Integrated coastal management and sustainable tourism: A case study of the reef-based SCUBA dive industry from Thailand

Ocean & Coastal Management 95 (2014) 138e146

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Integrated coastal management and sustainable tourism: A case study of the reef-based SCUBA dive industry from Thailand Panwad Wongthong*, Nick Harvey Discipline of Geography, Environment and Population, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Available online 4 May 2014

Coastal ecosystems are amongst the most productive ecosystems in the world. Reef-based tourism, one of the multiple uses in coastal zones, has become more important in terms of magnitude and contribution to national economies as well as to the wellbeing of local communities. However, in the absence of proper controls and enforcement, unplanned tourism growth can cause environmental degradation and social and cultural conflicts which undermine the long-term sustainability of the tourism industry. The concepts of integrated coastal management (ICM) and sustainable tourism development (STD) have been proposed as the way forward in dealing with such constraints and pressure. Nevertheless, given the scale of tourism in the world’s coastal zone, one of the greatest challenges faced by coastal managers is giving tourism development a proper place within ICM. This study provides insight into key issues confronting the management of reef-based dive tourism and proposes a way forward for sustainable dive tourism based on the frameworks of ICM and STD. Koh Tao in Thailand, which is well-known as the busiest diving center in Southeast Asia, was selected as a case study. Data collection was undertaken using a mixed social research method of surveys and interviews. The results show that the dominance of dive tourism over other land-based and marine-based sectors, a lack of government support, and a complexity of social factors have made the implementation of ICM and STD in Koh Tao nearly impossible. In response, the study suggests a new paradigm for the management of reef-based SCUBA dive tourism integrating the management and governance frameworks of ICM and STD with the voluntary management strategy and community-oriented approach. The study concludes that the internationally accepted management frameworks are not always transferable. Each locale must select or adapt appropriate strategies for its own needs considering the biophysical, socio-cultural and managerial settings. Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Coastal and marine ecosystems are amongst the most productive ecosystems in the world (UNEP, 2006). Total global coastlines exceed 1.6 million kilometers and over one-third of the world’s population live within 100 km of the coast (Small and Nicholls, 2003). Population density in coastal areas is nearly three times that of inland densities (Burke et al., 2011). Fertile coastal lowlands, abundant marine resources, water transportation, intrinsic values and esthetic beauty have motivated coastal habitation. Given the wide range of services coastal and marine ecosystems provide to

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ61 8 8313 5645. E-mail address: [email protected] (P. Wongthong). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2014.04.004 0964-5691/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

human society, dependence on coastal zones is escalating around the world (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2009). SCUBA (Self-contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus) dive tourism, one of the industries in the coastal zones, has grown very rapidly to attract millions of people whose interest lies in underwater activities. Technology is largely responsible for this change, through continuous invention of more efficient and safer equipment and transport (Musa and Dimmock, 2013). In addition to technological advances, an increased interest in nature and environmental appreciation (Burke et al., 2011; The Global Forum Oceans, 1999), and the accessibility to remote coral reef areas (Davis and Tisdell, 1995; Harriott et al., 1997), diving in coral environments has become a highly significant component of the international tourism market (Dimmock, 2007; Garrod and Gössling, 2008). In tropical maritime countries and territories where coral reefs, marine wildlife, warm water, white sandy beaches and

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tropical weather are major attractions, coral reef tourism plays a significant role in their economies. The world’s top reef-based diving destinations include Australia’s Great Barrier Reef (GBR), the Red Sea, East Africa, the Bahamas and the Caribbean, Hawaii, Maldives, and Southeast Asia, where the development began late but at a faster rate than elsewhere (Thia-Eng, 2006; Cope, 2003; Gormsen, 1997; Hall, 2001; Wilkinson, 1996; Wong, 1990, 1998). Reef-based tourism accounts for more than 15% of gross domestic product (GDP) in at least 23 countries and territories. A wide range in economic values of reef associated tourism has been reported in a recent summary of 29 published studies, from about 2 USD to 1 million USD per hectare per year depending on the accessibility of places and the intensity of tourism development (Burke et al., 2011). Based on the Professional Association of Dive Instructors (PADI), the world’s largest dive training organization, at least 30 million people have been certified to dive worldwide and over 900 000 new certifications per year have been added to active divers since 2001 (Lew, 2013). Dive tourism, as other types of tourism, can bring economic benefits, improve quality of life at the destination, foster community pride, allow cultural exchange, reduce over-exploitation and promote conservation. However, as tourism develops, substantial socio-economic and environmental costs become more explicit (Davenport and Davenport, 2006; Dodds, 2012). A significant number of studies (e.g. Barker and Roberts, 2004; Daldeniz and Hampton, 2012; Dearden et al., 2007; Musa and Dimmock, 2013; Rouphael and Inglis, 2001; Walters and Samways, 2001; Worachananant et al., 2008; Zakai and Chadwick-Furman, 2002) have confirmed that coral reefs around the world have been negatively affected by intensive recreational diving pressure, particularly where dive tourism is allowed to developed in an unregulated manner (Bryant et al., 1998; Burke et al., 2011; Graci and Dodds, 2010; Hawkins and Roberts, 1992). The impact of continued degradation of coral reefs has led to global concern over the future of reef-based tourism (Andersson, 2007). As coral reefs are the major attraction for SCUBA divers (Tratalosa and Austin, 2001; Worachananant et al., 2008), the degradation of coral reefs can potentially lead to the dissatisfaction of tourists (Craig-Smith et al., 2006) and subsequently pose negative impacts on local tourism businesses (Marshall and Schuttenberg, 2006). In order to minimize tourism-induced problems and secure both the sustainability of the tourism industry and coastal resources used by other sectors, it is crucial that tourism is planned, developed and operated within the context of sustainable development principles (Bramwell and Lane, 1993; UNESCAP, 2001). In this regard, the concepts of sustainable tourism development (STD) for development guidelines and integrated coastal management (ICM) for management interventions have recently gained research momentum (Graci and Dodds, 2010; Marafa and Chau, 2014). These two conceptual frameworks have been influenced by the principles of sustainable development formulated in Agenda 21, at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 (UNEP and UNWTO, 2005), and have been proposed as the way forward in dealing with the increasing constraints in coastal zones and accommodating growing pressures from tourism development (Auyong, 1995; Kanji, 2006; Murray, 2007; Phillips and Jones, 2006; Westmacott, 2002). In combining the descriptions from various sources (e.g. Butler, 1993; Hardy and Beeton, 2001; UNWTO, 1998, 2004), the target of sustainable tourism is to maintain an appropriate balance between tourism, environmental conservation, economic development, and satisfying the needs and desires of tourists and local residents. On the other hand, the ICM approach focuses on the key elements of ‘integration’ in coastal management including: intersectoral/horizontal integration (integration among different coastal and marine sectors); intergovernmental/vertical integration (integration of all

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levels of governmental and non-governmental organizations); spatial integration (integration between the land, ocean and coast); science-management integration; and international integration (Cicin-Sain and Knecht, 1998; GESAMP, 1996; Sorensen, 1997). Despite different definitions, STD and ICM are often seen as two parallel, complementary and strongly interlinked processes (Bramwell et al., 1998; UNEP-DTIE, 2009) as both of the concepts emphasize the need for integrated approaches, good communication and participation in decision-making and resource management processes (Carter et al., 2001). Moreover, STD and ICM are two sustainability frameworks that emphasize the importance of not only the ecological component but also the social, economic and managerial elements of sustainability. In most of the studies however the coastal management literature and the sustainable tourism literature are treated separately rather than in an integrated manner (Bramwell et al., 1998; Caffyn and Jobbins, 2003). To address the above research gaps, this study aimed to: (1) provide insight into key issues confronting the sustainability of reef-based SCUBA dive tourism by incorporating the human dimension and social factors of the tourism industry into the management of physicaleecological impacts and (2) recommend approaches to sustainable management of dive tourism. As dive tourism has been developed in Southeast Asia (SEA) at a faster rate than other regions, Koh Tao in Thailand, which is well-known as the busiest diving center in SEA, was selected as a case study. To address these aims, we investigated: (1) the residents’ perception of dive tourism development and its impacts; (2) what variables contribute to the existing problems; (3) whether STD and ICM are applicable to the management of dive tourism in Koh Tao and (4) what practical management strategies are most suitable for dive tourism industry according to the principles of sustainability. 2. Methods 2.1. Location Koh Tao is a small isolated island in the Gulf of Thailand, approximately 700 km from Bangkok or 70 km from the southern peninsula (Fig. 1). This 21 km2 island was a political prison from 1933 to 1947 before the arrival of first settlers. Nowadays Koh Tao supports livelihood for over 1 800 people. The majority of the population is involved in the dive tourism industry including accommodation, restaurants, dive operating businesses and other tourism services. Apart from being a primary diving destination in Thailand, Koh Tao accounts for the second highest number of annual dive certifications worldwide (only second to Cairns, Australia) and is responsible for one-third of the annual registrations of PADI globally (EAS, 2009). In 2011 alone, over 60 000 SCUBA dive certifications (PADI and SSI) were certified on this island (ScubaBoard, 2011). From 1993 to 2002, the number of tourists increased rapidly by 346%, with a substantial increase of 470% in foreign tourist numbers. In the last decade, approximately 130e150 thousand of tourists have visited Koh Tao annually, and the trend has been increasing around 10e15% every year. In 2013 alone, there was an average of about 1 000 tourists a day and over 30 000 Chinese tourists visited the island during Chinese New Year (Tourism Statistics, Koh Tao Administrative Organization, 2013). The total annual tourism revenue for Koh Tao is estimated at 500 million Thai Bath (THB) (16.2 million USD) (1 USD ¼ 30.8 THB as of January 2011) in 2002; 400 million THB (13 million USD) from foreign tourists, and 100 million THB (3.2 million USD) from Thai tourists (Koh Tao Tambon Administrative Organization, 2003). As of 2009, there were 128 tourist accommodations, 115 restaurants and bars, and 43 dive centers on the island. The majority of dive operating businesses are owned by Thai residents, partnered with

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Fig. 1. The island of Koh Tao, Thailand, demonstrating the geographic location of study area and the surrounding dive sites.

international skilled expatriates who work as dive masters, dive instructors and underwater photographers. As in many top diving destinations, Koh Tao features coral reefs, reef-associated fish, cetaceans and remoteness as key attractions. Coral reefs are found around the island approximately 28 km from seashore and range from 1 to 40 m in depth. Types of corals along the western and southern coasts of Koh Tao include massive coral,

encrusting coral, tabulate coral, branching coral and mushroom coral. The predominant species are Acropora spp., Montipora spp., Pavona spp., Diploastrea spp., Favia spp., Favites spp., Ctennactis spp., Fungia spp., Pocillopora spp., Goniopora spp., Porites spp., Goneastrea spp. Echinopora spp., Platygyra spp. Lobophyllia spp., and Symphyllia spp. Koh Tao’s coral reefs are not under a designated marine protected area or any legal protection, but are protected under the local

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conservation programs initiated by the community with the stewardship of dive operators. According to the study on threat levels to coral reefs by UNEP (2007), coral reefs on Koh Tao are facing high levels of threat from tourism and recreation activities as well as natural impact; medium level threats from fishing and development impacts; and low level threat from land-based pollution (UNEP, 2007). There are over 30 dive sites in the close proximity of Koh Tao, varying from gently sloping coral gardens to massive granite pinnacles. Though it is the changeover from Southwest to Northeast monsoon in the Gulf of Thailand in November, diving is still possible with sheltered sites on one or the other side of the island. 2.2. Data collection and analysis Although the literature shows that the biophysical setting of a tourism destination contributes to its popularity and is important to enable the reef-based SCUBA dive tourism industry to cope with increasing global change (Ioannides, 1995), it does not mean that a healthy biophysical environment alone is sufficient protection against often unpredictable disturbances. Sustainability in tourism destinations can be motivated or impeded by tourism stakeholders (Ioannides and Petersen, 2003) including tourists/SCUBA divers, tourism enterprises (e.g. dive operators, boat operators, accommodations, restaurants, transportation), and the community in which the industry operates (Williams and Lawson, 2001). These people have multiple interests and interact with each other with heterogeneous attitudes and perspectives (Haddock-Fraser and Hampton, 2010). Therefore, to move the sustainability agenda of tourism forward, both the physical impacts of tourism and the social environment need to be considered. Research on the social and economic dimensions of dive tourism can, in fact, generate relatively low cost information, as opposed to financially demanding ecological surveys, and such information may assist the managers to decide the most suitable strategies for managing the site-specific tourism industries in accordance with the sustainability principle. In this study, a sequential mixed social research method, first quantitative (questionnaire surveys) and then qualitative (in-depth interviews), was used to document the residents’ perceptions of dive tourism development and its impacts, and their recommendations for the long-term management of dive tourism. A total of 306 questionnaires (18% of total population), along with information and instructions on completing it, were randomly distributed from November 2010 to February 2011. Every 6th premises were sampled. Each of the samples was identified in a clockwise direction, starting from north to south following the major and minor roads. Questionnaires were given to selected samples regardless of the type of premises [most residents live in their place of business]. A random starting point in this case was in Sairee village, followed by Mae Haad, and ended in Chalok Baan Kao. The questionnaires were distributed by the researcher alone. This can be considered an advantage because any questions arising in the study site would be clarified by only one researcher who was fully aware of the research objectives and research processes. Questions were developed as descriptive, attitudinal and behavioral, using a mixed-style of both closed and open-ended in order to reduce disadvantages of a question form and meet the purpose and practical limitations of the research project. The on-site self-administered questionnaire comprised a total of 48 questions covering demographic information about the respondents; their involvement in the dive tourism industry; their perceptions of dive tourism impacts and their suggestions for improvement toward dive tourism sustainability. At the end of the study period, 236 out of 306 questionnaires (77% response rate) were completed and returned to the researcher.

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Following the questionnaire surveys, in-depth interviews with 22 key informants were undertaken at the end of the data collection period. Potential respondents were selected using snowball sampling technique. After making initial contact with respondents referred to as ‘informants’, each respondent was asked to suggest other respondents. In this study, semi-structured interviews were conducted with key informants from dive operating businesses, local, regional and national government, NGOs, academics, community leaders, community members and divers. The nature of the questions utilized a stepwise design, meaning that the first step of data collection was to explore and generate a wide range of insider perspectives about the subject. Any themes which emerged from the initial questions were then pursued further. Given the fact that Koh Tao is a multi-cultural society with at least sixteen nationalities involved in the tourism industry, the interviews were conducted in both Thai and English. Questions in the semi-structured interviews were for instance: How important is the coastal and marine resources to your livelihoods?; How has the dive tourism been developed?; What are consequences of the dive tourism development?; What are your roles in contributing to and reducing tourism impacts?; What are major constraints to becoming a sustainable tourism destination?; Who are stakeholders and what are their roles and responsibilities?; What actions should be taken to sustain the long-term dive tourism industry? The interviews provided an insight into dive tourism development, its impacts, existing management responses, and perceived management options suitable for Koh Tao. Quantitative data were processed using the computerassisted quantitative analysis software called SPSS (Statistical Product and Service Solutions). Descriptive statistics and cross tabulation were used to analyze and provide easily readable output results. In regard to qualitative data, coding and thematic analysis were utilized. Answers to questions were coded and grouped into several themes. 3. Results 3.1. Dependency on the dive tourism industry The survey results show that most of the respondents are younger than 40 years old (71%). A great proportion has been residing on Koh Tao for less than 10 years (65%), most migrated in search of tourism-related job opportunities. It is important to note that the majority (69%) of respondents have completed a university degree [undergraduate and/or postgraduate] showing that these participants are mostly well-educated. A significant number of respondents work in the dive tourism industry (78%) including dive operating businesses, tourist accommodation, restaurants, travel agents, internet cafés, supermarkets, retail shops, photo studios, laundry services, massage, and transportation. A small proportion is involved in a monetary institution, medical or health sector, school, and government organization (22%). The main occupation of Thai respondents is entrepreneur (39%), followed by professional and manager/administrator (equal proportion of 22%). With respect to foreign respondents, the survey demonstrates that nearly all (94%) are directly employed and benefit from the dive tourism industry. As expected, the majority of foreigners are professional (69%) working for dive operators as dive instructors, dive masters and underwater photographers. The remainder are general/environmental managers or clerks in dive centers, bartenders and other casual workers. Despite no official record of the number of foreigners working on Koh Tao, there is clearly a significant number (estimated at 300e 400) in the local society. Approximately half of the Thai respondents who are economically dependent upon dive tourism indicate that other members of their immediate family also live on

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the island and work in the dive tourism industry. Surprisingly, there was no agriculture or fishery sector reported in the questionnaire survey. These results can be considered an indicator to determining the dependency of Koh Tao residents upon the dive tourism industry.

3.2. Perceptions of dive tourism development and its impacts According to respondents, the first bungalow was constructed on Koh Tao in 1983. The reputation of the island as a reef-based tourism destination has attracted tourists and necessitated an increase of tourist accommodation. The number of rooms increased over 500% within a decade (2000 as compared to 1990). Due to the absence of proper management and regulations, the development of tourism infrastructures have been uncontrolled which resulted in the degradation of natural resources. Of all these respondents, a significant number of them (89% strongly agree and somewhat agree) identified the existence of negative impacts on the local communities as well as on the coastal environments as a result of the dive tourism development. Fig. 2 presents the top ten physicale ecological, socio-demographic, and economic impacts ranked by percentage of respondents. The most affected negative impacts of dive tourism are the high cost of living, followed by high dependence on tourism, rubbish overload, uncontrolled development, unsustainable use of energy, pressure on the sewage system, and impacts on visual amenity/ aesthetics. The development of dive tourism on Koh Tao has been recognized as unregulated both in terms of quantity and quality. Tourism infrastructures could be built according to the entrepreneurs’ wish, regardless of location, design or material used. In other words, any individuals could convert their land [though illegally occupied] into accommodation, dive shop, restaurant, or supermarket without having to abide by any rules. Of all impacts listed in Fig. 2, it is evident that the physicaleecological aftermaths are more prominent, compared to social and economic. Interestingly, the results signify the influence of economic reliance on tourism to the perception of tourism impacts. The socio-demographic consequences were likely to be overlooked by respondents who derive the majority of their income from the dive tourism industry; rather, these were reported by residents who work in other sectors. In spite of not being recognized by the majority, the sociodemographic issues can accumulate and be problematic for the industry in the future. The study also found that the intensity and severity of each impact is perceived relatively different depending mainly on

nationality, occupation and involvement in the dive tourism industry. Thai respondents perceived the high cost of living as the most affected problem on Koh Tao. This might be because they could find similar goods and services at a cheaper price elsewhere in the country. Foreign respondents found the high dependence on tourism the major problem as nearly all of them migrated to Koh Tao for employment in the tourism industry. Respondents who are entrepreneurs showed concern over the increased dependence on imports and leakage of tourism revenue to nearby regions and other countries. This might be because they acknowledged the limited resources available on the island and the money drained out due to tax payments, and profits and wages paid to the skilled expatriates. Non-tourism related respondents noted the touriste resident conflicts and reported that dive tourism led to irritation to the local population; whereas, these problems were not mentioned by the tourism-benefited respondents. Together with rapid and uncontrolled infrastructure development, the interviews with various stakeholders suggest that unsustainable practices of diving operations and irresponsible behaviors of SCUBA divers are another source of reef damage. Even though there is an effort encouraging and empowering divers and dive businesses to adopt the guidelines and codes of conduct, successful compliance is a great challenge. Minimizing solid waste and wastewater discharge are the main issues for dive operators. Whereas, practices such as boat anchoring, seafood consumption, purchase of marine life souvenirs, pre-dive educational briefings, and the use of mooring buoys are likely to be sustainably managed. Direct damage from divers can be from kicking, trampling, holding on to, standing or kneeling on the coral, stirring up sediment, and also by collecting coral and other species for souvenirs. In the case of Koh Tao, damage from dive tourists seems to be in low level and is unlikely to pose alarming issues in the near future. However, in line with the increased number of divers, responsible practices remain necessary.

3.3. Challenges to the sustainability of Koh Tao dive tourism Based on our interview results, there are several factors contributing to the existing negative tourism impacts. A lack of internal and external support (including legislative action, funding and academic contribution) is a significant issue. Respondents were unlikely to believe in the effectiveness of the local government in identifying problems, getting people together, delivering good outcomes and addressing issues Koh Tao has been facing. They believed that the government gives far more attention to economic

Fig. 2. Perceived negative impacts associated with dive tourism ranked by percentage of respondents.

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development than environmental protection. One of the statements supporting this is “the local government officials are not knowledgeable, unable to prioritize problems, fail to allocate budgets in accordance with priorities, never implement effective plans or management schemes . and they cannot enforce anything”. In addition to the legal framework and capacity of local government, knowledge and awareness in relation to sustainable tourism amongst local residents, tourism providers and tourists was discussed. Limited knowledge and awareness of local entrepreneurs, a lack of knowledgeable staff, and a lack of customer interest are considered critical variables restricting the capacity of Koh Tao to effectively address alarming issues. With regards to limited knowledge and awareness, one of the local investors reported that “We only knew we wanted to build a hotel on the beach. We didn’t think how we would treat wastewater, manage rubbish or whether it’s constructed in harmony with the surrounding environments”. Dive operator respondents expressed their feelings regarding tourists that most of the recent divers are not willing to spend money for sustainable products or eco-friendly tour operating businesses as they are often more expensive. Rather, divers seek the lowest budget accommodation and dive packages. This is often different when in regards to the Chinese tourists. It has been discussed among dive operators and researchers that the majority of Chinese tourists visiting diving destinations are wealthy, but have limited knowledge and skills in diving/snorkeling and lack environmental awareness. Their main purpose of traveling is to be in the waters and able to walk on the reefs and take pictures without being aware of what impacts they may cause. Considering the various issues mentioned above, it is a great challenge for the dive operators to allocate their budget to the regular maintenance of diving operations and natural resource conservation without raising the price or compromising the customers’ interest. The underwater behaviors of divers were examined but found unlikely to contribute largely to coral damage. Rather, the results indicate a relatively positive trend toward environmentally responsible behavior underwater of divers. The surveys reveal that divers select dive tourism providers based on the price of dive packages and the reputation of dive operators. The public image of dive operators is perceived as a guarantee for the quality of the service provided. Environmental performance of the dive operating businesses does not seem to influence their decisions on the operator selection. 3.4. Suggestions for management interventions When the respondents were asked whether they would like to see greater development of dive tourism, slightly over half (58%) indicated that they prefer no more tourism development unless it is developed under environmentally sustainable practices and proper management controls. Their recommendations for management arrangements or actions to be taken were coded and grouped into several themes as presented in Table 1. Key issues as perceived by respondents included greater environmental awareness and knowledge; more sustainable tourism operation; greater environmental regulation and enforcement; enhancement of local leadership; effective local government; environmental friendly building structure and architecture; marine and land-use zoning; carrying capacity controlling tourist and tourism facilities; health and safety; standard pricing control; and the need for regulation of vehicle hiring. Given the limited capacity of the local government and the existing tour operator-led conservation groups, the respondents felt that the government, entrepreneurs and communities should have greater coordination in relation to the management of dive tourism. Respondents believed that enhancement of the local government’s capacity, together with the involvement of other environmental-concerned individuals can

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Table 1 Perceptions of management mechanisms required for sustainable dive tourism. Actions required to reduce tourism impacts

No. of respondents (n ¼ 82)

Environmental awareness and knowledge among local residents Green operation and regular maintenance of tourism providers (i.e. alternative energy, recycle, renewable resources, wastewater treatment) Local regulation and enforcement Eco-tourism Building structure/architecture in harmony with the nature (e.g. materials, colors, design) Marine and land-use zoning Environmental awareness and knowledge among tourists Limit number of tourists Limit number of tourism facilities (e.g. hotel room) built each year Concern about health and safety (e.g. road, diving) Standard pricing in tourism goods and services Standard code of practice in Taxi and car/bike/ATVs for rent Other (e.g. no girl bars, establish tourist center, effective local government)

20 20

12 9 7 5 5 5 4 4 3 2 8

n ¼ 21 mentioned 2 themes per response. n ¼ 9 mentioned 3 themes per response. n ¼ 2 mentioned 4 themes per response.

lead to the future development of sustainable tourism on the island. Despite being one of the developing countries where corruption can be one of the unsolved problems, corruption or bribery in the Koh Tao government was hardly mentioned by respondents. 4. Discussion 4.1. Application of the STD and ICM frameworks to Koh Tao dive tourism The sustainability of SCUBA dive tourism requires not only the conservative use of natural and social resources, but also economic viability of all stakeholders, community integration and the provision of satisfying diving experiences. Considering the principles of STD, the Koh Tao dive tourism industry has contributed to an increase in quality of life among the host communities and attracted tourists from across the globe. However, the economic and environmental sustainability of this reef tourism destination are yet to be managed. The island is characterized by substantial economic leakages or the loss of self-dependency because of the complete reliance on imported goods and the tendency of the industry to employ foreign labor, especially in dive instructor positions. This can affect the long-term viability of the dive tourism. In other words, to move the Koh Tao dive tourism industry toward sustainability, the environmental and social issues should be addressed through education and awareness, conservation management and sustainable business management. In the perspective of coastal management, ICM has been recognized by many tourism operators and decision-makers as a path to follow toward the sustainable development of coastal tourism (UNEP-DTIE, 2009). The ICM framework seems to be flexible enough to adjust to the social, economic, cultural, ecological and political settings of sites and able to accommodate various perceptions, needs and priorities (Thia-Eng, 2006). However, given the scale of tourism in the world’s coastal zone, one of the greatest challenges faced by coastal managers is giving tourism development a proper place within ICM (Cicin-Sain and Knecht, 1998).

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Considering the key elements of ‘integration’ in the coastal management literature, it is evident that the management and governance framework of ICM is not applicable to the Koh Tao case. Intersectoral (horizontal) integration, intergovernmental (vertical) integration, and international integration are very weak or not existent. Intersectoral integration is not possible due to the dominance of the dive tourism industry over other land-based or marine-based sectors. This does not allow for an opportunity to integrate with other sectors. Similar interpretation applies to intergovernmental integration. Although a number of NGOs have influence in the management of natural and social resources of Koh Tao, there is a lack of connection with local, provincial and national governments which makes the intergovernmental integration hardly possible. In regard to international involvements, dive tourism has a number of international connections as the industry depends on imports from outside in terms of products and labor force, but this does not translate to international integration. In places like the GBR in Australia or the Florida Keys in the United States where strong governance structures are in place, ICM and/or STD can be easily translated. However, based on our findings it can be concluded that these internationally accepted management and governance frameworks do not necessarily apply to other settings and circumstances. For a viable and sustainable future of the dive tourism industry, each tourism destination has to explicitly understand its own limitations and opportunities in terms of natural, human, and managerial aspects. Koh Tao can be used as a good example that showcases what can happen when there is a lack of political will and the policy/management failure of the public sector in relation to tourism development in a destination where the local economy is exclusively centered on the dive tourism industry. 4.2. A New paradigm for the management of reef-based SCUBA dive tourism One of the key findings from this study is that there is no perfect planning or policy process which can be easily translated from one dive tourism management jurisdiction to another. Each locale needs to select the appropriate strategies for its own development

requirements. In the case of Koh Tao, the social and environmental issues are not isolated, but also tied to sensitive national policies relating to the work permits for foreigners and the rights over land tenure. Additionally, Koh Tao differs from Belize in the Caribbean (Diedrich, 2007), Mozambique in East Africa (Tibiriçá et al., 2011) and Palau in the Pacific (Poonian et al., 2010; Vianna et al., 2011) where fishing and agriculture exist along with SCUBA dive tourism; the dive tourism industry here is dominant over other land-based and marine-based industries. This has led to high competition in tourism operating businesses and resulted in irresponsible management practices. This unique characteristic, coupled with other issues facing the dive tourism industry (i.e. the absence of regulation, limited capacity of the local government, lack of horizontal, vertical and international integration, inactive involvement of all stakeholders, multi-cultural society with heterogeneous attitudes, and being an island destination with dynamic systems and geographical limitations) has made the implementation of economic (e.g. user fee), regulatory (e.g. zoning) and institutional (e.g. property right) management approaches nearly impossible. For this reason, this study suggests a new paradigm for the management of this reef-based tourism destination. In doing so, STD and ICM are addressed and analyzed in an integrated manner. A practical management framework suitable for Koh Tao dive tourism necessitates various domains of integration including sciencemanagement integration; spatial integration and stakeholder integration. These key elements of ‘integration’ in dive tourism management should not be considered separately, rather each should be recognized as overlapping and interacting with the others (Fig. 3). The study found that residents, tourism providers (particularly dive operators), and divers are the major contributors to the existing impacts of dive tourism. At the same time, they are affected by the viability of the dive tourism industry. For this reason, the management responses must involve all of these stakeholders. In line with the above three integration elements, the greater promotion of self-regulation or voluntary management strategy and a community-oriented tourism development approach are recommended. The leadership of dive operators in conducting conservation and tourism management efforts together with the unique

Fig. 3. A continuum of sustainability showing a paradigm for the management of reef-based SCUBA dive tourism. Source: Author, Diagram designed after Pearce (1997).

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reciprocal relationship (and family-chained businesses) among the community members can fill the vacuum that the government failed to address. Self-regulation approaches can be varied depending on the management focus (dive sites, divers or dive operators). These approaches would not be mutually exclusive. The pressure on dive sites in the coral environments can be reduced by limiting the periods of usage, shifting use to artificial sites, or limiting the number of boats/divers at particular dive sites. The findings from this study in relation to impacts from divers are in contrast with the studies in St. Lucia (Barker and Roberts, 2004) and in the Republic of Palau (Poonian et al., 2010). In their studies, contacts to coral reefs are intentional and divers contribute greatly to coral damage. In Koh Tao, contact with corals, sediments and marine life is unintentional and a relatively positive trend toward environmentally responsible behavior of divers underwater is presented. In spite of recent increase in the unsustainable practices by the Chinese tourists, the authors believe that irresponsible behavior underwater can be reduced by responsive pre-dive educational briefings, good swimming technique and buoyancy control, and close underwater supervision by dive leaders. Dive operators can play a role in adopting responsible dive operation guidelines while other tourism providers such as hotels and restaurants can comply with codes of conduct. Public image, competitive advantage, interest of customers and knowledge of owner, manager and staff are the key drivers (or barriers) to the adoption of such responsible practices. The fact that the majority of dive operating businesses are owned by the Thais, and that the associated facilities belong to their family members, can be considered as an advantage. The destination’s livelihood may be considered as not only the source of income but also their community. As such, effective engagement of the key stakeholders in the sustainable management of dive tourism should be achievable. Nonetheless, relying exclusively upon self-regulation or voluntary management will not be sustainable. The government must take a step forward in collaborating with other stakeholders. Government’s role does not have to be that of only the controller and regulator; rather it can be the neutral arbiter, coordinator, partner and educator (Reed, 1997). Importantly, environmental education and awareness must be viewed as the foundation of the sustainability of reef-based dive tourism. It can ensure that all stakeholders understand dive tourism development, the impacts it may cause, as well as the importance of sustainable tourism management. Consultation with external organizations such as an international conservation groups, NGOs, or academic institutes can lead to intellectual exchange and financial support which influence the potential to enforce regulations and maintain control over reef activities (deGroot and Bush, 2010). In summary, the study demonstrates that: 1) the integration between natural science e social science - management, land e ocean, and multiple stakeholders, and 2) community-oriented tourism development, and 3) voluntary management, along with education and good governance are the significant factors to achieve the long-term viability of the dive tourism industry. 5. Conclusion A number of scholars have advocated management approaches to overcome the unsustainable management of the dive tourism industry. Many of them are restricted to physical impacts on coral reefs or wildlife species (e.g. Barker and Roberts, 2004; Garrod and Gössling, 2008; Hawkins et al., 1999; Rouphael and Inglis, 2001; Rouphael and Hanafy, 2007; Tratalosa and Austin, 2001; Worachananant et al., 2008; Zakai and Chadwick-Furman, 2002) and often ignore the human settings or the social, economic and cultural factors of tourism destinations (Daldeniz and Hampton,

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2012; Hardy and Beeton, 2001). In fact, sustainability of tourism can be motivated or impeded by the community in which the industry operates because community members have multiple interests and interact with each other with heterogeneous attitudes and perspectives. As such, both the physical impacts of tourism and the social environment need to be considered. In other words, the dive tourism industry must be seen as a socio-ecological system e not as separate natural and social science components. This paper is one of the very few studies to incorporate human and social dimensions into the management of reef-based SCUBA dive tourism in developing countries and address ICM and STD in an integrative way. The study demonstrates that these two internationally accepted management approaches are not always transferable. Other dive destinations with different biophysical (e.g. coral reefs, water clarity, rock formations), human (e.g. socio-economic status, cultural and historical values, behaviors) and managerial (e.g. tourism regulations, buoys, visitor safety) settings may be able to adopt the two concepts as the way forward in accommodating increasing pressures from tourism development. Yet, it is important to note that each locale must select or adapt appropriate strategies for its own needs. Although ecological sustainability is necessary, it is not sufficient to ensure the long-term viability of a reef-based dive tourism operation. Better understanding of the natural and social science components of the dive tourism system from a holistic point of view will help decision-making processes to modify and adapt management frameworks such as ICM and STD to best fit the local conditions, and to subsequently move toward a sustainability agenda for reef-based SCUBA dive tourism.

Acknowledgments Particular thanks go to Tippawan Chordchuang for her assistance with accommodation and the field survey on Koh Tao. The authors are also grateful to Pinsak Suraswadi, Chaiyan Thurasakul, Radda Larpnun and Chad Scott for their contributions to the study.

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