Accepted Manuscript Informed Trading around Earnings and Mutual Fund Alphas Yu Cai, Sie Ting Lau PII: DOI: Reference:
S0378-4266(15)00219-8 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbankfin.2015.08.008 JBF 4791
To appear in:
Journal of Banking & Finance
Received Date: Accepted Date:
7 May 2014 3 August 2015
Please cite this article as: Cai, Y., Lau, S.T., Informed Trading around Earnings and Mutual Fund Alphas, Journal of Banking & Finance (2015), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbankfin.2015.08.008
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Informed Trading around Earnings and Mutual Fund Alphas
Yu Cai and Sie Ting Lau*
May 31, 2015
*Yu Cai is from the School of Economics and Management at Tongji University, Shanghai, China and Sie Ting Lau is from Nanyang Business School, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Authors’ Contact Information: Cai:
[email protected], (8621) 6598-2094; and Lau:
[email protected], (65) 6790-4649. We thank Stephen Dimmock, Chuan-Yang Hwang, Bin Ke, Jung Min Kim, Mandy Tham, and Hanjiang Zhang for their helpful comments. All errors are our own responsibility.
Informed Trading around Earnings and Mutual Fund Alphas
Abstract We test a measure of skills of informed trading around earnings for mutual funds based on the buy trades. The measure is motivated by prior studies arguing that a mutual fund is skilled if it buys stocks with subsequent high earnings announcement returns. We find that this measure predicts future mutual fund returns. On average, after adjusting for Carhart’s four risk factors, the top decile of mutual funds outperforms the bottom decile by 44 basis points per quarter. By decomposing fund alphas into two components in their relations to earnings, we find that this measure is only associated with earnings-related fund alphas. This measure can also be used to predict stock returns at future earnings announcements.
Keywords: Earnings Announcement, Mutual Fund Alpha, Informed Trading JEL Classification Number: G11, G12, G14
1. Introduction Baker, Litov, Wachter, and Wurgler (2010) examine the stock-selection skills of mutual fund managers, using future earnings announcement returns (EARs) of the stocks that mutual funds hold and trade. At the stock level, they find that the recent buys significantly outperform the recent sells at the subsequent earnings announcements. They also find that some mutual funds perform persistently better than others in this regard. When stock holdings experience positive abnormal returns at earnings announcements, they add to mutual fund performance. Our conjecture is that such informed trading around earnings (ITE) is an important mutual fund management skill. Mutual fund managers who appear to be skilled at ITE are expected to earn positive fund alphas in the future. Our research tests whether variation of ITE across mutual fund managers is important in explaining variation of their performance. Mutual fund managers may possess skills other than ITE, such as the ability to forecast investor sentiment or discount rates, and the ability to time the market. It is not clear whether abnormal stock returns earned in a narrow window of earnings announcement dates drive the total outcome of mutual fund performance. Moreover, Berk and Green (2004), using theoretical models, argue that realized alphas should be zero for all mutual funds, even when there is significant variation in their ability to engage in informed trading. Berk and Green’s argument is two-fold. First, more skilled mutual funds may charge higher fees so that net returns to fund investors amount to insignificant alphas. Second, better performing mutual funds attract fund flows, which worsen investment performance in the face of decreasing returns to scale.
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In order to test our conjecture, we need a measure of fund manager skills of ITE. This measure is motivated from prior studies that use earnings announcement effect tests (e.g., Baik, Kang, and Kim, 2010; and Ke and Petroni, 2004). In these studies, the pre-disclosure trading of some investors is shown to be informed, because the stocks they purchase subsequently realize positive EARs. Hence, our trades-based measure is closely related to the methodologies of Baker et al. (2010) and Wermers, Yao, and Zhao (2012). Specifically, we construct the measure by multiplying the change in holdings by future EARs; in other words, the trading amount interacts with the trading outcome. The EAR is defined as the three-day accumulated excess return over the market around the earnings announcement date. Since one fund holds many stocks, the multiplication at the stock level is aggregated to get the fund level measure of investment skills. By this measure, if a mutual fund increases holdings in various stocks with positive EARs in the future, this fund is considered skilled or informed. In defining the measure, we divide trades into two types: buy and sell. Prior studies suggest that buy and sell trades may have different information contents; for example, Alexander, Cici, and Gibson (2007) show that buy trades of mutual funds are valuation motivated, whereas the pattern is weaker for sell trades. Moreover, mutual funds are typically long-only investors. Therefore, we suspect the buy trades-based measure (CAR1_BUY) has stronger return predictability than the sell trades-based measure (CAR1_SELL). We find that CAR1_BUY successfully predicts mutual fund winners from 1984 to 2009. The return difference per quarter between the top and bottom decile funds sorted by the measure is 39 basis points when adjusted for the Fama-French three risk factor model; 44 basis points when
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adjusted for Carhart’s four risk factors; and 22 basis points when adjusted for stock characteristics (Daniel, Grinblatt, Titman, and Wermers, 1997). Such a return spread is large in economic magnitude. The positive relationship holds in regressions where fund characteristics, the post-earnings announcement drift, and several fund alpha measures from the literature are controlled for, and where the holdings-based measures of mutual fund returns are used as the dependent variable. On the other hand, CAR1_SELL is not significantly related to future fund returns. To understand the property of CAR1_BUY, we decompose fund alphas in their relations to earnings. Following Busse and Tong (2012), we obtain daily returns of the mutual fund based on its latest stock holdings. We then decompose fund alphas into two distinct components by replacing stock returns in the fund’s portfolio with market returns on earnings announcement dates. We demonstrate that CAR1_BUY is only associated with earnings-related fund alphas, which appear to attract fund flows more strongly than the rest of fund alphas. Mutual fund investors might not benefit directly from fund return predictability of CAR1_BUY, because the top decile mutual funds earn insignificant alphas. On the other hand, mutual fund investors cannot short sell the bottom decile mutual funds that earn significantly negative alphas. However, we find that the cross-sectional variation in CAR1_BUY across mutual funds could help the investors to select favorable stocks on future earnings announcement dates. Following Cohen, Coval, and Pastor (2005), we show that a stock quality measure based on CAR1_BUY predicts future EARs. This result is consistent with the Wermers et al. (2012) model on the relationship between fund alphas and stock alphas, and supports the notion that mutual fund managers have ITE skills.
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Our work adds to studies that show fund manager skills in various forms. Coval and Moskowitz (2001) reveal that mutual funds trade local stocks at an information advantage and earn substantial abnormal returns, and Alexander et al. (2007) find that mutual funds are conscious about the stocks they want to buy and keep. When faced with large investor outflows, mutual funds retain some stocks in their portfolio. The decision is motivated by the belief that these stocks are undervalued, and, indeed, these stocks eventually outperform the market. Jiang, Yao, and Yu (2007) find the market timing ability of mutual funds by examining their holdings, and Ali, Chen, Yao, and Yu (2008), after studying whether mutual funds are capable of profiting from the accrual anomaly, find that some mutual funds deliberately seek exposure to low accrual stocks and make high future returns. Cohen, Frazzini, and Malloy (2008) find that mutual funds base their investments on personal connections with good outcome, and Kacperczyk, van Nieuwerburgh, and Veldkamp (2012) find that some mutual funds select stocks well when the economy is good, and time the market well when the economy is bad. Furthermore, Wermers (2000) examines the stock-selection skills of mutual funds from 1975 to 1994, and finds that although the annual net returns of mutual funds underperform the market by 1%, the stocks they select outperform the market by 1.3%. Kacperczyk, Sialm, and Zheng (2005) show that fund managers concentrate investments in industries where they have an information advantage, while Cremers and Petajisto (2009) find that mutual funds purposely deviate their investments from the index benchmark portfolios, which brings higher future returns. Da, Gao, and Jagannathan (2010) divide the stock-selection skills of mutual funds into impatient trading and liquidity provision, and find that the highest returns come from impatient trading.
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Our work also relates to another group of studies that use EAR tests; for example, Baik et al. (2010) show that local institutional investors have more information about local stocks than non-local investors. Stocks in which local institutional investors have increased their weights earn more than the matching stocks at the next earnings announcement by 0.96%. Ke and Petroni (2004) find that transient institutional investors possess information that allows them to avoid negative stock price shocks associated with the end of a string of consecutive earnings increases. Other studies that examine informed trading from the perspective of EARs include Kim and Verrecchia (1997), Chrisophe, Ferri, and Angel (2004), and Bushee and Goodman (2007). It is important to highlight the difference between our study and existing literature on EAR studies. Most existing studies examine the existence of ITE and show that, on average, mutual fund managers are informed around earnings when the stocks they buy or sell experience positive or negative EARs on the next announcement date. However, most EAR studies do not explore the cross-sectional variation in mutual fund performance. Baker et al. (2010) show that mutual funds conduct ITE, and emphasize the short-window performance at the stock holdings level: on average, stocks bought by mutual funds realize greater EARs than stocks sold by mutual funds. Such a pattern shows persistence, but Baker et al. do not analyze explicitly how much variation in mutual fund alphas is attributed to fund manager skills of ITE. In our study, we use the trading amount (weight change) interacted with the trading outcome (EAR) as the mutual fund level measure, and find that only the buy trades-based measure is useful in explaining the cross-section of future mutual fund returns. The measure we use is also closely related to Wermers et al. (2012), except that their measure is based on total trades (both buy and sell trades). Wermers et al. (2012) seek to convert mutual fund
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alphas to stock alphas; hence, their empirical analysis is also on the cross-section of individual stocks, and not on the cross-section of mutual funds. We show that in the cross-section of mutual funds, only the buy trades-based measure of fund manager skills of ITE is significantly related to mutual fund returns. The remaining paper proceeds as follows. In Section 2, we form and describe our sample of mutual funds. In Section 3, we describe the measure of fund manager skills of ITE, the measures of mutual fund performance, and other control variables used in the regression analysis. In Section 4, we present empirical and robustness results, and in Section 5, we conclude the paper. 2. Sample formation Following Kacperczyk et al. (2005), we form the sample of mutual funds from 1984 to 2009 by matching the Thomson/CDA stock holdings database with the Center for Research in Security Prices (CRSP) Mutual Fund Database. We match two fund databases with the MFLINKS tables provided by Wharton Research Data Services (WRDS). The Thomson/CDA database contains mutual funds’ stock holdings.1 The primary source for the database is the mandatory SEC N-30D filing, which was published quarterly prior to 1985, semi-annually from 1985 through 2003, and quarterly again after 2004. 2 The Thomson/CDA database increases the reporting frequency by feeding on voluntary reports of mutual funds such as
1
As noted by Fama and French (2010), after 1986, the database is relatively free of survivorship bias.
2
The SEC adopted enhanced mutual fund portfolio disclosure on Feb 11, 2004, which requires quarterly disclosure.
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fund prospectuses.3 As a result, quarterly reports are obtained for more than 80% of all funds (see Wermers, 2000). In our study, 82.1% of our sample reports on a quarterly basis. The CRSP Mutual Fund Database records monthly fund returns, total net assets under management (TNA), fee structures, investment objectives, and other fund characteristics.4 It has no survivorship bias, is updated on a quarterly basis, and is distributed with a lag of one quarter. In this database, each fund class is treated as a separate fund. In this study, we combine fund classes into a single fund, and sum TNA across fund classes as in Yan (2008). For fund age, we find the most senior class and use its number of years with CRSP’s records. For all the other fund characteristics, we use CRSP’s TNA-weighted average across fund classes. We obtain stock prices from the CRSP monthly stock file and match them to the holdings data based on the fund report dates. We also adjust the holdings data for stock-splits that occur between the report date and the file date to avoid a look-ahead bias, because the file dates are often quarters after the fund report dates. Without adjustments, the portfolio weight that is computed using data on the file dates would contain future information. To construct the measure of fund manager skills of ITE, we also obtain earnings report dates from the COMPUSTAT database. We download characteristic-based benchmark returns and group
3
On the other hand, a recent mutual fund study by Schwarz and Potter (2013) suggests that the Thomson/CDA database
is missing 30% of mandatory filings. 4
The monthly TNA is available, starting from 1991.
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assignment data from the website of Russ Wermers.5 These are used to construct the mutual fund performance measure, as seen in Daniel et al. (1997). We require sample funds to be diversified domestic equity mutual funds, and use the investment objective code from the CRSP Mutual Fund Database (crsp_obj_cd) to identify these funds. The CRSP objective code builds on the objective codes of Strategic Insight, Lipper, and Wiesenberger. The four-character CRSP objective code has four levels of meanings. If the first two characters are “ED,” the fund is known as equity and domestic funds. We then delete sector, hedged, and short funds with the use of the third and fourth character of the CRSP objective code. We also delete those index funds where fund names contain the keyword, “Index,” or where the CRSP database has assigned an index flag (index_fund_flag). We further require funds to have at least USD 10 million TNA (in 2009 GNP-deflated constant dollars), to hold more than 20 stocks at the beginning of the quarter, and to have a return history larger than 24 months for estimating abnormal fund returns using risk factor models. To avoid the incubation bias, as described in Evans (2010), we follow Amihud and Goyenko (2013) and delete observations of fund returns before the start dates, as reported by CRSP. For those funds without the CRSP start dates, we delete returns in their first 36 months. Finally, as in Amihud and Goyenko (2013), we require the market value of stock holdings to be larger than 70% of fund TNA. Table 1 is about here. Table 1 reports the study’s pooled sample statistics. The sample comprises 97,279 fund-quarters from 3,131 distinct funds between 1984 and 2009.6 The mean quarterly return is 1.90%, with a 5
The web address is http://www.smith.umd.edu/faculty/rwermers/ftpsite/Dgtw/coverpage.htm
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standard deviation of 10.63%.7 The mean fund size measured by TNA is USD 1,183 million, whereas the median is USD 222 million. As noted in Chen, Hong, Huang, and Kubik (2004), some large funds in the industry cause the TNA variable to become right skewed. Hence, we use the natural logarithm of TNA in all regression analyses. The expense ratio has a mean of 1.26% and a median of 1.21%. The turnover ratio is the rate at which the fund changes its stock holdings annually, which is calculated by the CRSP database.8 The mean turnover ratio is 85%, and the mean fund age is 13.4 years. Total load comprises the front-end and back-end fees paid by fund investors. The mean total load is 1.30%, since a large proportion of non-load funds exists in our sample.9 Other variables are defined and explained in the next section. 3. Empirical design In this section, we discuss the major variables used in the study. First, we define two measures of fund manager skills of ITE; one is based on the buy trades, and another is based on the sell trades. Second, we explain how mutual fund returns are measured based on risk factor models or stock holdings. Finally, we define the fund flow variable and introduce two control variables for the post-earnings announcement drift.
6
The number of distinct funds equals 431 for 1984 to 1989, 1,648 for 1990 to 1999, and 2,870 for 2000 to 2009.
7
The reported summary statistics are based on the pooled sample. For fund returns, the time-series average of the
cross-sectional mean is 2.57%, and the time-series average of the cross-sectional standard deviation is 4.43%. 8
See Yan and Zhang (2009) for an explanation about turnover in the CRSP Mutual Fund Database.
9
In the dataset, 51.9% of funds report missing front load value, and 38.87% of funds report missing rear load value. The
mean front load is 2.42% for funds with non-missing front load observations, and the mean rear load is 0.5% for funds with non-missing rear load observations. We replace missing values with zeroes.
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3.1. The measure of fund manager skills of ITE The measure of fund manager skills of ITE is motivated by the literature’s extensive use of earnings announcement tests to show ITE for investors (see for example, Baker et al., 2010; and Wermers et al., 2012). The computation of the measure is based on quarterly stock holdings, and the timeline in defining the measure is shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 is about here. In Figure 1, the measure of fund manager skills of ITE in quarter t is used to predict the quarterly mutual fund return in quarter t+1. The measure is based on the interaction of weight changes and EARs. The weight change is obtained by comparing the stock holdings of two consecutive quarters between quarter t-1 and quarter t-2 (or between quarter t-1 and quarter t-3 if the fund reports semi-annually).10 The earnings announcement date falls in quarter t.11 We define the buy trades-based measure of fund manager skills of ITE as
(1)
CAR1 _ BUYt
1
jJ w j ,t 1 w j ,t 2
jJ w j ,t 1 w j ,t 2 adjAR j ,t ,
10
We exclude stale holdings reports by requiring the distance of two consecutive quarters to be no greater than two
quarters. 11
The reported holdings of mutual funds are typically at the quarter end dates and so the three-day window of EAR is
inside quarter t. If the fund reports are not released in the final month of the quarter, our EAR could be inside quarter t-1. Fortunately, this does not pose a problem, since we use the first EAR after the fund report date to try to capture the informed trading of mutual funds.
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where w j ,t 1 is the weight of stock j in the stock portfolio of the fund at the end of quarter t-1; w j,t 2 is the weight at the end of quarter t-2; adjAR j,t is the adjusted three-day EAR of stock j in
quarter t (to be defined below); and J ( j : w j ,t 1 w j ,t 2 ) denotes stocks purchased by the fund during quarter t-1. We compute three-day EARs for stocks based on the market-return adjusted model, where the CRSP value-weighted index is used as the market proxy.12 Note that these EARs may contain an upward bias. Frazzini and Lamont (2007) show that stock returns on earnings announcement dates tend to be positive. Hence, we subtract the monthly average EAR of all stocks from the raw EAR of individual stocks to obtain the adjusted three-day EAR (adjAR). This is equivalent to generating residual EARs by running monthly regressions in the cross-section of announcing stocks, where the dependent variable is EAR, and the independent variable is the intercept. Our results are qualitatively similar when stock characteristics, such as firm size, book-to-market ratio, and price momentum, are also adjusted for; that is, when these variables are also used as the independent variables in the regressions. We define the sell trades-based measure of fund manager skills of ITE as
(2)
CAR1_ SELLt
1
jJ w j ,t 1 w j ,t 2
jJ w j ,t 1 w j ,t 2 adjAR j ,t ,
where J ( j : w j ,t 1 w j ,t 2 ) denotes stocks sold by the fund during quarter t-1. 12
In defining EAR, we also try a five-day window [-2, 2] instead of a three-day window [-1, 1], industry-return adjusted
models, and firm-characteristics adjusted models. The empirical results are qualitatively similar.
12
Following Kacperczyk et al. (2005), we adjust for weight changes that occur as a result of price changes when determining the quarterly buy and sell trades of stocks by mutual funds. Even when stocks are just held and carried over from the previous quarter, stock weights can change as a result of stock price changes. Therefore, we assign a hypothetical weight for each fund quarter. It is calculated as
j ,t 1 w
(3)
w j ,t 2 (1 R j ,t 2 )
jw j ,t 2 (1 R j ,t 2 )
,
j ,t 1 is the hypothetical weight where R j,t 2 is the quarterly return of stock j in quarter t-2, and w j ,t 1 instead of w at the end of quarter t-1. We use w j ,t 2 for the computation in Equations (1) and
(2).13 We find that the mean weight change at the fund-quarter-stock level is zero, with a standard deviation of 0.7% across fund-quarter stocks. The mean weight change at the fund-quarter level for buys is 23.2% with a standard deviation of 15.9% across fund-quarters. The mean weight change at the fund-quarter level for first-time buys (i.e., zero holdings are observed for these stocks at the previous report date) has a mean of 15.9% and a standard deviation of 14.9%. In Table 1, the measure CAR1_BUY has a mean of -0.02% and a median of -0.03%, and the measure CAR1_SELL has a mean of 0.08% and a median of 0.05%. Unreported results show that the correlation between CAR1_BUY and CAR1_SELL is -0.070, which is statistically significant.
3.2. Fund performance measures 13
The analysis when not using hypothetical weights leads to qualitatively similar results.
13
The major set of fund performance measures is derived from the time series of mutual fund return history. These are mutual fund alphas estimated from risk-factor models, specifically the market model, the Fama-French three-factor model (1993), and the Carhart four-factor model (1997). For example, for the four-factor model, we run the following regression model for fund p in month t on the return data of the preceding 24 months.14
(4)
( R p ,m r f ,m ) t bt MKTm st SMBm ht HMLm ut UMDm m, m t 24, t 23,...t 1,
where ( R p,m r f ,m ) is the excess return of fund over the risk-free interest rate in month
, and
MKTm , SMBm , HMLm and UMDm are the market, size, book-to-market, and momentum factors,
respectively. The estimates of risk factor loadings, b t , s t , h t and u t , are used to calculate the Carhart four-factor alpha for fund p in month t,
(5)
Alpha 4 F p ,t ( R p ,t r f ,t ) b t MKTt s t SMBt h t HMLt u t UMDt .
If we drop the momentum factor from Equations (4) and (5), we have the Fama-French three-factor alpha for fund month (p, t) which is denoted by Alpha3Fp,t . Similarly, if only the market factor is specified in Equations (4) and (5), we have the market factor alpha, which is denoted by Alpha1Fp,t .
We will be analyzing quarterly observations. The quarterly mutual fund return is the sum of monthly returns during the calendar quarter. Summary statistics on the factor model-based mutual fund alphas are provided in Table 1. We find the mean (median) of quarterly Alpha3Fp,t and 14
The results are robust when fund alphas are estimated in 12-month rolling windows.
14
Alpha 4 Fp,t are -0.20% (-0.25%) and -0.24% (-0.26%) per quarter, respectively. The negative signs
of these alphas are consistent with Gruber (1996). Daniel et al. (1997) propose another set of performance measures for mutual funds. The benchmark returns for mutual funds are not based on risk-factor models, but on the characteristics of holdings. Assuming that trades take place at the end of each quarter, their holdings-based measures are also useful for our study.15 Daniel et al. (1997) construct 125 characteristic-based benchmark portfolios, which are formed by triple sorting U.S. stocks by three stock characteristics: (1) market capitalization, (2) book-to-market ratio, and (3) prior-year return. Each stock in the mutual fund holdings is matched to one of the 125 benchmark portfolios by the three characteristics. As a result, the monthly mutual fund return can be decomposed into three components: (1) characteristics selectivity, (2) characteristics timing, and (3) average style. Characteristics selectivity (CS) measures how well fund managers select stocks. It is defined as (6)
CSt j w j ,t 1 ( R j ,t BRt ( j , t 1)),
where w j ,t 1 is the weight on stock j at the end of month t-1; R j ,t is the month t return of stock j; and BRt ( j, t 1) is the month return of the benchmark portfolio to which stock j is assigned during month t-1 according to the characteristics of size, value, and momentum. Characteristic timing (CT) measures how well fund managers time the market by tilting portfolios towards stocks with characteristics or styles that have higher returns. It is defined as 15
For example, Kacperczyk et al. (2005) use the stock characteristics-based measures to show that abnormal fund returns
are attributed to the industry concentration index.
15
(7)
CTt j ( w j ,t 1 BRt ( j , t 1) w j ,t 13 BRt ( j , t 13)),
where BRt ( j, t 13) is the month t return on the benchmark portfolio to which stock j is assigned during month t-13, and w j ,t 13 is the weight on stock at the end of month t-13. Average style (AS) captures the returns earned by the mutual fund as a result of the fund’s tendency to hold stocks with certain characteristics in the long run. It is defined as: (8)
ASt j w j ,t 13 BRt ( j , t 13).
We download the characteristics’ benchmark returns from the website of Russ Wermers (see footnote 5 for link). There are 125 monthly portfolio return series. The calculation of these benchmark returns are found in Wermers (2004), which is a refined version of Daniel et al. (1997). We also acquire group assignment data from Wermers’s website, with which each stock is assigned to one benchmark portfolio each month, and then calculate the characteristics-based mutual fund return measures. Summary statistics for these measures are provided in Table 1. We find the pooled mean of CS, CT, and AS are 0.10%, 0.01%, and 2.24% per quarter, respectively. The sum of CS, CT, and AS is conceptually the raw mutual fund return before expenses, subject to how close the assumption on fund trades is to reality. From Table 1, the total of the three measures is 2.35%, and the mean of quarterly fund returns, plus quarterly fund expenses, is 2.22% (1.90%+1.26%/4).
3.3. Fund flow and other control variables Following Zheng (1999), the quarterly fund flow for each mutual fund is defined as
(9)
FLOWt
TNAt TNAt 1 (1 Rt ) MGTNAt , TNAt 1
16
where Rt and MGTNAt represent the mutual fund return in quarter t and the total assets acquired from a merger, respectively. When defining the fund flow, we assume that new money comes at the end of the quarter. To contain the outlier effect in computing the mean statistics, we winsorize fund flow at 1% and 99% in every quarter. The measure of fund manager skills of ITE involves EARs. To make sure the return predictability does not mechanically come from the post-earnings announcement drift, we need proper control variables. The earnings drift is the tendency for stock prices to move in the same direction as earnings surprises. The earnings drift was first documented by Ball and Brown (1968) and also studied by Bernard and Thomas (1990), Bhushan (1994), and Bartov, Radhakrishnan, and Krinsky (2000). The earnings drift is believed to result from investors’ under-reaction to earnings news, and Fama (1998) concludes that it is a financial anomaly that is “above suspicion.” Guided by prior studies on the earnings drift (for example, Chan, Jegadeesh, and Lakonishok, 1996), we use the value-weighted average of three-day EARs of all the stocks in the fund portfolio as the control variables for the drift at the fund level. It is defined as
(10)
Nt
CAR1t w j ,t AR j ,t , j
where AR j ,t is the three-day EAR of stock j in quarter t; w j,t is the stock weight at the end of quarter t; and Nt is the number of stocks held by the mutual fund. In Table 1, we note that, on average, the fund has a positive CAR1 of 0.76% and a median value of 0.61%.
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Berkman, Dimitrov, Jain, Koch, and Tice (2009) suggest that EARs can be noisy in the sense that stock mispricing is often corrected by the public disclosure of earnings. Thus, we define another control variable for the drift based on the direction of EARs, Nt
Dnews1t w j ,t sign( AR j ,t ),
(11)
j
where sign() is the sign function equal to 1 if AR j ,t is positive and 0 if it is non-positive. 4. Empirical Analysis In this section, we show the determinants for the measures of fund manager skills of ITE and their persistence. We examine whether the measures are informative about future fund performance and learn more about fund manager skills by decomposing fund alphas with respect to earnings. We finally examine whether ITE skills of fund managers can be used to predict abnormal stock returns at future earnings announcements.
4.1. Determinant analysis We perform OLS regressions to show determinants for CAR1_BUY and CAR1_SELL, as seen in Amihud and Goyenko (2013).16 In regressions, we control for fund characteristics such as total net assets under management (TNA), expense ratio (EXP_RATIO), fund turnover (TURNOVER), fund age (AGE), total load (TOTAL_LOAD), fund flow (FLOW) and the fund-level EAR (CAR1). We consider a mutual fund as a growth fund when its CRSP fund objective is “EDYG,” and denote it with a dummy variable, GROWTH. We also include four fund alpha measures proposed in prior studies. Specifically, we use the return gap measure (RETGAP) of Kacperczyk et al. (2008), the 16
Here, we winsorize CAR1_BUY at 0.5% and 99.5% in each quarter in regressions to avoid the outlier effects. Results are similar when we winsorize the variable at 1% and 99% in each quarter.
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similarity-based fund performance measure (SIM) of Cohen et al. (2005), the selectivity measure (Fund R2) of Amihud and Goyenko (2013), and the industry concentration index (ICI) of Kacperczyk et al. (2005). Note that all the variables in regressions are in quarter t except TNA, which is in quarter t-1. The t-statistics for coefficient estimates are based on standard errors that cluster by both the quarter and the fund. Table 2 is about here. Table 2 presents the determinant analysis results. From model 1, we find that CAR1_BUY is negatively associated with fund turnover (TURNOVER), and is not significantly related to other mutual fund characteristics. The coefficient on fund flow (FLOW) is significantly positive, which suggests that informed trading attracts fund flows. The coefficient on earnings drift, CAR1, is also significantly positive, which is expected because of the way that CAR1 and CAR1_BUY are defined. The coefficient on the growth dummy (GROWTH) is negative but statistically insignificant, so the skills of ITE as measured by CAR1_BUY are not limited to a particular investment style. In unreported analyses where we divide the sample of mutual funds into growth and value funds subsamples, we do not find the return predictability of CAR1_BUY to be significantly different between these two groups of mutual funds. We find that CAR1_BUY is negatively related to RETGAP, but positively related to SIM. Since these variables are all in quarter t, such results could be because of the way the variables are constructed. RETGAP is defined as the actual fund returns minus the hypothetical fund returns based on latest stock holdings. Since CAR1_BUY is associated with positive abnormal returns at earnings announcements in quarter t (see Figure 1), the negative relationship between RETGAP and
19
CAR1_BUY is not surprising. On the other hand, SIM is a measure of fund alpha that uses latest stock holdings. Hence, the positive association between SIM and CAR1_BUY is also not a surprise. We find that CAR1_BUY is negatively related to Fund R2, suggesting that top funds in terms of CAR1_BUY show a greater degree of investment selectivity relative to the multifactor benchmark. On the other hand, CAR1_BUY has a negative association with the industry concentration index. In model 2, we find that CAR1_SELL is negatively related to fund age (AGE), and positively related to total fund load (TOTAL_LOAD). The coefficients on FLOW, CAR1, Fund R2, and ICI are significant, and the signs are all opposite from those in model 1. This confirms that CAR1_BUY and CAR1_SELL are negatively correlated as reported earlier.
4.2. Persistence of measures of fund manager skills of ITE Investment skills of mutual funds, if they do exist, are arguably persistent (see, e.g., Kosowski, Timmermann, Wermers, and White, 2006). Since the ITE skill is a specific form of investment skills, it could also be persistent. We expect that mutual funds, which rank at the top in terms of ITE skills in quarter t, also rank high in the following quarters. To test this, we sort mutual funds into quintiles in each quarter by one of the two measures of fund manager skills of ITE (CAR1_BUY and CAR1_SELL), and compute the simple average of that measure for these fund portfolios in the following four quarters. To avoid a mechanical result, we drop funds that do not disclose stock holdings on a quarterly basis, as their ITE measures are used in the following quarter. Table 3 is about here. Table 3 provides the persistent analysis results. Panel A of Table 3 shows the results for CAR1_BUY. We find that persistence is observed in quarters t+1, t+3, and t+4; therefore, in terms of
20
CAR1_BUY, the top quintile funds continue to do better than the bottom quintile funds in these three quarters. Panel B of Table 3 shows the results for CAR1_SELL. We do not find persistence of CAR1_SELL for mutual funds. This suggests that CAR1_SELL may not be a good measure of fund manager skills of ITE.
4.3. Portfolio analysis of fund return predictability We sort all the sample funds from 1984 to 2009 into 10 portfolios according to the measures of fund manager skills of ITE at the start of each quarter. The funds are equally weighted in the portfolios to ensure the results are not influenced by fund size. We then collect one-quarter-ahead raw returns for these portfolios and, following Kacperczyk et al. (2005) project the portfolio returns to the contemporaneous quarterly risk factor series to calculate the risk factor model-based alphas. Note that the mutual fund returns are after fund expenses, and the 10 portfolios are rebalanced quarterly. Table 4 is about here. Table 4 shows the results of the above portfolio analysis. The raw returns for various groups of mutual funds are positive, but the returns become negative after controlling for the risk factors. This is consistent with Gruber’s (1996) finding that the average mutual fund underperformed passive market indexes by approximately 65 basis points a year from 1985 to 1994. As shown in Panel A of Table 4, in general, the fund returns increase with the portfolio decile ranks of CAR1_BUY, indicating the fund-return predictability of this measure. The decile 10 funds with the highest value of CAR1_BUY earn raw returns of 2.72% per quarter after expenses, which is 34 basis points higher than decile 1 funds. When the systematic risk factors are considered (FF3 and
21
Carhart4), the return difference between the decile 10 funds and the decile 1 funds are 39 and 44 basis points per quarter for the Fama-French three-factor alpha (FF3), and Carhart’s four-factor alpha (Carhart4), respectively. The return spread between the decile 10 funds and decile 1 funds is 22 basis points per quarter, which is statistically significant. There are no significant relations between CAR1_BUY and CT or between CAR1_BUY and AS. The return predictability of CAR1_BUY is economically large and comparable to existing studies. For example, Kacperczyk et al. (2005) find that the difference in after-expense returns is 32 basis points per quarter between the top and bottom decile funds, as sorted by their industry concentration measure after adjusting for Carhart’s four risk factors. Cremers and Petajisto (2009) use the active share measure, which is based on the deviation of holdings from benchmark portfolios, and find that the return difference between the top and bottom quintile funds is 64 basis points per quarter after adjusting for the benchmark index return specific to each fund. In our study, we find the return difference is 44 basis points per quarter between the top and bottom decile funds, and is 31 basis points per quarter between the top and bottom quintile funds, after adjusting for Carhart’s four risk factors. Panel B of Table 4 shows the results when mutual fund portfolios are sorted by CAR1_SELL. We find that this measure does not generate statistically significant return spreads among funds.
4.4. Regression analysis of fund return predictability In this subsection, we perform the quarterly Fama-MacBeth regression (see Fama and MacBeth, 1973) of mutual fund returns on the measure of fund manager skills of ITE from 1984 to 2009. The fund-return measures are based on risk-factor models. We analyze CAR1_BUY and CAR1_SELL
22
separately in the regressions, and control for other factors known to affect mutual fund returns. The regression model is: (12)
Alpha 4 Ft 1 a b CAR1_ BUYt c fund _ chart d drift _ controlt t 1 ,
where Alpha4Ft+1 is the one-quarter ahead fund return; fund_chart represents the fund characteristics’ controls, including the natural logarithm of total net assets under management (TNA), expense ratio (EXP_RATIO), fund turnover (TURNOVER), the natural logarithm of fund age (AGE), total load (TOTAL_LOAD), and fund flow (FLOW) in quarter t.17 To address the concern that our results may be driven by post-earnings announcement drift, we also control for the fund-level EAR (CAR1), or the fund-level EAR direction (Dnews1). Moreover, we control for several fund alpha measures from the literature in some of the models; these measures are also seen in the prior determinant analyses. Table 5 is about here. Panel A of Table 5 shows the results of the Fama-MacBeth regressions of mutual fund returns on CAR1_BUY. As shown in model 1 to model 7, the measure CAR1_BUY is significantly and positively related to future mutual fund returns. The relationship holds when the mutual fund return is measured by Alpha3F, Alpha4F or CS. From the standardized parameter estimates of these quarterly regressions, we find that one standard deviation change in CAR1_BUY produces a 7.9 basis point change in Alpha3F (for model 1) and an 8.7 basis point change in Alpha4F (for model 5).18 17
The fund characteristic variables are based on Yan (2008), Cremers and Petajisto (2009), and Massa and Patgiri (2009).
Note that we use the quarterly decile rank of fund flows in regressions. 18
Here, we standardize the explanatory variables and then run the regressions. The standardized parameter estimates for
these quarterly regressions are not tabulated.
23
For the fund characteristics variables, EXP_RATIO is significantly and negatively related to fund returns, which is consistent with Carhart (1997) who find that net fund returns are negatively correlated with expense levels. AGE is negatively related to mutual fund returns, which is consistent with Table V of Kacperczyk et al. (2005). TOTAL_LOAD is also negatively related to mutual fund returns. The negative associations of both the expense ratio and total load with fund returns net of expenses are not surprising, since Gil-Bazo and Ruiz-Verdú (2009) find that funds that charge higher fees earn lower returns gross of expenses. FLOW is positively related to mutual fund returns, supporting the smart money effect documented by Zheng (1999). We note that the coefficient on FLOW is smaller when fund returns are measured by Alpha4F rather than by Alpha3F. This is consistent with Sapp and Tiwari (2004) in that the smart money effect can be explained by the momentum effect. Two post earnings announcement drift variables are not significantly related to future fund returns. We find that the coefficient estimates for three of the four fund alpha measures from the literature are generally supportive of the prior research. In particular, we find that RETGAP, SIM, and ICI are positively related to future fund alphas. We also find that CAR1_BUY is not significantly related to timing skills (CT) and long-term investment styles (AS). These results suggest that the measure is able to capture the ability of fund managers to select under-valued stocks, but offers little insight on the market timing skills or the average investment style of the funds. Panel B of Table 5 shows the results of quarterly Fama-MacBeth regressions of mutual fund returns on CAR1_SELL. We find that, except in model 6, CAR1_SELL is not significantly related to mutual fund returns measured by Alpha3F, Alpha4F or CS. This, together with the portfolio results in Table 4, suggests that CAR1_SELL is not a strong predictor of future fund returns. In unreported
24
analyses where lagged CAR1_BUY and CAR1_SELL are used, we reach similar findings. Therefore, we focus on the buy trades-based measure, CAR1_BUY, in the subsequent analyses.
4.5. Decomposing fund alphas with respect to earnings We have shown that CAR1_BUY as a measure of ITE predicts future mutual fund returns. However, it is still not known whether this measure is also associated with other skills of fund managers. In this subsection, we decompose fund alphas into two components in their relations to earnings to learn more about the property of this measure. We follow Busse and Tong (2012) by obtaining daily returns of a mutual fund based on its latest stock holdings. The stock weights in the portfolio are updated on a daily basis because of stock price changes. With the daily vector of stock weights, and daily stock returns, daily fund returns can be computed. Next, by replacing stock returns in the fund’s portfolio with market returns on earnings announcement dates, we obtain another time-series of daily fund returns unrelated to earnings (that is, without earnings announcement effects).19 Note that we use the same daily vector of stock weights in both cases. In each quarter, these time series of fund returns are regressed on daily Carhart’s four risk factors to estimate risk-adjusted fund alphas. Total-Alpha is the total fund alpha based on the latest stock holdings; Non-EAR-Alpha is the component of the holdings-based fund alpha unrelated to earnings; and EAR-Alpha, defined as the difference between Total-Alpha and Non-EAR-Alpha, is the component of the holdings-based fund alpha related to earnings. We create two other variables that are the average of holdings-based fund alphas: Non-EAR-Alpha_p is the average of Non-EAR-Alpha 19
Specifically, we assume that the announcing stocks realize market returns on three event days, from day -1 before the earnings announcement date to day 1 after the earnings announcement date.
25
in the past four quarters, and EAR-Alpha_p is the average of EAR-Alpha in the past four quarters. These two variables are used to predict future fund alphas. According to unreported summary statistics, the time-series averages of the cross-sectional means of Non-EAR-Alpha and EAR-Alpha are -15 and 16 basis points per quarter, respectively. Table 6 is about here. In Panel A of Table 6, we show the concurrent association between CAR1_BUY and two components of fund alphas in their relations to earnings. We sort mutual funds into deciles in each quarter, and compute the simple average of the concurrent fund alphas in the same quarter. From this panel, we find that CAR1_BUY is only associated with earnings-related fund alphas (EAR-Alpha), and is not related to the rest of fund alphas (Non-EAR-Alpha). In Panel B of Table 6, we perform quarterly regressions to examine the relative importance of two components of fund alphas to future fund alphas. Before regressions, we winsorize variables regarding holdings-based fund alphas at 1% and 99% in each quarter to minimize the outlier effects. In model 1 and 2, both Non-EAR-Alpha_p and EAR-Alpha_p are significantly related to fund alphas measured by Total-Alpha or Alpha4F. Therefore, both components of fund alphas are important to future fund performance, gross or net of expenses. In model 3, where future Non-EAR-Alpha is the dependent variable, we find that the coefficients on Non-EAR-Alpha_p and EAR-Alpha_p are both significantly positive. In model 4, where future EAR-Alpha is the dependent variable, the coefficient on Non-EAR-Alpha_p is not significantly different from zero and the coefficient on EAR-Alpha_p is significantly positive. Therefore, each component of fund alphas exhibits persistence. The component of fund alphas related to earnings is able to predict the other component of fund alphas in
26
the future. On the other hand, fund alphas unrelated to earnings do not predict future earnings-related fund alphas. Berk and Green (2004) assert that realized fund alphas should be zero. More skilled funds attract new fund flows, which, coupled with decreasing returns to scale, inevitably lower fund alphas. To test this assertion, we use two components of fund alphas to predict fund flows. Before regressions, we winsorize fund flows at 1% and 99% in each quarter to minimize the outlier effects. As fund flows are persistent, we use OLS regressions and report the t-statistics for coefficient estimates based on standard errors clustering by both the quarter and the fund. Table 7 is about here. Table 7 provides the analysis results of fund flows. From model 1 to model 3, we find that these two components of fund alphas predict future fund flows for eight quarters. We compare the coefficients on these two components of fund alphas using the Wald tests. Based on both the coefficient estimates and the Wald test statistics in model 2 and model 3, it appears that earnings-related fund alphas attract fund flows more strongly than the other component of fund alphas. In unreported analyses, we find that earnings-related fund alphas do not decrease with fund size. However, non-earnings-related fund alphas are negatively associated with fund size once we exclude those largest mutual funds (e.g., top 20%).
4.6. Predicting future abnormal stock returns at earnings announcements We establish that CAR1_BUY is important for explaining cross-sectional variation in fund alphas. In portfolio analyses, when adjusting for Carhart’s four risk factors, we find that the top decile funds in terms of CAR1_BUY do not earn significantly positive alphas, and that the bottom
27
decile funds realize significantly negative alphas. Still, fund investors cannot benefit from such fund return predictability, since they cannot short sell under-performing mutual funds. We now ask whether variation of CAR1_BUY among mutual funds can be converted to stock-level signals that might help stock investors to pick outperforming stocks on future earnings announcement dates. This is equivalent to testing the models of Wermers et al. (2012) on the relationship between fund alphas and stock alphas. Following Cohen et al. (2005), we construct stock-quality measures for stocks at the end of each quarter based on fund alpha measures (Alpha4F and CAR1_BUY) in the past four quarters. We denote these stock quality measures as SQ_Alpha4F and SQ_CAR1_BUY, respectively. As an example, the stock quality measure based on CAR1_BUY is constructed as
(13)
SQ _ CAR1_ BUY j ,t i (
wi , j ,t
i wi, j ,t
1 4 CAR1_ BUYi,t k 1 ), 4 k 1
where wi , j ,t is the weight of fund i in stock j at the end of quarter t.
Table 8 is about here. We employ both the regression and portfolio approaches to examine whether stock quality measures predict abnormal stock returns at future earnings announcements. We use three-day EARs as the proxy for abnormal stock returns at earnings announcements (AR).20 In Panel A of Table 8, we show results of quarterly regressions of future AR on stock quality measures, and find that SQ_CAR1_BUY is positively related to future AR in the next four quarters. On the other hand, the
20
Results are qualitatively similar when we use unexpected earnings based on the time-series of earnings.
28
stock quality measure based on Alpha4F is not significantly related to future AR, except in quarter t+2. We infer from such results that ITE skills might be different from other skills of fund managers. In Panel B of Table 8, we sort stocks into quintiles by SQ_CAR1_BUY at the end of each quarter, and report the average AR for the stock portfolios in the following four quarters. We find that stocks with the lowest quality in quintile 1 perform poorly relative to stocks with the highest quality in quintile 5 on future earnings announcement dates. These stocks realize lower AR than stocks in the highest quality quintile by 11, 13, 17 and 14 basis points, respectively, in the next four quarters.
4.7. Additional analyses In this section, we briefly summarize the results of four additional analyses and do not tabulate them. In the first analysis, we follow Kothari and Warner (2001) and simulate 1,200 real-time mutual funds based on historical stock return data from 1984 to 2009. The idea is that if there is a mechanical link between earnings drift and the measure we use, then this link would manifest itself in simulated funds as well. However, based on portfolio results, we do not find that CAR1_BUY predicts fund winners in these simulated mutual funds. In the second analysis, we decompose buy trades into first buys and non-first buys.21 When both measures are entered into the regression models, as in Table 2, we find that the measure based on first buys is informative about fund returns, and the measure based on non-first buys is not. This result is consistent with Baker et al. (2010), and suggests that mutual funds do carry out informed trading, because first buys are clear intentions of buying stocks. 21
If a stock is not owned in the previous quarter and is now owned by a fund, then the stock is a first-buy stock.
29
In the third analysis, we follow Kim and Kim (2003) in creating an empirical proxy for the systematic risk factor of earnings drift. We add this risk factor to the Carhart four-factor model to estimate fund alphas, and find that CAR1_BUY is still informative. This result indicates that the return predictability of fund manager skills of ITE is not likely due to earnings drift. In the fourth analysis, we analyze whether CAR1_BUY is affected by Regulation FD, which was implemented in October 2000. We divide the sample into two sub-periods: (1) 1984 to 2000, and (2) 2001 to 2009. We run regressions on the two sub-samples and find that when Regulation FD is in effect, the association between CAR1_BUY and mutual fund returns is not significant. This is consistent with Baker et al. (2010), who show that mutual funds have been less successful in trades after Regulation FD. 5. Conclusion Many studies in finance and accounting literature use EAR tests to show ITE by investors. Motivated by these studies (specifically, Baker et al., 2010; and Wermers et al., 2012), we examine one measure of skills of ITE for mutual funds based on their buy trades. In this measure, the fund is skilled if they buy stocks that subsequently have high EARs. Using this measure and data from 1984 to 2009, we find that the top decile fund portfolio outperforms the bottom decile fund portfolio by 44 basis points per quarter when adjusted for risk factors (using the Carhart four-factor model), and 22 basis points when adjusted for stock characteristics (Daniel et al., 1997). This measure significantly predicts mutual fund returns in regressions that control for fund characteristics and post earnings announcement drift. The relationship is also robust when lagged fund alpha measures from the literature are used in
30
regressions such as the return gap, the similarity-based fund performance measure, the selectivity measure, and the industry concentration index. We decompose fund alphas with respect to earnings to learn more about the property of this measure. We find that this measure is only associated with earnings-related fund alphas. Such fund alphas seem to attract fund flows more strongly than non-earnings-related fund alphas. Also, supporting the notion that mutual fund alphas can be converted to stock alphas, we find that this measure of fund manager skills of ITE can be used to predict stock returns at future earnings announcements.
31
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Daniel, K., M. Grinblatt, S. Titman, and R. Wermers, 1997, Measuring mutual fund performance with characteristic-based benchmarks, Journal of Finance 52, 1035-1058. Evans, R. B., 2010, Mutual fund incubation, The Journal of Finance 65, 1581-1611. Fama, E. F., 1998, Market efficiency, long-term returns, and behavioral finance, Journal of Financial Economics 49, 283-306. Fama, E. F. , and K. R. French, 2010, Luck versus skill in the cross section of mutual fund returns, Journal of Finance 65, 1915-1947. Fama, E. F., and K. R. French, 1993, Common risk factors in the returns on stocks and bonds, Journal of Financial Economics 33, 3-56. Fama, E. F., and J. D. MacBeth, 1973, Risk, return, and equilibrium: Empirical tests, Journal of Political Economy 81, 607-36. Frazzini, A., and O. A. Lamont, 2007, The earnings announcement premium and trading volume, NBER Working Paper No. w13090. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=986940. Gil-Bazo, J., and P. Ruiz-Verdú, 2009, The relation between price and performance in the mutual fund industry, Journal of Finance 64, 2153-2183. Gruber, M. J., 1996, Another puzzle: The growth in actively managed mutual funds, Journal of Finance 51, 783-810. Jiang, G. J., T. Yao, and T. Yu, 2007, Do mutual funds time the market? Evidence from portfolio holdings, Journal of Financial Economics 86, 724-758. Kacperczyk, M., C. Sialm, and L. Zheng, 2005, On the industry concentration of actively managed equity mutual funds, Journal of Finance 60, 1983-2012. Kacperczyk, M., C. Sialm, and L. Zheng, 2008, Unobserved actions of mutual funds, The Review of Financial Studies 21, 2379-2416. Kacperczyk, M., S. van Nieuwerburgh, and L. Veldkamp, 2014, Time-varying fund manager skill, Journal of Finance 69, 1455-1484. Ke, B., and K. Petroni, 2004, How informed are actively trading institutional investors? Evidence from their trading behavior before a break in a string of consecutive earnings increases, Journal of Accounting Research 42, 895-927. Kim, D., and M. Kim, 2003, A multifactor explanation of post-earnings announcement drift, Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis 38, 383-398. Kim, O., and R. E. Verrecchia, 1997, Pre-announcement and event-period private information, Journal of Accounting and Economics 24, 395-419. Kosowski, R., A. Timmermann, R. Wermers, and H. White, 2006, Can mutual fund "stars" really pick stocks? New evidence from a bootstrap analysis, Journal of Finance 61, 2551-2595. Kothari, S. P., and J. B. Warner, 2001, Evaluating mutual fund performance, Journal of Finance 56, 1985-2010. Massa, M., and R. Patgiri, 2009, Incentives and mutual fund performance: Higher performance or just higher risk taking?, The Review of Financial Studies 22, 1777-1815. Sapp, T., and A. Tiwari, 2004, Does stock return momentum explain the "smart money" effect?, Journal of Finance 59, 2605-2622. Schwarz, C. , and M. E. Potter, 2013, The voluntary reporting of mandatory data: The case of mutual funds, Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2093688. Wermers, R., 2000, Mutual fund performance: An empirical decomposition into stock-picking talent, style, transactions costs, and expenses, Journal of Finance 55, 1655-1695. Wermers, R., 2004, Is money really "smart"? New evidence on the relation between mutual fund flows, manager behavior, and performance persistence, Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=414420.
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Appendix: Variable Definitions This table provides the definitions of our variables in alphabetic order. Variables AGE Alpha1F Alpha3F Alpha4F AR AS CAPM CAR1 CAR1_BUY CAR1_SELL Carhart4 CS CT Dnews1 EAR-Alpha EAR-Alpha_p EXP_RATIO FF3 FLOW FLOW_R Fund R2 GROWTH ICI Non-EAR-Alpha Non-EAR-Alpha_p RET RETGAP SIM SQ_Alpha4F SQ_CAR1_BUY TNA TOTAL_LOAD Total-Alpha TURNOVER
Definition fund age, the number of years since the fund has return records in the CRSP dataset fund alphas based on the market model fund alphas based on the Fama-French three-factor model fund alphas based on the Carhart four-factor model abnormal stock returns at earnings announcements average style measure of fund performance as in Daniel et al. (1997) alphas of fund portfolios based on the market model fund-level earnings announcement returns the buy trades-based measure of fund manager skills of ITE the sell trades-based measure of fund manager skills of ITE alphas of fund portfolios based on the Carhart four-factor model characteristics selectivity measure of fund performance as in Daniel et al. (1997) characteristics timing measure of fund performance as in Daniel et al. (1997) fund-level direction of earnings announcement returns the component of holdings-based fund alphas related to earnings the average of EAR-Alpha in the past four quarters yearly total expense divided by fund assets alphas of fund portfolios based on the Fama-French three-factor model quarterly fund flow quarterly decile rank of fund flow the selectivity measure of mutual funds as in Amihud and Goyenko (2013) a dummy for the growth fund the industry concentration index measure as in Kacperczyk et al. (2005) the component of holdings-based fund alphas unrelated to earnings the average of Non-EAR-Alpha in the past four quarters the raw mutual fund return the return gap measure of fund performance as in Kacperczyk et al. (2008) the similarity-based fund performance measure (SIM) of Cohen et al. (2005) the stock quality measure based on Alpha4F following Cohen et al. (2005) the stock quality measure based on CAR1_BUY following Cohen et al. (2005) total net assets under management total load charged by the fund total fund alpha based on the latest stock holdings as in Busse and Tong (2012) fund’s stock holdings turnover rate
35
Table 1: Summary Statistics This table contains pooled summary statistics for our sample. RET is the raw mutual fund return in percentage. TNA is total net assets under management. EXP_RATIO is yearly total expense divided by fund assets. TURNOVER is the fund’s stock holdings turnover rate provided by CRSP. AGE is the number of years since the fund has return records in the CRSP dataset. TOTAL_LOAD is the total load charged by the fund. FLOW is the quarterly fund flow. CAR1 is the fund-level earnings announcement returns (EARs) and defined as the value-weighted average of the most recent EAR of all stocks held by the fund at the start of the quarter. Dnews1 is the fund-level EAR direction. CAR1_BUY is the measure of fund manager skills of ITE based on the buy trades. CAR1_SELL is defined in a similar way, but it is based on the sell trades. Alpha1F, Alpha3F, and Alpha4F are fund alphas based on the market model, the Fama-French three-factor model, and the Carhart four-factor model, respectively. Characteristics selectivity (CS), Characteristics timing (CT), and Average style (AS) are the stock characteristic-based measures of fund performance (Daniel et al., 1997). VARIABLES 3,131 distinct funds RET (% per quarter) TNA (Mil) EXP_RATIO TURNOVER (%) AGE (years) TOTAL_LOAD (%) FLOW (%) CAR1 (%) Dnews1 CAR1_BUY(%) CAR1_SELL (%) Alpha1F (% per quarter) Alpha3F (% per quarter) Alpha4F (% per quarter) CS (% per quarter) CT (% per quarter) AS (% per quarter)
MEAN
STD
P25
Median
P75
N
1.90 1183 1.26 85 13.40 1.30 1.73 0.76 0.53 -0.02 0.08 -0.06 -0.20 -0.24 0.10 0.01 2.24
10.63 4598 0.47 100 10.34 1.76 15.10 2.99 0.20 2.07 2.11 4.90 4.24 4.11 3.79 2.00 9.79
-2.97 69 0.97 32 5.75 0.00 -4.19 -0.06 0.47 -1.04 -0.95 -2.28 -2.09 -2.07 -1.53 -0.85 -2.86
2.78 222 1.21 63 9.92 0.46 -0.94 0.61 0.53 -0.03 0.05 -0.14 -0.25 -0.26 0.05 -0.03 3.09
7.87 753 1.50 111 17.75 2.30 3.70 1.45 0.60 0.98 1.06 2.08 1.62 1.55 1.64 0.79 8.23
97,279 97,279 97,279 97,279 97,279 97,279 97,279 97,278 97,278 97,252 97,235 97,279 97,279 97,279 96,335 94,364 94,364
36
Table 2: Determinant analysis We perform OLS regressions to show determinants for CAR1_BUY and CAR1_SELL. TNA, EXP_RATIO, TURNOVER, AGE, TOTAL_LOAD are fund characteristics variables. FLOW is the quarterly fund flow. CAR1 is the earnings drift variable. GROWTH is a dummy variable indicating the fund is a growth fund according to its CRSP fund objective. RETGAP is the return gap measure of Kacperczyk et al. (2008). SIM is the similarity-based fund performance measure of Cohen et al. (2005). Fund R2 is the selectivity measure of Amihud and Goyenko (2013). ICI is the industry concentration index of Kacperczyk et al. (2005). All variables are in quarter t except TNA, which is in quarter t-1.The t-statistics are in square brackets, and are based on standard errors clustering by both the quarter and the fund. ***, **, and * indicate statistical significance at the 1%, 5%, and 10% levels, respectively. VARIABLES Intercept Log (TNA) EXP_RATIO TURNOVER Log (AGE) TOTAL_LOAD FLOW CAR1 GROWTH RETGAP SIM Fund R2 ICI Observations R2
(1) CAR1_BUY -6.452 [-0.46] 0.725 [0.69] 3.585 [1.24] -2.930* [-1.89] 3.13 [1.55] -1.027 [-1.40] 2.380*** [6.15] 9.318*** [6.71] -3.001 [-1.23] -3.544*** [-2.95] 3.365* [1.69] -7.756* [-1.95] -24.092* [-1.82] 85,286 0.022
37
(2) CAR1_SELL -0.766 [-0.06] -0.406 [-0.43] -2.121 [-0.71] -1.948 [-1.42] -3.788** [-2.20] 1.293* [1.75] -0.822** [-2.37] -3.808*** [-5.01] 3.296 [1.26] 0.284 [0.12] -2.042 [-1.11] 9.023* [1.96] 27.136** [2.08] 85,260 0.005
Table 3: Persistence of measures of fund manager skills of ITE This table shows persistence of the measure of fund manager skills of ITE. In Panel A, we sort funds into quintiles in each quarter according to CAR1_BUY, and compute the simple average CAR1_BUY for these quintile portfolios in the following four quarters. In Panel B, we conduct similar analyses on CAR1_SELL. The t-statistics are in square brackets. ***, **, and * indicate statistical significance at the 1%, 5%, and 10% levels, respectively. Panel A: Average CAR1_BUY for the quintile fund portfolios sorted by CAR1_BUY Rank 1 2 3 4 5 5th Quintile - 1st Quintile
t+1 -7.39 [-1.32] -5.36 [-1.00] -6.33 [-1.21] -1.58 [-0.33] -0.96 [-0.19] 6.43** [2.11]
t+2 -5.09 [-0.93] -6.61 [-1.42] -5.57 [-1.02] -5.39 [-1.06] -3.06 [-0.55] 2.03 [0.54]
t+3 -7.34 [-1.49] -7.22 [-1.41] -4.76 [-1.05] -3.99 [-0.76] 0.66 [0.12] 8.00** [2.62]
t+4 -9.32 [-1.62] -7.48 [-1.44] -4.30 [-0.91] -4.13 [-0.82] -3.67 [-0.67] 5.65** [2.25]
Panel B: Average CAR1_SELL for the quintile fund portfolios sorted by CAR1_SELL Rank 1 2 3 4 5 5th Quintile - 1st Quintile
t+1 -3.77 [-0.74] -7.53 [-1.37] -9.57 [-1.84] -2.18 [-0.44] 1.37 [0.26] 5.14 [1.59]
t+2 -2.27 [-0.42] -6.80 [-1.32] -6.58 [-1.27] -6.59 [-1.32] -3.48 [-0.66] -1.21 [-0.35]
38
t+3 -0.80 [-0.14] -4.39 [-0.99] -5.43 [-1.03] -8.97 [-1.84] -2.89 [-0.52] -2.09 [-0.70]
t+4 -4.84 [-0.95] -4.00 [-0.82] -4.64 [-0.87] -8.89 [-1.59] -6.67 [-1.17] -1.82 [-0.52]
Table 4: Portfolio returns sorted by the measures of ITE This table presents quarterly returns for 10 equally weighted fund portfolios sorted by CAR1_BUY (Panel A) and CAR1_SELL (Panel B) from 1984 to 2009. Fund portfolios are rebalanced quarterly. RET is the raw mutual fund return. CAPM is the alpha for fund portfolios based on the market model. FF3 is the alpha for fund portfolios based on the Fama-French three-factor model. Carhart4 is the alpha for fund portfolios based on the Carhart four-factor model. These alphas are the intercept from regressing excess returns (over risk free interest rate) of fund portfolios on the contemporaneous risk factors from 1984 to 2009. RET, CAPM, FF3, and Carhart4 are measured in percentage per quarter. CS, CT and AS are the measures of characteristics selectivity, characteristics timing and average style, respectively. The t-statistics are in square brackets. ***, **, and * indicate statistical significance at the 1%, 5%, and 10% levels, respectively. Panel A: Portfolios sorted by CAR1_BUY CAR1_BUY deciles 1
RET 2.37 [2.59] 2 2.53 [2.96] 3 2.54 [2.99] 4 2.51 [2.98] 5 2.45 [2.98] 6 2.59 [3.19] 7 2.70 [3.31] 8 2.64 [3.23] 9 2.70 [3.24] 10 2.72 [3.14] 2nd Half - 1st Half 0.19* [1.82] 5th Quintile - 1st Quintile 0.26 [1.55] 10th Decile - 1st Decile 0.34 [1.65]
CAPM -0.52 [-2.46] -0.26 [-1.65] -0.21 [-1.5] -0.22 [-1.37] -0.27 [-1.74] -0.12 [-0.66] -0.01 [-0.05] -0.10 [-0.48] -0.07 [-0.28] -0.14 [-0.46] 0.21* [1.77] 0.29 [1.54] 0.38* [1.67]
FF3 Carhart4 -0.36 -0.43 [-2.64] [-2.94] -0.19 -0.27 [-1.67] [-2.33] -0.20 -0.23 [-1.77] [-2.06] -0.19 -0.26 [-1.53] [-2.12] -0.26 -0.34 [-2.65] [-3.47] -0.15 -0.19 [-1.22] [-1.52] -0.03 -0.10 [-0.24] [-0.81] -0.07 -0.16 [-0.56] [-1.22] 0.02 -0.11 [0.13] [-0.66] 0.03 0.01 [0.17] [0.08] 0.20** 0.20** [2.33] [2.20] 0.30** 0.31** [2.10] [2.04] 0.39** 0.44** [2.22] [2.38]
39
CS 0.03 [0.32] 0.06 [0.73] 0.09 [1.14] 0.03 [0.45] 0.09 [1.15] 0.05 [0.60] 0.19 [2.22] 0.13 [1.15] 0.12 [1.03] 0.26 [1.62] 0.09 [1.47] 0.14 [1.60] 0.22* [1.93]
CT -0.01 [-0.07] 0.01 [0.10] 0.02 [0.25] 0.04 [0.47] 0.04 [0.51] 0.03 [0.43] 0.05 [0.61] -0.01 [-0.12] 0.02 [0.24] 0.02 [0.24] 0.00 [0.05]
0.02 [0.63] 0.03 [0.68]
AS 3.02 [3.61] 2.99 [3.58] 3.05 [3.60] 3.00 [3.61] 3.09 [3.68] 3.09 [3.73] 3.12 [3.76] 3.09 [3.71] 3.07 [3.71] 3.01 [3.54] 0.05 [0.84] 0.03 [0.37] -0.01 [-0.12]
Panel B: Portfolios sorted by CAR1_SELL CAR1_SELL deciles 1
RET 2.71 [3.23] 2 2.60 [3.17] 3 2.69 [3.29] 4 2.52 [3.10] 5 2.58 [3.09] 6 2.49 [2.95] 7 2.49 [2.96] 8 2.54 [2.99] 9 2.54 [2.97] 10 2.57 [2.88] 2nd Half - 1st Half -0.09 [-1.02] 5th Quintile - 1st Quintile -0.10 [-0.62] 10th Decile - 1st Decile -0.14 [-0.69]
CAPM -0.10 [-0.36] -0.14 [-0.6] -0.05 [-0.23] -0.19 [-1.03] -0.15 [-1.07] -0.27 [-1.61] -0.25 [-1.61] -0.23 [-1.74] -0.24 [-1.45] -0.29 [-1.53] -0.13 [-1.23] -0.14 [-0.78] -0.19 [-0.81]
FF3 Carhart4 CS -0.02 -0.09 0.10 [-0.09] [-0.55] [0.82] -0.09 -0.21 0.11 [-0.54] [-1.37] [0.94] -0.05 -0.16 0.15 [-0.4] [-1.26] [1.58] -0.20 -0.24 0.05 [-1.69] [-1.97] [0.64] -0.12 -0.18 0.14 [-1.10] [-1.68] [1.60] -0.24 -0.29 0.05 [-2.19] [-2.41] [0.51] -0.22 -0.34 0.10 [-1.97] [-3.23] [1.13] -0.18 -0.18 0.03 [-1.67] [-1.49] [0.49] -0.16 -0.24 0.13 [-1.24] [-1.79] [1.39] -0.15 -0.17 0.18 [-1.13] [-1.12] [1.73] -0.10 -0.07 -0.01 [-1.44] [-0.86] [-0.27] -0.10 -0.05 0.05 [-0.82] [-0.38] [0.58] -0.13 -0.08 0.08 [-0.86] [-0.43] [0.70]
40
CT 0.04 [0.46] 0.01 [0.16] 0.04 [0.53] 0.04 [0.54] 0.04 [0.49] 0.01 [0.13] 0.00 [0.01] 0.03 [0.40] 0.00 [-0.02] -0.01 [-0.07] -0.03 [-1.38] -0.03 [-0.84] -0.04 [-0.95]
AS 3.12 [3.80] 3.07 [3.70] 3.05 [3.66] 3.08 [3.66] 3.07 [3.67] 3.01 [3.56] 3.01 [3.57] 3.08 [3.71] 3.03 [3.57] 3.04 [3.67] -0.05 [-0.90] -0.06 [-0.68] -0.08 [-0.76]
Table 5: Fama-MacBeth regression of mutual fund returns This table shows Fama-MacBeth regressions of future mutual fund returns on the measure of fund manager skills of ITE from 1984 to 2009. Alpha3F is the conditional alpha from the Fama-French three-factor model estimated using the fund’s previous 24-months return history. Alpha4F is the conditional alpha from the Carhart four-factor model estimated similar to Alpha3F. CS, CT and AS are the measures of characteristics selectivity, characteristics timing and average style, respectively. TNA, EXP_RATIO, TURNOVER, AGE, TOTAL_LOAD are fund-characteristic variables. FLOW_R is the quarterly decile rank of fund flow, FLOW. CAR1 and Dnews1 are earnings drift variables. RETGAP is the return gap measure of Kacperczyk et al. (2008). SIM is the similarity-based fund performance measure of Cohen et al. (2005). Fund R2 is the selectivity measure of Amihud and Goyenko (2013). ICI is the industry concentration index of Kacperczyk et al. (2005). The t-statistics are in square brackets. ***, **, and * indicate statistical significance at the 1%, 5%, and 10% levels, respectively. Panel A: Regression of mutual fund returns on CAR1_BUY (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) VARIABLES Alpha3F Alpha3F Alpha3F Alpha4F Alpha4F Alpha4F CS CAR1_BUY 0.044*** 0.039** 0.039** 0.051*** 0.050*** 0.050*** 0.034** [2.74] [2.38] [2.58] [3.17] [3.01] [3.22] [2.05] Log (TNA) 0.003 0.002 0.011 -0.023 -0.024 -0.010 -0.016 [0.17] [0.08] [0.58] [-1.41] [-1.44] [-0.55] [-0.85] EXP_RATIO -0.132** -0.138** -0.174*** -0.174*** -0.176*** -0.228*** 0.031 [-2.09] [-2.22] [-2.64] [-2.75] [-2.78] [-3.39] [0.51] TURNOVER 0.137** 0.129** 0.094 0.031 0.027 0.007 0.067 [2.17] [2.12] [1.48] [0.6] [0.53] [0.14] [1.35] Log (AGE) -0.031 -0.032 -0.054 -0.033 -0.031 -0.054* 0.031 [-0.85] [-0.87] [-1.55] [-1.03] [-0.96] [-1.82] [1.06] TOTAL_LOAD -0.011 -0.009 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006 0.001 -0.002 [-0.97] [-0.83] [-0.41] [-0.47] [-0.47] [0.08] [-0.16] FLOW_R 0.047*** 0.046*** 0.036*** 0.032*** 0.033*** 0.025** 0.030** [3.32] [3.34] [2.81] [2.88] [3.00] [2.41] [2.17] CAR1 0.025 0.006 [0.76] [0.21] Dnews1 0.058 -0.056 [0.17] [-0.19] RETGAP 0.099*** 0.123*** [3.25] [4.53] SIM 44.008*** 30.565*** [3.41] [2.64] Fund R2 0.005 -0.020 [0.05] [-0.18] ICI 0.826** 0.781** [2.33] [2.18] Fund objective Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes fixed effect # of periods 104 104 104 104 104 104 104 Observations 97,252 97,251 86,878 97,252 97,251 86,878 96,322 R2 0.069 0.077 0.133 0.06 0.067 0.124 0.063
41
(8) CT 0.002 [0.25] 0.000 [-0.06] -0.009 [-0.34] 0.024 [1.28] -0.010 [-0.55] -0.004 [-1.03] 0.008 [1.16]
(9) AS -0.001 [-0.07] -0.002 [-0.16] 0.067 [1.11] 0.037 [0.90] 0.034 [1.21] -0.006 [-0.57] -0.009 [-0.69]
Yes
Yes
104 94,351 0.063
104 94,351 0.205
Panel B: Regression of mutual fund returns on CAR1_SELL (1) VARIABLES Alpha3F CAR1_SELL -0.013 [-0.88] Other control variables the same as in Yes the matching model of panel A Fund Yes objective fixed effect # of periods 104 Observations 97,235 R2 0.068
(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Alpha3F Alpha3F Alpha4F Alpha4F Alpha4F -0.011 -0.015 -0.02 -0.019 -0.022* [-0.74] [-1.17] [-1.49] [-1.42] [-1.80]
(8) CT -0.004 [-0.79]
(9) AS -0.005 [-0.38]
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
104 97,234 0.076
104 86,852 0.132
104 97,235 0.058
104 97,234 0.065
104 86,852 0.123
104 96,295 0.062
104 94,325 0.062
104 94,325 0.204
42
(7) CS 0.009 [0.63]
Table 6: Decomposing fund alphas with respect to earnings We obtain daily returns of the mutual fund based on its latest stock holdings, as in Busse and Tong (2012). By replacing stock returns in the fund’s portfolio with market returns on earnings announcement dates, we obtain another time series of daily fund returns without earnings announcement effects. In each quarter, these time series of fund returns are regressed on daily risk factors to derive risk-adjusted fund alphas. Total-Alpha is the total fund alpha based on the latest stock holdings; Non-EAR-Alpha is the component of holdings-based fund alpha unrelated to earnings; and EAR-Alpha, defined as the difference between Total-Alpha and Non-EAR-Alpha, is the component of holdings-based fund alpha related to earnings. Non-EAR-Alpha_p is the average of Non-EAR-Alpha in the past four quarters. EAR-Alpha_p is the average of EAR-Alpha in the past four quarters. In Panel A, we sort our sample of mutual funds into deciles by CAR1_BUY. We compute the simple average of the concurrent fund alphas for each decile of mutual funds. In Panel B, we perform quarterly Fama-MacBeth regressions of fund alphas. Note that Alpha4F is the quarterly fund alpha measure based on the Carhart four-factor model. TNA, EXP_RATIO, TURNOVER, AGE, TOTAL_LOAD are fund characteristics variables. FLOW is the quarterly fund flow, and CAR1 is the earnings drift variable. The t-statistics are in square brackets. ***, **, and * indicate statistical significance at the 1%, 5%, and 10% levels, respectively. Panel A: Association between CAR1_BUY and fund alphas CAR1_BUY deciles 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10-1
Total-Alpha -0.57 [-4.55] -0.31 [-3.11] -0.26 [-2.81] -0.14 [-1.36] -0.07 [-0.73] 0.03 [0.33] 0.16 [1.82] 0.28 [2.85] 0.42 [3.78] 0.64 [5.16] 1.21*** [10.03]
Non-EAR-Alpha -0.14 [-1.05] -0.11 [-1.08] -0.19 [-1.96] -0.14 [-1.34] -0.16 [-1.72] -0.16 [-1.84] -0.14 [-1.51] -0.10 [-1.02] -0.09 [-0.84] -0.12 [-0.98] 0.02 [0.17]
43
EAR-Alpha -0.43 [-11.15] -0.20 [-6.58] -0.08 [-2.59] 0.01 [0.18] 0.09 [3.21] 0.19 [6.77] 0.30 [10.68] 0.38 [12.12] 0.52 [15.54] 0.75 [17.89] 1.18*** [26.21]
Panel B: Quarterly regressions of fund alphas (1)
0.166*** [5.69] 0.201*** [3.07] -0.007 [-0.43] -0.032 [-0.60] -0.004 [-0.09] -0.055** [-2.09] -0.006 [-0.70] -0.005** [-2.20] -0.005 [-0.20]
(2) Alpha4F (t+1) 0.145*** [3.96] 0.128** [2.12] -0.023 [-1.40] -0.216*** [-3.51] 0.014 [0.29] -0.019 [-0.59] 0.000 [-0.01] 0.002 [0.62] 0.014 [0.56]
(3) Non-EAR-Alpha (t+1) 0.164*** [6.08] 0.149** [2.37] -0.009 [-0.65] -0.020 [-0.41] -0.009 [-0.23] -0.045* [-1.83] -0.008 [-1.08] -0.005** [-2.20] -0.006 [-0.28]
(4) EAR-Alpha (t+1) 0.002 [0.29] 0.052*** [3.23] 0.003 [0.69] -0.012 [-0.88] 0.005 [0.60] -0.010 [-1.38] 0.002 [0.67] 0.000 [-0.85] 0.001 [0.26]
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
104 95,237 0.107
104 97,256 0.099
104 95,237 0.109
104 95,237 0.077
VARIABLES
Total-Alpha (t+1)
Non-EAR-Alpha_p EAR-Alpha_p Log (TNA) EXP_RATIO TURNOVER Log (AGE) TOTAL_LOAD FLOW CAR1 Fund objective fixed effect # of periods Observations R2
44
Table 7: Predicting fund flows Non-EAR-Alpha_p is the average of non-earnings-related fund alphas in the past four quarters; EAR-Alpha_p is the average of earnings-related fund alphas in the past four quarters. These two variables are lagged by 4, 8 and 12 quarters in model 2 to 4, respectively. TNA, EXP_RATIO, TURNOVER, AGE, TOTAL_LOAD are fund characteristics variables. FLOW is the quarterly fund flow. FLOW (t-4:t-1) is the cumulative fund flow from quarter t-4 to quarter t-1. We test whether coefficient estimates on EAR-Alpha_p and Non-EAR-Alpha_p are significantly different using the Wald test. The t-statistics are in square brackets and are based on standard errors clustering by both the quarter and the fund. ***, **, and * indicate statistical significance at the 1%, 5%, and 10% levels, respectively. Variables Non-EAR-Alpha_p (t) EAR-Alpha_p (t) Non-EAR-Alpha_p (t-4) EAR-Alpha_p (t-4) Non-EAR-Alpha_p (t-8) EAR-Alpha_p (t-8) Non-EAR-Alpha_p (t-12) EAR-Alpha_p (t-12) Log (TNA) EXP_RATIO TURNOVER Log (AGE) TOTAL_LOAD FLOW (t) FLOW (t-4: t-1) Quarterly fixed effect Fund objective fixed effect Observations R2 The Wald test statistic Associated P-value
(1) FLOW (t+1) 0.766*** [9.14] 1.004*** [6.23] -0.192*** [-4.33] -0.396** [-2.29] 0.29 [1.63] -1.068*** [-9.64] 0.028 [0.67] 0.220*** [10.47] 0.025*** [8.53] Yes Yes 96,252 0.1674 1.5254 0.217
(2) FLOW (t+1)
(3) FLOW (t+1)
(4) FLOW (t+1)
0.291*** [4.44] 0.653*** [4.82]
0.130** [2.35] 0.482*** [3.76]
-0.075 [-1.58] 0.058 [0.53] -0.105** [-2.32] -0.249 [-1.26] 0.124 [0.73] -0.822*** [-7.14] -0.018 [-0.43] 0.216*** [8.98] 0.029*** [8.37] Yes Yes 80,251 0.1389 1.0596 0.303
-0.188*** [-4.31] -0.364** [-2.07] 0.298 [1.63] -1.039*** [-9.48] 0.022 [0.56] 0.233*** [10.53] 0.025*** [8.18] Yes Yes 94,653 0.1574 6.4357 0.011
45
-0.156*** [-3.38] -0.347* [-1.9] 0.292 [1.63] -0.961*** [-8.51] 0.003 [0.07] 0.229*** [9.90] 0.027*** [8.22] Yes Yes 89,114 0.1523 6.1314 0.013
Table 8: Predicting abnormal stock returns at earnings announcements Following Cohen et al. (2005), we construct stock-quality measures for common stocks at the end of each quarter based on fund alpha measures (Alpha4F and CAR1_BUY) in the past four quarters, and denote them as SQ_Alpha4F and SQ_CAR1_BUY, respectively. We use these two variables to predict abnormal returns at earnings announcements (AR) in the next four quarters. BETA, BM and ME are stock beta, the book-to-market ratio, and market value of firm equity, respectively. In Panel A, we perform quarterly Fama-MacBeth regressions of AR on stock quality measures. In Panel B, we sort stocks into quintile portfolios by SQ_CAR1_BUY and report the average AR for these stock portfolios in the next four quarters. The t-statistics are in square brackets. ***, **, and * indicate statistical significance at the 1%, 5%, and 10% levels, respectively. Panel A: Quarterly regressions of AR on stock quality measures
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) VARIABLES AR (t+1) AR (t+1) AR (t+2) AR (t+2) AR (t+3) AR (t+3) AR (t+4) AR (t+4) INTERCEPT
0.189*** 0.085 0.183*** 0.024 0.179*** -0.018 0.193*** -0.013 [5.01] [0.59] [4.50] [0.16] [4.53] [-0.12] [4.81] [-0.08] SQ_Alpha4F 0.017 0.016 0.022* 0.022* 0.018 0.022 0.005 0.009 [1.19] [1.13] [1.67] [1.72] [1.30] [1.61] [0.35] [0.66] SQ_CAR1_BUY 0.075** 0.066** 0.094*** 0.080*** 0.080** 0.066* 0.124*** 0.116*** [2.49] [2.20] [3.09] [2.63] [2.27] [1.93] [3.24] [3.03] BETA -0.098 -0.071 -0.062 -0.033 [-1.03] [-0.75] [-0.64] [-0.33] Log (BM) 0.078 0.095* 0.103** 0.089* [1.6] [1.96] [2.16] [1.81] Log (ME) 0.027** 0.029** 0.033*** 0.031** [2.35] [2.48] [2.96] [2.54] # of periods 104 104 104 104 104 104 104 104 Observations 247,832 247,810 247,017 246,995 246,081 246,057 245,160 245,135 R2 0.001 0.005 0.001 0.005 0.001 0.005 0.002 0.005
Panel B: Average AR for stocks sorted by SQ_CAR1_BUY SQ_CAR1_BUY quintiles 1 2 3 4 5 5th Quintile - 1st Quintile
t+1 0.10 [1.71] 0.18 [3.72] 0.20 [4.29] 0.26 [5.67] 0.21 [3.59] 0.11* [1.93]
t+2 0.09 [1.79] 0.15 [3.23] 0.24 [4.80] 0.26 [5.25] 0.22 [4.22] 0.13** [2.54]
46
t+3 0.10 [1.81] 0.17 [4.03] 0.20 [4.29] 0.21 [3.80] 0.27 [4.43] 0.17*** [2.99]
t+4 0.13 [2.18] 0.11 [2.31] 0.24 [5.60] 0.24 [4.58] 0.27 [4.27] 0.14** [2.20]
Figure 1: Timeline for defining the measure
,
−
,
Announcement return, Fund return, Rt+1 ,
Quarter t-2
Quarter t-1
Quarter t
47
Quarter t+1
Quarter t+2