scott (Pty) Ltd Stewart Scott (Pty) Ltd Crowder and Company
South Africa South Africa South Africa and Cyprus South Africa South Africa United Kingdom
2. Hydraulic analysis
WADISO SA EDAMS WaterCad H2OMAP UtiLion Piccolo NETBASE EPANET
GLS Engineering Software (Pty) Ltd Hydro-Comp Enterprises Haested Methods Inc. MW Soft Inc. Stewart Scott (Pty) Ltd Safege Crowder and Company USEPA
South Africa South Africa and Cyprus USA USA South Africa France United Kingdom USA
3. Treasury interface and demand management
SWIFT IWAMS UtiLion EDAMS NETBASE
GLS Engineering Software (Pty) Ltd Stewart Scott (Pty) Ltd Stewart Scott (Pty) Ltd Hydro-Comp Enterprises Crowder and Company
South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa and Cyprus United Kingdom
4. Presentation and reporting
IMQS IWAMS EDAMS NETBASE
IMQS Software (Pty) Ltd Stewart Scott (Pty) Ltd Hydro-Comp Enterprises Crowder and Company
South Africa South Africa South Africa and Cyprus United Kingdom
Source: adapted from Rand Water (2002), Stewart Scott (1999), Hydro-Comp (2002).
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consumption must be based on individual consumer meters over a period of at least 12 months; analysis of bulk consumption must include multi-layers of zones and sub-zones; water demand analysis and reporting must be performed as a function of all relevant parameters; zone definition must be performed via the hydraulic model of the distribution system; population of water demand data in the hydraulic model must be possible via consumer to node links; unaccounted-for water analysis must be performed as a function of various relevant parameters; reporting and transfer of information must be performed to GIS on an open-ended basis (Rand Water, 2002).
5. Derived WDM information
4.4. Presentation and reporting
It is difficult to evaluate the cost of supply and implementation of the products described in Fig. 3. without obtaining quotes for a thoroughly specified application. The price ranges from free for the hydraulic network analysis software like EPANET, about US$ 4000 for WADISO to approximately US$ 50 000 for the fully integrated systems where the cost of individual modules cannot be obtained separately, like in the
Minimum functionality of the Presentation and reporting module includes: Performance indicators and information must be presented in standard customisable reports, graphs and maps; Maps must have basic GIS functionality with the display of user-friendly standard queries and SQL querying capability.
From a well-designed and structured database a lot of important information for WDM can be derived. Fig. 3 summarises the flow of data through IS and IT for derivation of WDM information. The validation of the data is of the utmost importance if the information to be derived from it is to be reliable. The use of range checks, limits, exception reporting and comparisons helps to identify any anomalies.
6. Cost of MIS modules
Fig. 3. The transformation of data via a management information system to WDM information.
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case of EDAMS and NETBASE. Indicative costs for the implementation of the WMS, IWAMS and IBIS products are reasonably similar and of the order of US$ 15 000–25 000, inclusive of installation and support three months after installation (Rand Water, 2002). The Water Research Commission (WRC) of South Africa has initiated and supported numerous projects which have given birth to various low cost software solutions which can be applied in WDM programmes (Mckenzie and Bhagwan, 1999; Mckenzie et al., 2001). Examples of such packages include: Background Night Flow Analysis Model, Economics of Leakage Model, Pressure Management Model and Benchmarking of Leakage Model. However, the software still require basic accurate data for them to be used effectively.
Fig. 4. Profile and location of the four cities studied.
7.1. City of Bulawayo 7. Findings from four cities Four cities were selected to investigate existing WDM programmes and the requisite MIS being operated or under development. The Cities of Bulawayo and Windhoek offer some interesting similarities in terms of water scarcity due to the semi-arid and arid regions in which they are located respectively. Maputo and Mutare to the east also provide interesting comparisons in the sense that scarcity of the resource is not the major problem but reduction of unaccounted-for water within the system. Bulawayo and Mutare also offer in-country comparisons, where generally in Bulawayo tremendous WDM investments have been made in the past ten years as compared to Mutare. Lastly, geographically Maputo and Windhoek offer the east–west comparison within the sub-region (Fig. 4). Table 2 summarises the performance indicators of the four cities whilst Fig. 4 shows their location, population served and water production per day.
The City of Bulawayo has been implementing the Bulawayo Water Conservation and Sector Services Upgrading Project for the last three years. Considerable progress has been made in developing methodologies and establishing systems for monitoring unaccountedfor water and reducing losses. While this has been facilitated through a generous support from the Government of Norway and technical assistance provided by Norwegian consulting engineers, there is much that could be done by other authorities to implement their own loss reduction plans (Norplan et al., 2001; Sibanda et al., 2001). The main focus of the project was to develop methodologies and procedures to reduce unaccountedfor water. The policies and strategies developed under the technical assistance phase of the Project have been incorporated into a Water Loss Reduction Plan. This is based on four groups of activities: Pilot studies, utility mapping, network modelling and analysis of cost data. The software used in Bulawayo for the mapping system is AutoCAD Map 2000. EPANET 2, a freeware
Table 2 Summary of performance indicators and benchmarks Indicator
Bulawayo
Mutare
Maputo
Windhoek
Managing institution Population served (1000’s) Volume supplied (m3 /day) Per capita gross figure (l/cap. day) Annual yield from sources (Mm3 ) Average rainfall (mm/annum) Altitude (m above mean sea level) Level of service % Coverage reticulated % Coverage standposts and other Number of connections Length of distribution network (km) % Level of unaccounted-for water % Domestic Revenue generated in year 2000 (National currency per annum)
Local authority 1000 100 000 100 47.5 460 1420
Local authority 200 60 000 300 42.0 900 1550
AdeM (Pvt) 1700 120 000 70 54.0 800 300
Local authority 250 48 000 190 22.2 360 1600
99 1 106 000 2100 20 55 Z $600 M
90 10 – 1100 52 70 –
45 55 80 000 840 65 80 –
97 3 38 000 1300 18 74 N$45 M
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produced by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) was used for network modelling and to achieve both meter and pressure zoning. Integrated Water Asset Management Systems (IWAMS) developed by Stewart Scott (Pvt.) Ltd. is used to record all reported incidents such as leaks and bursts and to produce job-cards. IWAMS also has a facility for managing meter installations (both consumer and management meters) and meter replacements, planning leak detection activities and conducting audits of meter zones, but these facilities are yet to be used. The job card system operates on a Ôclosed loop’ system i.e. once a request has been logged, it remains open until such time that the work has been completed and the job card has been handed in and captured. The IWAMS system through the job card entries provides an engineering costing system for each activity as it includes the resources used (labour, vehicles, equipment) and time taken to complete the work. Reports on outstanding jobs, job reaction times, repair costs can be generated in the form of an Incident reaction job card. The Water Loss Reduction Plan is based on the concept of an economic level of losses, which is the level where the marginal cost of intensifying the leakage control effort equals the marginal cost of the water saved (IWAMS Water balance module is used for this exercise). The economic level of losses in the distribution system, based on current costs of production, was estimated to be between 6000 and 7500 m3 per day and it is planned to reach this level after ten years. The initial target is to reach a level of unaccounted-for water of 12 000 m3 per day within two years and 8500 m3 per day in five years. 7.2. City of Mutare Since 1996 City of Mutare’s billing makes use of the PROMUN system running on a UNIX server. The system allows account holder to pay at any Council paying points, as there is a central processing unit. The package can also run on PCs and dump terminals. However the system has several disadvantages which include: It is not possible to carry out a comprehensive water audit and to determine the level of non-revenue water. The package was installed without any consultation of the engineering services department and currently no means of interface have been established. 7.3. City of Windhoek The City of Windhoek adopted an integrated Water Demand Management Strategy in 1994 and in the same year started the implementation thereof. This strategy includes; Policy Issues; Legislation; Technical Issues and Public Education and Awareness programmes (Goldblatt et al., 2000; Buckle, 1998). The City of Windhoek
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developed a billing system in-house for all municipal services rendered by the City called the Municipal Services (MS) system. It was meant mainly for billing services, providing statements and for debt collecting. However, this program is not versatile enough without writing lengthy sub-routines to perform more functions required for WDM, such as grouping of customers in categories of consumption and location. The MeterMan software package was originally purchased to improve the management of the water meter inventory and to start a meter replacement programme. Meter readings are transferred electronically from MS to MeterMan and statistics of consumption are compiled. Various reports can now be generated which include; The highest consumers by group (per size of connection and user group); Water balances; Graphs of water consumption; Query list for maintenance of meters. The MeterMan package is at present being upgraded to the Windows version, which should make it user-friendly especially with reporting functions (Brinkman, 2002). The City acquired EPANET software through a project with the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation. Using EPANET the water distribution network has been divided into 12 pressure zones. It is possible to simulate the consumption patterns for each pressure zone. That way the system can be modelled under current demands and the peak demand for the entire distribution system can be simulated and or future demands predicted. WADISO package is being used mainly as a design tool but can also be used to simulate demand similarly to EPANET. The City started a pilot project with water pre-payment in 1999, consisting of 106 yard connections and 60 public standpipes. The Water Pre-Payment Software has been used in this pilot project. With the information of water consumption on the prepayment system available in electronic medium it can easily be transferred to a GIS system. A decision was taken by the City of Windhoek to install a geographic information system (GIS). Also, with a great percentage of the water distribution network available on Computer Aided Design (CAD) and with the requirement that information on all new township developments be made available in electronic format to the City, the prospect of having an Information Management System in place seemed promising. All the packages in use by the City have elements that make them suitable for certain applications. It is essential that these be integrated to achieve the same objective of sustainable water consumption (Brinkman, 2002). 7.4. City of Maputo Aguas de Mocßambique (AdeM) the private company mandated to supply water and manage the distribution network for the City of Maputo is in the process of
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setting up a proper MIS in order to embark on a meaningful WDM strategy. However the main pre-occupation at present is how to provide a decent level of service to the un-serviced population. The data and information available at present is considered to be indicative only. Currently unaccounted-for water in Maputo water supply system is estimated to be in excess of 60%. A major part of the losses occur in pipes and household connections due to advanced age and poor maintenance of the system. About 6000 illegal connections have been identified. On the other hand, water is not supplied continuously but intermittently due to low pressure in the system. Most water meters are not working, neither at the treatment plant, bulk meters within the distribution network nor at household connection level. Without metering AdeM uses information collected on the basis of the level of performance of pumping system installed at the distribution posts. This information is compared against water consumption and a crude water budget is established to determine water losses. Most of AdeM’s technical and financial effort is being directed more to the reorganisation and optimisation of internal capacity which includes; investment in correction of serious physical system constraints; increasing water production and replacement of water reticulation pipes; and human resource capacity building. Meanwhile AdeM is setting up a computerised database. This is being done through two different projects. Firstly, the Operational Database for Assets (ODBA) is earmarked for the identification and management of physical assets of the company. This system will be used to assess the performance of each part of the system including monitoring and planning preventive maintenance. The MIS is being replicated from an existing system at EPAL (Lisbon Water Supply Company). The second project under implementation is the digitising of the distribution network on a GIS database. This project is being implemented through a South African based company called MHP Geomatics. The firm has working experience form the City of Durban. This selected software is envisaged to be a key component in water demand management programme for the City. Once the MIS is established it would easier to identify problem areas and characterisation of water consumption levels by geo-
graphic area. It is expected to combine the ODBA and GIS to assess the condition of equipment such as pumps and reservoir capacity using hydraulic simulation model fed by the GIS database.
8. Discussion From the four case studies it is clear that within the region there are many similarities and striking contrasts. The City of Windhoek and the City of Bulawayo have achieved considerable success with WDM, whilst Mutare still has a lot to learn and achieve. There is no doubt that the starting point for a comprehensive WDM programme is setting out a clear strategy which is acceptable to the main stakeholders, namely, the water utility, customers and the politicians. Table 3 summarises the MIS modules that have been implemented or are still being developed for the four cities. The number of asterisk indicates the level of development and use. A fully developed module (five stars) is one where the data is constantly being updated and full integration and functionality with other modules has been achieved. Secondly it is a module, which is regularly used to derive useful information either for routine operation support or strategic planning and decision support. Drawing some comparisons between Tables 2 and 3 it is apparent that the cities which have established a comprehensive water demand management strategy and made significant investment in MIS have better performance indicators. For example the City of Bulawayo and Windhoek have reduced their unaccounted for water to less than 20% whilst Mutare and Maputo still cannot account for more than half of the water supplied. For Bulawayo and Windhoek commercialisation is beginning to have a telling effect as a result. Bottom lines, like profitability or percentage of billed revenues that are collected, are becoming common performance indicators or efficiency indices. With a system that gives reliable information, the City of Windhoek and City of Bulawayo can ensure sustainable WDM by: setting fair tariffs, detecting undue consumption early, maintaining infrastructure in time to reduce unaccounted for water, planning new developments rationally, an
Table 3 Management information system modules in use or under development Module
Bulawayo
Maputo
Mutare
Windhoek
Meter management and billing Water balance and auditing Network asset management Network hydraulic modelling Presentation and reporting GIS-database
_ _ __ ___ ___ ___ __ __
_
_ _
____ _ _ __ ___ _____ __ ___
__ _ _ ___
_
Key: _ _ _ _ _––fully functional and integrated, updated and used regularly; _ _ _ _––fully functional and integrated, updated and used irregularly; _ _ _––fully functional and stand-alone; _ _––partially functional and under development; _––partially functional and used on an ad hoc basis.
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informed prioritising system in time of shortages and droughts. It is apparent from the studies that for the cities which have or are in the process of setting up a MIS for WDM, some level of technical assistance which includes human resource training as part of the strategy, is important. For example the City of Bulawayo had a number of its staff members sent to Norway for training and familiarisation with the process of setting up and maintaining a WDM information system. Similarly technical cooperation in Windhoek and Maputo is reported enabling transfer of skills and knowledge. Leading consulting companies and developers of MIS modules have also been involved in capacity building and training of water utility personnel. This private– public or private–private partnerships is crucial in the setting up and maintenance of the information system especially the training of personnel within water utilities most of whom have lack of capacity and proper incentives to retain well trained, motivated and qualified staff.
9. Conclusions This paper recommends the following investment priority list of information system modules, for water authorities or utilities in the region:
1. 2. 3. 4.
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meter management and billing module, network asset management module, water balance or audit module, network modelling or hydraulic modelling module.
It is possible to map out some basic procedures for procuring MIS modules. A successful system is one, which forms part of the WDM strategy i.e. which involves the analysis of the current situation (where your are), the desirable level or position (where you want to go). It is important that before any decision to acquire specialised off-the-shelf software (how do you get there) for example to enable interface with treasury systems, to explore the use of spreadsheet-based systems. Further investigations have to focus on the functionality of the modules, hardware and software requirements, where it has been applied including success and failures and finally the life-cycle costs i.e. costs of installation, maintenance, upgrading and support services. Without valid data and a well thought out MIS, any decision regarding WDM, for example, network rehabilitation is meaningless and could lead to wasted effort and cost as well as reduced revenues. The advent of IT has opened the doors for new, innovative ways of improving data capture, storage, validation and processing. The procedures are no longer as daunting as in yesteryear. MIS for WDM are a lifetime choice and with
Fig. 5. Water utility-MIS bureau partnership for WDM.
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the current drive towards IS and IT most water utilities will find their use attractive and beneficial. Training of personnel to implement, operate and maintain the adopted MIS is of paramount importance. So is the need to retain skilled personnel by providing remunerative incentives and maintaining high enthusiasm and job satisfaction. Buckle (2002) suggests the possibility of contracting out the operation and maintenance of the MIS. This can be done by a specialised company or bureau, which can be remotely located and operates through a small agency (two to three employees) physically located within the water authority or utility. With internet based systems this could be achieved fairly easily. The central bureau which coordinates the activities of several local units is also responsible for training of staff and providing support services to the water utility. A diagrammatic possible setup of such a system is depicted in Fig. 5. The water utility or authority can then pay the bureau a fixed rate and possible a bonus, which based on a ‘‘no cure no pay’’ arrangement. The much larger water utilities with more than 50 000 connections might opt to have the information systems section fully located within the water utility, whilst smaller service providers might opt for the MIS bureau alternative. There are a number of lessons which other cities in the region can learn particularly from the experiences of Bulawayo and Windhoek. Sustainable WDM is achievable within reasonable financial and human resources. Setting up and maintaining a comprehensive MIS for WDM should be one of the key elements within the WDM strategy. Finally WDM in urban centres of the region cannot be sustained on its own. There must be drivers and well trained dedicated personnel to handle the intricacies of WDM. Human resource capacity building and retention cannot therefore be overemphasised.
Acknowledgements Several individuals and companies contributed immensely to the information contained in this paper. The authors would like to acknowledge with great thanks and appreciation for the material provided, time and enthusiasm of the various individuals especially Hannes Buckle, Rand Water; Edgar Johnson, Stewart Scott; John Sternberg, Hydro-Comp Enterprises; Tim Leoni, Water Management Services and Jeff Broome, Ncube Burrow. The authors would like to specifically thank the IUCN Project Management Team, for the Phase II Water Demand Management Project for Southern Africa, Ms. Ruth Beukman and Ms. Tertia Uitenweerde for the their kind support and encouragement.
References Arlosoroff, S., 1998. Water demand management. In: UNCHS (Habitat) Regional Conference on Sustainable Consumption Patterns in Asian Cities, Fukuoka, Japan, 29 June–1 July. URL: http:// www.fukuoka.unchs.org/english/information/Occassional/water-e. html, accessed in January 2001. Ashton, P.J., 2001. Walking the tightrope: The importance of water demand management in Southern Africa, The Globe Southern Africa Newsletter, Issue 1 Jan–Feb 2001. URL: http://www.globesa.org/news101.htm, accessed in March 2002. Ashton, P., Haasbroek, B., 2002. Water demand management and social adaptive capacity: a South African case study. In: Turton, A.R., Henwood, R. (Eds.), Hydropolitics in the Developing World: A Southern African Perspective. African Water Issues Research Unit, Pretoria. Brinkman, F., 2002. Water demand management in the city of Windhoek: The use of information technology. In: Gumbo, B., Juizo, D., van der Zaag, P. (Eds.), Water Demand Management in Southern Africa: Information System Requirements for Implementation and Monitoring. Analytical paper for IUCN, Pretoria, South Africa, Water Demand Management Phase II project. Brooks, D.B., Rached, E., Saade, M., 1997. Management of water demand in Africa and the Middle East: current practices and future needs. Ottawa, Ont., Canada: International Development Research Centre. 78 pp. ISBN 0889368449. URL: http://www.idrc.ca/books/ focus/844/. Buckle, J., 1998. IUCN Water Demand Management Project–– Namibia Urban Sector Profile, draft, prepared for the IUCN Regional Programme for Southern Africa, Pretoria. Buckle, J., 2002. Personal communication. Meeting held at Rand Water Offices, 1st March 2002, Johannesburg. Conley, A.H., 1995. A synoptic view of water resources in Southern Africa. In: Proceedings of the Conference of the Southern Africa Foundation for Economic Research on Integrated Development of Regional Water Resources, Nyanga, Zimbabwe, 13–17 November 1995. Published in the Monograph No. 6: Sink or Swim? October 1996. URL: http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/Monographs/No6/Conley.html, accessed in January 2002. Falkenmark, M., 1989. The massive water scarcity now threatening Africa: Why isn’t it being addressed. Ambio 18 (2). Goldblatt, M., Ndamba, J., van der Merwe, B., Gomes, F., Haasbroek, B., Arntzen, J. (Eds.), 2000. Water Demand Management: Towards Developing Effective Strategies for Southern Africa. The World Conservation Union (IUCN), Regional Office for Southern Africa, Harare. Gumbo, B., van der Zaag, P., 2002. Water losses and the political constraints to demand management: The case of the City of Mutare, Zimbabwe. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 27, 805– 813. Gumbo, B., Juizo, D., van der Zaag, P., 2002. Urban water demand management in Southern Africa: Information management system for implementation and monitoring. Analytical paper for IUCN Water Demand Management Phase II project, Pretoria, South Africa. Hazelton, D.G., Nkhuwa, D., Mwendera, E., Robinson P., 2002. Overcoming Constraints to the Implementation of Water Demand Management in Southern Africa, final report, IUCN Pretoria, South Africa, Water Demand Management Phase II project. Hydro-Comp, 2002. Hydro-Comp Enterprises: Your partner in effective utility management, Products and services, brochure, Johannesburg, South Africa. URL: http://www.hydro-comp.com, accessed in January 2002. ICLEI, 1998. The International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI): Water Campaign. URL: http://www.iclei.org/ water/, accessed in March 2002.
B. Gumbo et al. / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 28 (2003) 827–837 IUCN, 2001. Water demand management: Promoting water demand management through regional partnerships, information flyer, IUCN South Africa Country Office. Johnson, E.H., 2002. Integrated Water Asset Management System (IWAMS), Paper No. 99, IWA Conference, Melbourne, April 2002, Australia. Macy, P., 1999. Urban water demand management in Southern Africa: the conservation potential. Sida Publications on Water Resources No. 13. Sida, Harare. MAWAC, 1999. Managing Water for African Cities programme. URL: http://www.un-urbanwate.net/, accessed in November 2001. Mckenzie, R.S., Bhagwan, J.N., 1999. Managing unaccounted for water in potable water distribution systems: recent software developments through the Water Research Commission, Institute of Municipal Engineers (IMESA) Conference, 1999. Mckenzie, R.S., Bhagwan, J.N., Kock, J.E., Lambert, A.O., 2001. Benchmarking of water losses for water suppliers in South Africa: An international approach. In: Institute of Municipal Engineers (IMESA) Conference. Norplan in association with Stewart Scott and CNM and Partners, 2001. Bulawayo water conservation and sector services upgrading project. Final report for City of Bulawayo, April 2001. Pallett, J. (Ed.), 1997. Sharing Water in Southern Africa. Desert Research Foundation of Namibia, Windhoek. Rand Water, 2002. Investigation into MIS which can be adopted in the Gauteng Province, final report, Rand Water, Johannesburg. Rothert, S., Macy, P., 2000. The potential of water conservation and demand management in Southern Africa: An untapped river, submission to the World Commission on Dams. Royce, E.R., 2001. Prepared statement by the Chairman of the Subcommittee on Africa, Bridging the information technology divide in Africa. Committee on International Relations House of Representatives, One hundredth an seventh Congress, May 16, 2001. Serial No. 107–10. Superintendent of Documents, US Government Printing Office. URL: http://www.house.gov/international_relations/72637.pdf, accessed in January 2002. Sibanda, P.N., Mkandla, N., Mpofu, Z., Sibanda, I., Broome, J.M., 2001. Water Loss Reticulation in Bulawayo: Lessons for Zimba-
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bwe, unpublished paper presented at the Zimbabwe Institution of Engineers Congress, August 2001, Harare. Sternburg, J., 2002a. A business perspective on the supply of water, pending publication, Hydro-Comp Enterprises, Woodmead, Johannesburg. Sternburg, J., 2002b. The role of information technology in the quest to provide free basic water, Hydro-Comp Enterprises, Woodmead, Johannesburg. Stewart Scott, 1999. Water demand management. In: Proceedings of Symposium Organised by Stewart Scott Consulting Engineers (Pvt.), Ltd., held in Sandton, Johannesburg, 4 November 1999, South Africa. Stiles, G., 1996. Demand-side management, conservation and efficiency in the use of Africa’s water resources. In: Rached, E., Rathgeber, E., Brooks, D. (Eds.), Water Management in Africa and the Middle East: Challenges and Opportunities. IDRC Books, Ottawa. Turton, A., 2001. The problematique of water demand management as a concept and a policy: Towards the development of a set of guidelines for SADC, Proposal for analytical paper for IUCN, Pretoria, South Africa, Water Demand Management Phase II project. UNCHS and UNEP, 1999. Managing Water for African Cities: Developing a strategy for urban water demand management, Background paper No. 1, prepared for Expert Group Meeting, Cape Town, South Africa, 16–18 April 1999. United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) and United Nations Environmental Programme. URL: http://www.un-urbanwater.net/ programme/bgpaper1.pdf, accessed in November 2001. WMS, 2001. Water Management Services (WMS): Managing municipal infrastructure services, information brochure, WMS, Bedfordview, South Africa. WUP, 1995. Water Utility Partnership for Capacity Building in Africa Programme. URL: http://wupafrica.org, accessed in November 2001. Xulu, M., 2001. Benefits of commercial and network data validation: A case study, Hydro-Comp Enterprises, Woodmead, Johannesburg.
Information is a prerequisite for water demand management: experiences from four cities in Southern Africa Bekithemba Gumbo a, Dinis Juizo b, Pieter van der Zaag a
a,*
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Zimbabwe, P.O. Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe b Centre for Engineering Studies, Eduardo Mondlane University, C. Postal 257, Maputo, Mozambique
Abstract Implementation of urban water demand management (UWDM) in Southern Africa has been dismal since the inception of its promotion and advocacy as part of the broad framework of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) after the Rio Earth Summit in the early 1990s. Part of the reason for this failure is the absence of proper information system and technology within urban water utilities. This paper outlines a possible Management Information System (MIS) for effective implementation and monitoring of Water Demand Management (WDM) in urban centres of Southern Africa. The paper exposes why a MIS for WDM is the technology backbone for implementation and monitoring and this is substantiated by observations made on four case studies namely Bulawayo, and Mutare in Zimbabwe, Maputo in Mozambique and Windhoek in Namibia and through a survey of available MIS modules. The four case studies reveal that cities with a comprehensive MIS and WDM strategy have a sustained long term successful WDM programme. This paper is an extract of a report directed and funded by the World Conservation Union (IUCN). Ó 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Information technology; Management information system; Southern Africa; Urban water; Water demand management
1. Introduction Water demand management (WDM) is relevant in the Southern Africa region, which is characterised by frequent droughts, floods and erratic, unevenly distributed rainfall (Conley, 1995; Ashton, 2001; Pallett, 1997). WDM features prominently in the Southern Africa Vision for Water, Life and the Environment in the 21st Century. The argument is sound and convincing: if there is shortage of water for urban supplies, do not limit the solution to supply options only (develop the next source of water), but also consider demand-side options, such as minimising water losses, and influencing demand to more desirable levels through structural (e.g. retrofitting of water appliances, recycling and re-use, active or reactive leak detection and repair), socio-cultural (e.g. education and awareness campaigns, creative and innovative presentation of utility bills), legal (e.g. restrictions on use) and economic (e.g. water tariff structure policy i.e. pricing) measures (Gumbo and van der Zaag, 2002). *
Corresponding author. Tel.: +263-4-336725; fax: +263-4-336740. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (B. Gumbo), [email protected] (D. Juizo), [email protected] (P. van der Zaag). 1474-7065/$ - see front matter Ó 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.pce.2003.08.010
So far the good intentions: we all embrace the concept of water demand management. However, it is seldom implemented in practice (Brooks et al., 1997; Arlosoroff, 1998; Stiles, 1996; Falkenmark, 1989). Why has rhetoric not matched reality over the more than 10 years of promotion? Research on why demand-side measures have had little success is ongoing whilst at the same time a number of successful cases have been reported throughout the region (Macy, 1999; Goldblatt et al., 2000; Rothert and Macy, 2000). Many theories and facts have been postulated or put forward about the possible constraints to adoption of WDM in urban centres of the region (MAWAC, 1999; WUP, 1995; ICLEI, 1998; Gumbo and van der Zaag, 2002; Hazelton et al., 2002; Rothert and Macy, 2000; UNCHS and UNEP, 1999; Turton, 2001; Ashton and Haasbroek, 2002). The definition of WDM observed in this paper is that, it is a management approach that aims to conserve water by influencing demand. It involves the application of selective incentives to promote efficient and equitable use of water. WDM has the potential to increase water availability through more efficient allocation and use. This is guided by economic efficiency; equity and access; environmental protection and sustainable ecosystems
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functioning; governance based on maximum participation, responsibility and accountability and political acceptability (IUCN, 2001). Urban water demand-oriented projects adopted in the various cases within the region have demonstrated that water demand management, is not necessarily less challenging than supply-oriented management. Interventions such as water monitoring and audit systems, leakage control, replacement of old pipes, retrofitting of water appliances in households, and awareness campaigns do require political commitment, engineering inputs as well as finance, but these interventions cannot easily be Ôboxed’ into discrete time-and-space-bound projects. Demand-oriented solutions may require many small engineering inputs, many relatively small financing deals, and a continued commitment from politicians (Gumbo and van der Zaag, 2002). Above all water authorities or utilities require a certain level of sophistication in order to make informed decisions on which demand management interventions to adopt, when and where to start implementation and lastly how to monitor the response of the targeted users. What is choice without good, clear information, especially when a holistic approach is required? This paper argues that without such a comprehensive framework which includes a management information system (MIS) for WDM, water authorities and users in the urban centres of the region will continue to view demand-side measures as being obscure, elusive, difficult to decide on the many options available, and having little impact as compared to supply-side options. For water utilities to function efficiently information systems that address and integrate, seamlessly, on a transaction processing level, the operational, engineering, commercial and strategic planning functions need to be systematically deployed and commissioned (Sternburg, 2002a; Xulu, 2001). Since the ultimate goal of WDM is to ensure sustainability, it follows that equity on the resource use has to be addressed as well, especially with regard to the urban poor. In essence this means that between the equitable share grant and cross subsidisation from tariff charges to paying consumers, the service provider must be in a position to at least continue to provide an acceptable level of service to all consumers. Appropriate and efficient billing, customer services and management system will have to be in place to administer and control the system commercially (Sternburg, 2002b). Africa lags behind other regions of the world in usage of Information Technology (IT) and Information Systems (IS). The World Bank reported that the information revolution offers Africa a dramatic opportunity to leapfrog into the future, breaking out of decades of stagnation or decline. It warned, though, that Africa must seize this opportunity quickly (Royce, 2001). Despite the benefits of IS and IT, some continue to ques-
tion whether its development should be a priority for African countries. Why, some ask, should resources be devoted to IS and IT when tens of millions of Africans lack running water and electricity? So far, it is emerging that IS and IT are increasingly central to economic growth, which is a prerequisite to addressing environmental and the myriad of other challenges that Africa faces which include WDM. This paper by no means suggest that the panacea to urban WDM within the region is simply a case of finding all the information and data, putting it together in a GIS and/or relational database and then disseminating it? Several barriers exist in setting up a unified MIS for WDM, these range from information sharing, technology, understanding, psychology, politics, geographic separation and above all human resource capacity requirements.
2. The form of MIS for WDM Water demand management, in the urban centres of the region tends to suffer from a chronic failure to establish meaningful programme objectives due to lack of data and a comprehensive information system to aid decision-making. In order for a water authority to function properly it requires information. This information is derived from data, such that the data has to be collected, processed and interpreted via IS and IT to provide this information (Johnson, 2002). A water authority is dependent upon information to carry out its scientific, engineering and operational functions (Fig. 1). The provision of information for a water authority is something that has to be organised rather than just allowed to happen. Since an MIS for WDM does not operate in a vacuum it has to be founded within an effective and dynamic institution, which is guided by a healthy legislative framework.
3. Data for WDM The data required for WDM can be categorised into three broad categories, namely, commercial data, network data and mission specific data. Commercial data is defined as all data describing a consumer connection. Network data being all data representing the infrastructure that conveys water from source to consumer including bulk conveyance and storage, distribution pipes and reservoirs, pump stations, and valves. Mission specific data is all peripheral data required to satisfy a certain specific mission or goal. This may include water quality, return flow and effluent characteristics, cadastral and other GIS based datasets. Within a commercial database four attributes can be distinguished. Firstly the plot and property database i.e. data associated with each plot (commercial, industrial,
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a more efficient means for demarcating meter and pressure zones thereby prioritising and reducing unaccounted-for water. Mission specific data can be used to improve the database and information derived there from like a GIS based system, linked to a street address and other cadastral information, information on consumers on pension or social welfare etc. Data collection and processing has to be well planned and sufficient training given to individuals tasked with data collection (e.g. meter reading), data screening and logging, and data transfer. Checking, normalizing and validating data is a huge challenge, particularly where resources are limited (especially human). Validation is a process comprising the reconciliation, through dedicated software applications and field survey of all types of data.
4. MIS for WDM
Fig. 1. The role of an information system in the decision making process for WDM.
residential or informal). This data forms the basis for many commercial and engineering functions such as tariff assignment, billing and demand analysis. The most fundamental of all databases is the connection database, which comprises of a unique number or permanent identifier for each water connection––usually a concatenation of plot/property and a unique identifier. It should not be associated with a meter serial number as this generally changes with time. A meter database, which includes data relating to a meter like its size, make, serial number and installed location. Lastly a customer database consisting of the name and identification number of property owner responsible for the water account, by default or a tenant leasing the property responsible for consumption and payment thereof (Xulu, 2001; Hydro-Comp, 2002). Commercial data is the essence of billing consumers for measured consumption and is not only required for the production of bills but also allows the provider to trace queries and manage debt. Reliable data will mean accurate bills, satisfied customers, maximised revenue, real water consumption and efficient meter management. This is the cash register of water provision and the essence of water balances or audits and monitoring of unaccounted-for water (Xulu, 2001; WMS, 2001). Network data enables the accurate representation and modelling of system performance. This in turn provides
There is no doubt that a suite of modules has to be assembled so as to satisfy the intricacies and interactions demanded by WDM. Usually some of the individual modules are proprietary and can be used independently as stand alone programmes whilst others are inter-linked and only operate within a fixed framework. Interactions and complementary nature of these separate modules within the entire MIS is crucial, especially in a local authority environment. It is rare for local authorities or water utilities to embark on a drive to modernise their IT and IS, specifically to implement WDM measures. However within the broad framework of improving the data and information handling facilities opportunities to tag-along data and information for WDM can present themselves. A number of software programmes, which can be used for WDM implementation and monitoring, have been developed internationally and within the region, mainly in South Africa. Although they differ in terms of construction, capabilities, sophistication and off-course cost some general features of these software can be summarised by Fig. 2. A summary of some MIS modules identified during the IUCN WDM study by Gumbo et al. (2002) are given in Table 1. These are listed in broad categories namely, meter and distribution system management, hydraulic analysis, treasury interface and demand management module and presentation and reporting module. 4.1. Meter and distribution system management This module is basically a combination of water meter management and billing component (commercial data) and the network asset management component (network data). The basic functionality of the meter and distribution systems management module should
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ideal Network asset management module deals with capturing, structuring and management of water and sewer network asset data, including pipes, valves, pumps, bulk meters, etc., which can be integrated with GIS. Utility mapping using a GIS based system is not absolutely essential although it could be useful in the long term (Buckle, 2002). The system must store all network activities in a historical database in space and time. This can then be used to schedule replacements, short and long-term maintenance requirements (HydroComp, 2002; WMS, 2001; Rand Water, 2002). Fig. 2. Ideal schematic representation of software modules for WDM information system.
include: integrated database structure with link to treasury system, stores, vehicle fleet etc.; job card based maintenance management system; Preventative maintenance and meter replacing scheduling; meter evaluation, water balancing, leakage control and detection; reporting of performance indicators and information must be possible through open-ended structures including querying via the Internet (Rand Water, 2002). A comprehensive billing system should cover all facets of revenue management, including debt, management, customer services and management reporting. The system should ensure paperless bi-directional transfer of data and information between the treasury system and the engineering system (WMS, 2001). An
4.2. Hydraulic and network analysis The minimum functionality of the Hydraulic network analysis module according to Rand Water (2002) includes: evaluation, design, planning and analysis (both static and dynamic) of water networks; realistic balancing of flows and pressures within a distribution system, with all components included, must be possible given output requirements at well distributed nodes; balancing must be performed in static ‘‘snapshot’’, as well as time simulation mode; populating of the water demand at nodes through a direct interface with a demand management module should be possible. 4.3. Treasury interface and demand management Minimum functionality of the Treasury Interface and Demand Management module includes: analysis of
Table 1 List of some identified MIS modules for WDM Category
Product
Company
Location
1. Meter and distribution system management
WMS IBIS EDAMS UtiLion IWAMS NETBASE
Water management services CC (WMS) External Management Support CC (XMS) Hydro-Comp Enterprises Stewart Scott (Pty) Ltd Stewart Scott (Pty) Ltd Crowder and Company
South Africa South Africa South Africa and Cyprus South Africa South Africa United Kingdom
2. Hydraulic analysis
WADISO SA EDAMS WaterCad H2OMAP UtiLion Piccolo NETBASE EPANET
GLS Engineering Software (Pty) Ltd Hydro-Comp Enterprises Haested Methods Inc. MW Soft Inc. Stewart Scott (Pty) Ltd Safege Crowder and Company USEPA
South Africa South Africa and Cyprus USA USA South Africa France United Kingdom USA
3. Treasury interface and demand management
SWIFT IWAMS UtiLion EDAMS NETBASE
GLS Engineering Software (Pty) Ltd Stewart Scott (Pty) Ltd Stewart Scott (Pty) Ltd Hydro-Comp Enterprises Crowder and Company
South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa and Cyprus United Kingdom
4. Presentation and reporting
IMQS IWAMS EDAMS NETBASE
IMQS Software (Pty) Ltd Stewart Scott (Pty) Ltd Hydro-Comp Enterprises Crowder and Company
South Africa South Africa South Africa and Cyprus United Kingdom
Source: adapted from Rand Water (2002), Stewart Scott (1999), Hydro-Comp (2002).
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consumption must be based on individual consumer meters over a period of at least 12 months; analysis of bulk consumption must include multi-layers of zones and sub-zones; water demand analysis and reporting must be performed as a function of all relevant parameters; zone definition must be performed via the hydraulic model of the distribution system; population of water demand data in the hydraulic model must be possible via consumer to node links; unaccounted-for water analysis must be performed as a function of various relevant parameters; reporting and transfer of information must be performed to GIS on an open-ended basis (Rand Water, 2002).
5. Derived WDM information
4.4. Presentation and reporting
It is difficult to evaluate the cost of supply and implementation of the products described in Fig. 3. without obtaining quotes for a thoroughly specified application. The price ranges from free for the hydraulic network analysis software like EPANET, about US$ 4000 for WADISO to approximately US$ 50 000 for the fully integrated systems where the cost of individual modules cannot be obtained separately, like in the
Minimum functionality of the Presentation and reporting module includes: Performance indicators and information must be presented in standard customisable reports, graphs and maps; Maps must have basic GIS functionality with the display of user-friendly standard queries and SQL querying capability.
From a well-designed and structured database a lot of important information for WDM can be derived. Fig. 3 summarises the flow of data through IS and IT for derivation of WDM information. The validation of the data is of the utmost importance if the information to be derived from it is to be reliable. The use of range checks, limits, exception reporting and comparisons helps to identify any anomalies.
6. Cost of MIS modules
Fig. 3. The transformation of data via a management information system to WDM information.
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case of EDAMS and NETBASE. Indicative costs for the implementation of the WMS, IWAMS and IBIS products are reasonably similar and of the order of US$ 15 000–25 000, inclusive of installation and support three months after installation (Rand Water, 2002). The Water Research Commission (WRC) of South Africa has initiated and supported numerous projects which have given birth to various low cost software solutions which can be applied in WDM programmes (Mckenzie and Bhagwan, 1999; Mckenzie et al., 2001). Examples of such packages include: Background Night Flow Analysis Model, Economics of Leakage Model, Pressure Management Model and Benchmarking of Leakage Model. However, the software still require basic accurate data for them to be used effectively.
Fig. 4. Profile and location of the four cities studied.
7.1. City of Bulawayo 7. Findings from four cities Four cities were selected to investigate existing WDM programmes and the requisite MIS being operated or under development. The Cities of Bulawayo and Windhoek offer some interesting similarities in terms of water scarcity due to the semi-arid and arid regions in which they are located respectively. Maputo and Mutare to the east also provide interesting comparisons in the sense that scarcity of the resource is not the major problem but reduction of unaccounted-for water within the system. Bulawayo and Mutare also offer in-country comparisons, where generally in Bulawayo tremendous WDM investments have been made in the past ten years as compared to Mutare. Lastly, geographically Maputo and Windhoek offer the east–west comparison within the sub-region (Fig. 4). Table 2 summarises the performance indicators of the four cities whilst Fig. 4 shows their location, population served and water production per day.
The City of Bulawayo has been implementing the Bulawayo Water Conservation and Sector Services Upgrading Project for the last three years. Considerable progress has been made in developing methodologies and establishing systems for monitoring unaccountedfor water and reducing losses. While this has been facilitated through a generous support from the Government of Norway and technical assistance provided by Norwegian consulting engineers, there is much that could be done by other authorities to implement their own loss reduction plans (Norplan et al., 2001; Sibanda et al., 2001). The main focus of the project was to develop methodologies and procedures to reduce unaccountedfor water. The policies and strategies developed under the technical assistance phase of the Project have been incorporated into a Water Loss Reduction Plan. This is based on four groups of activities: Pilot studies, utility mapping, network modelling and analysis of cost data. The software used in Bulawayo for the mapping system is AutoCAD Map 2000. EPANET 2, a freeware
Table 2 Summary of performance indicators and benchmarks Indicator
Bulawayo
Mutare
Maputo
Windhoek
Managing institution Population served (1000’s) Volume supplied (m3 /day) Per capita gross figure (l/cap. day) Annual yield from sources (Mm3 ) Average rainfall (mm/annum) Altitude (m above mean sea level) Level of service % Coverage reticulated % Coverage standposts and other Number of connections Length of distribution network (km) % Level of unaccounted-for water % Domestic Revenue generated in year 2000 (National currency per annum)
Local authority 1000 100 000 100 47.5 460 1420
Local authority 200 60 000 300 42.0 900 1550
AdeM (Pvt) 1700 120 000 70 54.0 800 300
Local authority 250 48 000 190 22.2 360 1600
99 1 106 000 2100 20 55 Z $600 M
90 10 – 1100 52 70 –
45 55 80 000 840 65 80 –
97 3 38 000 1300 18 74 N$45 M
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produced by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) was used for network modelling and to achieve both meter and pressure zoning. Integrated Water Asset Management Systems (IWAMS) developed by Stewart Scott (Pvt.) Ltd. is used to record all reported incidents such as leaks and bursts and to produce job-cards. IWAMS also has a facility for managing meter installations (both consumer and management meters) and meter replacements, planning leak detection activities and conducting audits of meter zones, but these facilities are yet to be used. The job card system operates on a Ôclosed loop’ system i.e. once a request has been logged, it remains open until such time that the work has been completed and the job card has been handed in and captured. The IWAMS system through the job card entries provides an engineering costing system for each activity as it includes the resources used (labour, vehicles, equipment) and time taken to complete the work. Reports on outstanding jobs, job reaction times, repair costs can be generated in the form of an Incident reaction job card. The Water Loss Reduction Plan is based on the concept of an economic level of losses, which is the level where the marginal cost of intensifying the leakage control effort equals the marginal cost of the water saved (IWAMS Water balance module is used for this exercise). The economic level of losses in the distribution system, based on current costs of production, was estimated to be between 6000 and 7500 m3 per day and it is planned to reach this level after ten years. The initial target is to reach a level of unaccounted-for water of 12 000 m3 per day within two years and 8500 m3 per day in five years. 7.2. City of Mutare Since 1996 City of Mutare’s billing makes use of the PROMUN system running on a UNIX server. The system allows account holder to pay at any Council paying points, as there is a central processing unit. The package can also run on PCs and dump terminals. However the system has several disadvantages which include: It is not possible to carry out a comprehensive water audit and to determine the level of non-revenue water. The package was installed without any consultation of the engineering services department and currently no means of interface have been established. 7.3. City of Windhoek The City of Windhoek adopted an integrated Water Demand Management Strategy in 1994 and in the same year started the implementation thereof. This strategy includes; Policy Issues; Legislation; Technical Issues and Public Education and Awareness programmes (Goldblatt et al., 2000; Buckle, 1998). The City of Windhoek
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developed a billing system in-house for all municipal services rendered by the City called the Municipal Services (MS) system. It was meant mainly for billing services, providing statements and for debt collecting. However, this program is not versatile enough without writing lengthy sub-routines to perform more functions required for WDM, such as grouping of customers in categories of consumption and location. The MeterMan software package was originally purchased to improve the management of the water meter inventory and to start a meter replacement programme. Meter readings are transferred electronically from MS to MeterMan and statistics of consumption are compiled. Various reports can now be generated which include; The highest consumers by group (per size of connection and user group); Water balances; Graphs of water consumption; Query list for maintenance of meters. The MeterMan package is at present being upgraded to the Windows version, which should make it user-friendly especially with reporting functions (Brinkman, 2002). The City acquired EPANET software through a project with the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation. Using EPANET the water distribution network has been divided into 12 pressure zones. It is possible to simulate the consumption patterns for each pressure zone. That way the system can be modelled under current demands and the peak demand for the entire distribution system can be simulated and or future demands predicted. WADISO package is being used mainly as a design tool but can also be used to simulate demand similarly to EPANET. The City started a pilot project with water pre-payment in 1999, consisting of 106 yard connections and 60 public standpipes. The Water Pre-Payment Software has been used in this pilot project. With the information of water consumption on the prepayment system available in electronic medium it can easily be transferred to a GIS system. A decision was taken by the City of Windhoek to install a geographic information system (GIS). Also, with a great percentage of the water distribution network available on Computer Aided Design (CAD) and with the requirement that information on all new township developments be made available in electronic format to the City, the prospect of having an Information Management System in place seemed promising. All the packages in use by the City have elements that make them suitable for certain applications. It is essential that these be integrated to achieve the same objective of sustainable water consumption (Brinkman, 2002). 7.4. City of Maputo Aguas de Mocßambique (AdeM) the private company mandated to supply water and manage the distribution network for the City of Maputo is in the process of
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setting up a proper MIS in order to embark on a meaningful WDM strategy. However the main pre-occupation at present is how to provide a decent level of service to the un-serviced population. The data and information available at present is considered to be indicative only. Currently unaccounted-for water in Maputo water supply system is estimated to be in excess of 60%. A major part of the losses occur in pipes and household connections due to advanced age and poor maintenance of the system. About 6000 illegal connections have been identified. On the other hand, water is not supplied continuously but intermittently due to low pressure in the system. Most water meters are not working, neither at the treatment plant, bulk meters within the distribution network nor at household connection level. Without metering AdeM uses information collected on the basis of the level of performance of pumping system installed at the distribution posts. This information is compared against water consumption and a crude water budget is established to determine water losses. Most of AdeM’s technical and financial effort is being directed more to the reorganisation and optimisation of internal capacity which includes; investment in correction of serious physical system constraints; increasing water production and replacement of water reticulation pipes; and human resource capacity building. Meanwhile AdeM is setting up a computerised database. This is being done through two different projects. Firstly, the Operational Database for Assets (ODBA) is earmarked for the identification and management of physical assets of the company. This system will be used to assess the performance of each part of the system including monitoring and planning preventive maintenance. The MIS is being replicated from an existing system at EPAL (Lisbon Water Supply Company). The second project under implementation is the digitising of the distribution network on a GIS database. This project is being implemented through a South African based company called MHP Geomatics. The firm has working experience form the City of Durban. This selected software is envisaged to be a key component in water demand management programme for the City. Once the MIS is established it would easier to identify problem areas and characterisation of water consumption levels by geo-
graphic area. It is expected to combine the ODBA and GIS to assess the condition of equipment such as pumps and reservoir capacity using hydraulic simulation model fed by the GIS database.
8. Discussion From the four case studies it is clear that within the region there are many similarities and striking contrasts. The City of Windhoek and the City of Bulawayo have achieved considerable success with WDM, whilst Mutare still has a lot to learn and achieve. There is no doubt that the starting point for a comprehensive WDM programme is setting out a clear strategy which is acceptable to the main stakeholders, namely, the water utility, customers and the politicians. Table 3 summarises the MIS modules that have been implemented or are still being developed for the four cities. The number of asterisk indicates the level of development and use. A fully developed module (five stars) is one where the data is constantly being updated and full integration and functionality with other modules has been achieved. Secondly it is a module, which is regularly used to derive useful information either for routine operation support or strategic planning and decision support. Drawing some comparisons between Tables 2 and 3 it is apparent that the cities which have established a comprehensive water demand management strategy and made significant investment in MIS have better performance indicators. For example the City of Bulawayo and Windhoek have reduced their unaccounted for water to less than 20% whilst Mutare and Maputo still cannot account for more than half of the water supplied. For Bulawayo and Windhoek commercialisation is beginning to have a telling effect as a result. Bottom lines, like profitability or percentage of billed revenues that are collected, are becoming common performance indicators or efficiency indices. With a system that gives reliable information, the City of Windhoek and City of Bulawayo can ensure sustainable WDM by: setting fair tariffs, detecting undue consumption early, maintaining infrastructure in time to reduce unaccounted for water, planning new developments rationally, an
Table 3 Management information system modules in use or under development Module
Bulawayo
Maputo
Mutare
Windhoek
Meter management and billing Water balance and auditing Network asset management Network hydraulic modelling Presentation and reporting GIS-database
_ _ __ ___ ___ ___ __ __
_
_ _
____ _ _ __ ___ _____ __ ___
__ _ _ ___
_
Key: _ _ _ _ _––fully functional and integrated, updated and used regularly; _ _ _ _––fully functional and integrated, updated and used irregularly; _ _ _––fully functional and stand-alone; _ _––partially functional and under development; _––partially functional and used on an ad hoc basis.
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informed prioritising system in time of shortages and droughts. It is apparent from the studies that for the cities which have or are in the process of setting up a MIS for WDM, some level of technical assistance which includes human resource training as part of the strategy, is important. For example the City of Bulawayo had a number of its staff members sent to Norway for training and familiarisation with the process of setting up and maintaining a WDM information system. Similarly technical cooperation in Windhoek and Maputo is reported enabling transfer of skills and knowledge. Leading consulting companies and developers of MIS modules have also been involved in capacity building and training of water utility personnel. This private– public or private–private partnerships is crucial in the setting up and maintenance of the information system especially the training of personnel within water utilities most of whom have lack of capacity and proper incentives to retain well trained, motivated and qualified staff.
9. Conclusions This paper recommends the following investment priority list of information system modules, for water authorities or utilities in the region:
1. 2. 3. 4.
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meter management and billing module, network asset management module, water balance or audit module, network modelling or hydraulic modelling module.
It is possible to map out some basic procedures for procuring MIS modules. A successful system is one, which forms part of the WDM strategy i.e. which involves the analysis of the current situation (where your are), the desirable level or position (where you want to go). It is important that before any decision to acquire specialised off-the-shelf software (how do you get there) for example to enable interface with treasury systems, to explore the use of spreadsheet-based systems. Further investigations have to focus on the functionality of the modules, hardware and software requirements, where it has been applied including success and failures and finally the life-cycle costs i.e. costs of installation, maintenance, upgrading and support services. Without valid data and a well thought out MIS, any decision regarding WDM, for example, network rehabilitation is meaningless and could lead to wasted effort and cost as well as reduced revenues. The advent of IT has opened the doors for new, innovative ways of improving data capture, storage, validation and processing. The procedures are no longer as daunting as in yesteryear. MIS for WDM are a lifetime choice and with
Fig. 5. Water utility-MIS bureau partnership for WDM.
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the current drive towards IS and IT most water utilities will find their use attractive and beneficial. Training of personnel to implement, operate and maintain the adopted MIS is of paramount importance. So is the need to retain skilled personnel by providing remunerative incentives and maintaining high enthusiasm and job satisfaction. Buckle (2002) suggests the possibility of contracting out the operation and maintenance of the MIS. This can be done by a specialised company or bureau, which can be remotely located and operates through a small agency (two to three employees) physically located within the water authority or utility. With internet based systems this could be achieved fairly easily. The central bureau which coordinates the activities of several local units is also responsible for training of staff and providing support services to the water utility. A diagrammatic possible setup of such a system is depicted in Fig. 5. The water utility or authority can then pay the bureau a fixed rate and possible a bonus, which based on a ‘‘no cure no pay’’ arrangement. The much larger water utilities with more than 50 000 connections might opt to have the information systems section fully located within the water utility, whilst smaller service providers might opt for the MIS bureau alternative. There are a number of lessons which other cities in the region can learn particularly from the experiences of Bulawayo and Windhoek. Sustainable WDM is achievable within reasonable financial and human resources. Setting up and maintaining a comprehensive MIS for WDM should be one of the key elements within the WDM strategy. Finally WDM in urban centres of the region cannot be sustained on its own. There must be drivers and well trained dedicated personnel to handle the intricacies of WDM. Human resource capacity building and retention cannot therefore be overemphasised.
Acknowledgements Several individuals and companies contributed immensely to the information contained in this paper. The authors would like to acknowledge with great thanks and appreciation for the material provided, time and enthusiasm of the various individuals especially Hannes Buckle, Rand Water; Edgar Johnson, Stewart Scott; John Sternberg, Hydro-Comp Enterprises; Tim Leoni, Water Management Services and Jeff Broome, Ncube Burrow. The authors would like to specifically thank the IUCN Project Management Team, for the Phase II Water Demand Management Project for Southern Africa, Ms. Ruth Beukman and Ms. Tertia Uitenweerde for the their kind support and encouragement.
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