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Integrated freight transportation centers; influence on the decrease in environmental effects in urban areas
the Science of the Total Environment ELSEVIER
The Science of the Total Environment 146/147 (1994) 59-65
Integrated freight transportation centers; influence on the decrease in environmental effects in urban areas Josl} V. C o l o m e r
Ferr~indiz
Departamento de Transportes. Universidad Polit~;cnica de Valencia. Camino Vera s/)~.. 46071 l'ah,ncia. Spain
Abstract The present paper analyses the current environmental situation in cities, showing the importance of highway vehicle traffic in general, and trucks in particular. Analysis of the evolution of freight transportation by highway and the characteristics of the sector in Spain suggests, on the one hand, that the magnitude of the problems derived from freight transportation is growing and, on the other, that the fact that there is a great number of very small firms existing, and the location of these firms, concentrates a significant part of the problems in urban areas and makes the successful solution more difficult to reach. In order to lessen the adverse effects from heavy vehicle traffic in cities, Integrated Freight Centers (I.F.C.) appear to be a solution of undoubtable interest in medium- and large-sized cities. However, when analysing the I.F.C.s from an environmental point of view, it is necessary to take into account the impact of these infrastructures and to weigh the environmental advantages and disadvantages. In doing so, the location factor is found to be fundamental. Key words: Transportation centers; Environmental effects; Freight
1. Current situation of pollution in urban areas: influence of transportation
increased significantly. Three basic factors have influenced this increase:
In most cities, the e n v i r o n m e n t has d e t e r i o r a t e d significantly in recent years due to different causes, a m o n g which traffic from highway vehicles is a m a j o r source. The action o f traffic on the evironment in u r b a n areas is shown in various effects, principally noise and air pollution.
•
1.1. N o i s e
Currently it is estimated that m o r e than 16% o f the p o p u l a t i o n o f the O E C D countries, o f the o r d e r o f 130 million inhabitants, is subjected to
In the last 20 years, the percentage o f inhabitants subjected to excessive levels o f noise has
• •
the 50% increase in u r b a n i z a t i o n in western countries as a whole; the growth in mobility (the n u m b e r o f highway vehicles has tripled in 20 years); and the mechanization o f the m a j o r i t y o f activities
[ll.
0048-9697/94/$07.00 © 1994 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. SSDI 0048-9697(93)03983-Z
60 noise levels higher than 65 dB(A) (which constitutes the maximum desirable noise level to have in homes). In the specific case of Spain, according to data from 1980, of the order of 23% of the population was exposed to noise from highway transportation higher than 65 dB(A) [2]. Although it should not be forgotten that noise comes from diverse sources, the predominance in urban areas of the noise from transportation (including highway vehicles) over other sources of noise is clearly established. In noise originating from highway vehicles, noise from heavy vehicles is very significant. The threshold of maximum tolerable noise from trucks in the different existing ordinances is much higher (between 4 and 8 db(A)) than that admissible for light vehicles. According to studies, the equivalent noise level on a street with heavy traffic (30% heavy vehicles) is - 5 - 7 db(A) higher than if all the traffic is only light vehicles [3]. Moreover, when there are freight transportation firms and warehouses inside the cities, the noise caused by the activity related with the handling, loading, unloading and transfer of freight must be added to the traffic noise. 1.2. Air pollution It is generally agreed that in most cities more than 50% of polluting emissions originate from transportation. According to specific pollutants, 90% of the CO, almost 50% of the nitrogen oxides, 40% of the hydrocarbons, around 50% of the lead (a percentage that varies depending on the use of unleaded gasoline), 80% of the benzene emissions and nearly 40% of the emissions of CO2 in OECD countries originate from transportation in general, with highway transport as the main contributor. In the center of a medium-sized city, highway vehicle traffic produces almost 100% of the concentration of CO and of lead, around 60% ofthe nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons, 10% of SO2 and 50% of the suspended particulate matter present in the atmosphere. The contribution of motor vehicle emissions to the total pollutants in the atmosphere has been growing in past years. As an example, in the former German Federal Republic [41, between
J. v. Colorner Ferr6ndiz/ Sci. Total Environ. 146/147 (1994)59-65
1966 and 1982, the contribution of transportation in the total CO in the atmosphere increased from 34% to 65%, the percentage of nitrogen oxides passed from 40% to 54.6% and the percentage of hydrocarbons from 28.5% to 39%. In total urban area emissions, heavy vehicles have an important effect, not only from the direct perspective of their own emissions but also indirectly, since congestion increases, and the amount of emissions increases from the light vehicles which have to drive at very reduced speeds and consume more energy. 1.3. Improvements introduced in vehicles The improvements introduced for noise and pollution reduction have been importan in recent years. The adoption of strict measures on maximum vehicle emissions and the surveillance over their enforcement have given reductions of the order of 37% in the emissions of CO and of 46% in the emissions of hydrocarbons in the USA and Japan. However, the efficiency of measures based on vehicle improvements, regarding noise as well as air pollution, is clearly limited by the continuous growth of the total number of vehicles (the total vehicles of the OECD countries doubled between 1970 and 1987) and the growth in traffic use (the vehicles x km driven increased by 66% between 1970 and 1987 in the OECD countries as a whole) [5].
2. Situation of freight transportation by highway 2.1. Evolution of freight transportation by highway The transportation of freight by highway in
Table 1 Evolution of surface freight traffic (10 9 t km) Country
ECTM France UK Spain
Highway
Railroad
1970
1970
1988
% Highway/ total 1970
1988
438.9 887.8 273.8 256.9 61.6 66.3 111.8 67.6 52.3 49.5 85.0 124.8 24.5 18.2 77.6 51.7 133.0 10.3 12.0 83.3
77.6 68.1 87.3 91.7
Source: C.E.T.M. [61.
1988
J. V. Colomer Ferrhndiz/ Sci. Total Environ. 146/147 (1994) 59-65
Table 2 Public and private freight transportation in Spain 1988 Transport
Public Private
No. vehicles
239.687 861.070
Fleet capacity (t)
Fraction of total traffic (%,) Mg
Mg/km
1.829.700 1.497.200
88 12
91 9
Source: Ministerio de Transportes [7].
Europe has experienced strong growth in the last 20 years. Transporting by highway in Europe as a whole doubled between 1970 and 1987, while in the same period the railroad lost almost 10% of its traffic. The general situation in Europe is reproduced in Spain as well. In the period between 1980 and 1988, highway traffic in Spain increased more than 50%, going from 100 000 million t × km to approximately 150 000 million t × km. In the same period the railroad remained stable with figures of around 12 000 million t × km. Table I reflects the evolution of surface traffic between 1970 and 1988 in Spain, France, United Kingdom and in the countries of the European Conference of Transportation Ministers (ECTM). This evolution is evidence of the importance of freight transportation by highway today. 2.2. Organization o f the sector
Authorizations are always required for all freight transportation by highway in Spain. These authorizations can be given for the performance of public transportation, in which a vehicle can transport products from various different firms; or for
the performance of private transportation, in which a vehicle will only transport products from the firm to which this vehicle belongs. The vehicles authorized for private transportation are not allowed to perform public transportation. Regarding load capacity, public transportation has 55% of the load capacity, while the remaining 45°/,, corresponds to private transportation. However, 88% of the tonnes of the freight that is transported uses public transportation while the remaining 12°/,, corresponds to private transportation. Regarding company size, 98.3% of the firms with a load capacity of 69% of the total are firms with less than six trucks. There are only 357 firms with more than 20 vehicles and they support somewhat less than 15°/,, of the load. This situation gives rise to serious problems derived of a great number of very small firms, on the one hand, and unauthorized transportation, on the other, that are causing major conflicts in the sector. Tables 2 and 3 reflect in greater detail the situation stated. 2.3. Problems associated with jie~eht transportation by highway
The situation reviewed and the characteristics peculiar to freight transportation by highway give rise to a series of important problems, some of which have special implications for the urban environment [8]. In effect, the existence of many very small-sized firms located inside cities and their limited capital keeps them from undertaking modernization and moving to more suitable areas. This situation, which is found in most Spanish cities, gives rise to significant environmental impacts that go from the use of land in unsuitable
Table 3 Company structure of public freight transportation in Spain 1988 Type of firm
No. firms
Load capacity(t)
Percentof firms
Percentof capacity
1 vehicle 2-5 vehicles 6-20 vehicles > 20 vehicles
130 335 28 166 2501 357
664.000 599.000 299.000 268.000
80.8 17.5 1.55 0.22
36.3 32.7 16.3 14.6
Source: Ministerio de Transportes [7].
62
areas to considerable noise problems and air pollution derived from heavy vehicle traffic and from the operations inherent to freight transportation. Together with these problems of an environmental nature, other problems detected also are the sector's lack of organization, poor working conditions for crews, accidents caused by heavy vehicles, lack of suitable parking space for trucks and the repeated failure to observe regulations in force. The foreseeable evolution of freight transportation and growth in urbanization confirm that the magnitude and importance of the problems pointed out, with respect to urban areas, have been increasing and will increase in time.
J. V. Colomer Ferr6ndiz / Sci. Total Environ. 146/147 (1994) 59-65
riers, producers, warehouse owners, distributors, agents, etc. [9]. 3.1. Functions With this definition as a starting point, it is possible to differentiate between the functions that can take place in an I.F.C., which can be identified as [10]: • • • • • •
3. Integrated freight transportation centres: functions, objectives and constraints • In order to address the problems identified in the previous section, diverse support infrastructures for freight transportation have arisen in different European countries. These go from simple parking lots to large complexes, among which the most impressive are the Integrated Freight Centers (I.F.C.) in the most important cities. The first I.F.C. (Garonor) that can be considered as such is located in Aulnay sous Bois, 12 km from Paris between highways A-l, A-3 and F-2 at less than 2 km from the Charles de Gaulle and Le Bourget airports. Garonor arose from the limitation established in the Plan of Paris of 1962 which prohibited entry of heavy vehicles in the capital and proposed the creation of 5 centers for transfer on the outskirts. This is, it arose for reasons directly related to urban planning with the goal of lessening in part the negative environmental impact derived from heavy vehicle traffic through Paris. In its general acceptation, an Integrated Freight Center (I.F.C.) is a set of installations and facilities where different activities directly related with national or international transportation take place, which can be used jointly by industrialists and distributors as a logistic center due to the relationship it has with the transportation sector. It also has a series of complementary services available that are at the disposal of the different users: car-
an intermodal coordination center; a load consolidation, partition and storage center; a storage and distribution logistic center; a load contracting center; a international transport center; a reception center for vehicles (parking, repair shops) and for crews (hotel, restaurant, bar, lounges, showers, etc.); and other specific functions.
Generally, each I.F.C. contemplates several of these functions, some of them prevailing over others. 3.2, Objectives The creation of the I.F.C.s responds to the achievement of certain objectives among which the following should be pointed out. Objectives of a general nature. •
•
Urban planning and environment: the transfer of transport firms out of the cities, avoiding the impacts derived from heavy vehicle traffic and recovering the areas where the firms were located. Transportation: to facilitate the operation of the market, coordinating supply and demand and the different modes of transportation (intermodality).
Objectives directly related to the users. •
•
To improve the organization, management and coordination of highway transportation companies. To improve the supply of load storage, consolidation and partition services and distribution of the firms located in the I.F.C.
J. V. Colomer Ferrdmdiz / Sci. Total Environ. 146/147 ( 1 9 9 4 ) 5 9 - 6 5
• •
To improve crew working conditions. To solve certain specific problems.
3.3. Technical constraints In order for the 1.F.C.s to fulfill their functions and achieve the objectives for which they are designed, it is necessary to keep in mind various constraints of different kinds. There are constraints of a general type, common to all I.F.C.s and of a particular type that affect a certain I.F.C. The general constraints can be technical, economic, legal, etc. This paper concentrates on the technical constraints, which are going to affect in greater measure the environmental aspects that will be dealt with below. The most important general constraints of a technical nature that impact on the I.F.C.s are those derived from the land area needed and location. Regarding the land area needed, the experience of the I.F.C.s in existence suggests 25 hectares as the minimum area to be able to lodge all the facilities that are generally present in all I.F.C.s. The maximum area depends on the functions that take place in the center, although currently - 100 ha can be established as a guide. Also related to area are the possibilities of extension. Existing experience makes it advisable to take into account possible sections of land for future extensions. These sections must be larger, the more important the Integrated Freight Center is. The location factor is, without doubt, the fundamental constraint if certain objectives are to be achieved with an I.F.C. It must not be forgotten that an I.F.C., because it is a center that attracts and generates heavy vehicle traffic, itself originates a series of environmental effects in the form of noise, pollution, risks of accidents, etc.) and urban effects (as a focus of attraction for firms, location of highway hotels, etc.) which must be taken into account. They are to be analysed in the following sections. The location of an I.F.C. too close to the city it serves may give rise to very significant unfavorable negative effects. A location far from the main communication routes requiring significant additional
63
mileage for heavy vehicles might jeopardize the success of the I.F.C. The function of I.F.C.s within freight transportation makes the connection with the main communication routes and proximity to the cities served fundamental constraints. The importance of location is also reflected in the ordinance that deals with the creation of the I.F.C.s. Thus, for example, in Italy, the Interportos (equivalent to the I.F.C.s) are defined by the 'Law of July 24, 1990 on Aid for the Building of Interportos' as 'organic complexes of integrated structures and services destined to the exchange of goods between the different modalities of transportation, comprising in all cases a suitable rail facility to form and receive whole trains and linked with ports, airports and main communication routes.' In Spain, the 'Law 16/1987 of July 30 on the Order of Surface Transportation (LOTT)' and its regulations contemplate the I.F.C.s in a global concept of 'Transport Stations' and with respect to its location, the LOTT indicates that ~... The location of the stations will respond not only to intrinsic operational needs of the services that will use them, but also coordinate with the remaining modes of surface transportation, including air and maritime modes and with urban transportation of the city in question . . . . In order to establish the site, the influence on urban planning, traffic, safety and population environment must be weighed
4. Environmental aspects of the integrated freight centers The establishment of an I.F.C. may lead to the following effects on the environment [11]. Impact on the landscape. Being an area of considerable size in which elements of different heights are distributed, which during use is occupied by trucks for the most part, it produces undeniable effects on the landscape which will be more or less admissible, according to the fragility of the surroundings where it is located Impact on the ecosystem. This is derived as much from its own functioning as from the accesses to it, from the activities that are carried out in it and
64
from the resulting traffic. It can affect the plant and animal communities of the area. Noise and vibrations. Noise and vibrations are produced by the great flow of heavy vehicles as well as by the activities carried out in the 1.F.C. of loading, unloading and handling goods. The activities of an I.F.C. can last throughout an entire day, including the periods of rest at night which causes the harmful effects to magnify due to their distribution in time. Atmospheric pollution. The emissions from heavy vehicles are concentrated in these installations and their access routes. To this concentration the possible emissions originating from the functioning of the installations must be added. Others. Included in this section are the spillage and waste of the I.F.C. itself, the risk of fire, the lighting at night which may affect rest time in nearby areas, etc. Due to these aspects, an in depth study of the environmental impact is necessary when studying the design of an I.F.C. and its location. When analysing the performance of an I.F.C. from the viewpoint of the improvement of the urban environment, a comparison must be made in which the improvements that the performance may bring about for the environment are weighed against the possible disadvantages derived from the impact that the I.F.C. causes. The improvements come, in general, from the diversion of heavy vehicle traffic from urban areas to the I.F.C., from the relocation of firms and warehouses situated in the cities to the I.F.C., from the environmental effects derived from the auxiliary activities that are transferred to the I.F.C., etc. Regarding the disadvantages, those already stated must be taken into account as environmental effects owing to the I.F.C. itself. In addition, the traffic from urban areas that the 1.F.C. may attract must be considered. As has been indicated, location is a key factor from the environmental point of view, since the proximity of an I.F.C. to residential areas is likely to cause a strong environmental impact, present or future, which cancels out the possible advantages that can be obtained from its building. In this sense, worthy of note is the correct location of the Madrid Transport Center, on the perimeter
J. V. Colomer Ferr6ndiz / Sci. Total Environ. 146/147 ( 1 9 9 4 ) 5 9 - 6 5
highway M-40, which connects the different accesses to Madrid, making it unnecessary to go through the city. The Center has an optimal connection with the airport and is close enough to Madrid to serve as a distribution center. On a project level, the Transport Area of Alicante also has an excellent location where the by-pass highway around Alicante (connection Valencia-Murcia) meets the future South-West penetration (connection Alicante-Madrid). Communication with the port and airport is optimal. It is located near Alicante but separated from the residential areas by land set aside for industrial use.
In the case of Valencia, however, the choice was made for a solution bordering on a residential area, far away from the by-pass around Valencia and very near the city. This will very probably cause problems due to its location as well as to the difficulties for future extension. 5. Main conclusions The following conclusions can be emphasized as the most important of the present paper. The environmental problems derived from highway vehicle traffic in urban areas are very important. The participation of transportation in the acoustic and atmospheric pollution is growing as time passes. The incidence of heavy vehicles on pollution is high. The improvements introduced by motor vehicles, although they have obtained interesting results, are limited in their global efficiency due to the strong and continuous growth experienced by the total number of vehicles and by their use. The tendencies analysed show that freight transportation by highway has increased considerably in recent years and it is foreseeable that this growth will continue in the future. The organization of the freight transportation sector in Spain and the location of a significant number of firms in urban areas mean that the problems derived from freight transportation will reach a considerable magnitude and that it will be necessary to take measures towards solving them. Among the measures that it is possible to carry out in medium- and large-sized cities, the I.F.C.s
J.V. Colomer Ferrdndiz / Sci. Total Environ. 146/147 (1994)59-65
a p p e a r to be a p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n to the d i f f e r e n t p r o b l e m s o f freight t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , w i t h a clear i m p a c t on aspects related to u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t by m a n a g i n g to d i v e r t traffic a n d r e l o c a t e firms a n d w a r e h o u s e s a w a y f r o m the city. T h e I . F . C . , in turn, can p r o d u c e , b e c a u s e o f its features, a significant i m p a c t o n the e n v i r o n m e n t , b o t h f r o m the p o i n t o f v i e w o f the l a n d s c a p e a n d for its effect on the e c o s y s t e m , d u e to the v i b r a tions, the noise a n d the air p o l l u t i o n t h a t it causes directly o r indirectly, etc. W h e n a n a l y s i n g the e n v i r o n m e n t a l p o i n t o f v i e w o f the I . F . C . s , it is n e c e s s a r y to w e i g h the a d v a n tages and d i s a d v a n t a g e s d e r i v e d f r o m its c o n struction. T h e l o c a t i o n o f the I . F . C . s , c o n d i t i o n e d by the land a r e a n e e d e d , is a key factor, b o t h f r o m the p o i n t o f view o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n as well as f r o m the environmental viewpoint. An incorrect location can cause the t h e o r e t i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l a d v a n tages o b t a i n e d w i t h an I . F . C . to be lost.
6. References 1 M. Linster, Le Transport et l'Environnement. Fairs et Chiffres de Base. Rapport pour la C.E.M.T. Paris, 1989. 2 OCDE. Donn~es OCDE sur ['Environnement. Compendium 1989.
65 3 C. Lamure, Noise pollution, in Road Traffic Noise Generation, Propagation and Control"~ Scope 24, John Wiley & Sons, 1986, Chapter 12. 4 W. Rothengatter, Le Transport et I'Environnement. Aspects Economiques. Rapport pour la C.E.M.T. Paris, 1989. 5 C. Mitchell, A. Hickman, Le Transport et I'Environnement. Pollution Atmospherique et Emissions Sonores des Vehicules Routiers. Rapport pour [a C.E.M.T. Paris, 1989. 6 C.E.M.T., Evolution des Transports [970-1988. Paris, 1990. 7 Ministerio de Transportes (M.T.T.C.), Informe Sobre los Transportes, el Turismo y las Comunicaciones en Espana en 1989. Madrid, 1990. 8 J. Cotomer, R. lzquierdo, La Organizacion de los Centros de Apoyo al Transporte de Mercanclas en Francia e Italia. Revista TTC nfim 53. Madrid, Nov.-Dec. 1991. 9 J. Colomer. Infraestructuras de apoyo al transporte de mercancias por carretera, in II Congreso lnternacina[ de Ordenaci6n del Territorio. Universidad Polit6cnica Valencia, Valencia, Junio 1991. 10 J. Colomer, Centros de Transporte de Mercancias. Definicion y Caracteristicas. Efectos Territoriales que producen, in ! Congreso lnternacional de Ordenaci6n del Territorio. Universidad Polit6cnica Valencia, Valencia, Junio 1988. 11 A. Torres, Metodologia de Antilisis Mutticriterio Aplicada a la Localizacion de Centros lntegrados de Mercanclas en Areas Metropolitanas. Doctoral Thesis. Departamento de Transportes de la Universidad Politecnica de Valencia. Valencia, 1990.
The Science of the Total Environment 146/147 (1994) 59-65
Integrated freight transportation centers; influence on the decrease in environmental effects in urban areas Josl} V. C o l o m e r
Ferr~indiz
Departamento de Transportes. Universidad Polit~;cnica de Valencia. Camino Vera s/)~.. 46071 l'ah,ncia. Spain
Abstract The present paper analyses the current environmental situation in cities, showing the importance of highway vehicle traffic in general, and trucks in particular. Analysis of the evolution of freight transportation by highway and the characteristics of the sector in Spain suggests, on the one hand, that the magnitude of the problems derived from freight transportation is growing and, on the other, that the fact that there is a great number of very small firms existing, and the location of these firms, concentrates a significant part of the problems in urban areas and makes the successful solution more difficult to reach. In order to lessen the adverse effects from heavy vehicle traffic in cities, Integrated Freight Centers (I.F.C.) appear to be a solution of undoubtable interest in medium- and large-sized cities. However, when analysing the I.F.C.s from an environmental point of view, it is necessary to take into account the impact of these infrastructures and to weigh the environmental advantages and disadvantages. In doing so, the location factor is found to be fundamental. Key words: Transportation centers; Environmental effects; Freight
1. Current situation of pollution in urban areas: influence of transportation
increased significantly. Three basic factors have influenced this increase:
In most cities, the e n v i r o n m e n t has d e t e r i o r a t e d significantly in recent years due to different causes, a m o n g which traffic from highway vehicles is a m a j o r source. The action o f traffic on the evironment in u r b a n areas is shown in various effects, principally noise and air pollution.
•
1.1. N o i s e
Currently it is estimated that m o r e than 16% o f the p o p u l a t i o n o f the O E C D countries, o f the o r d e r o f 130 million inhabitants, is subjected to
In the last 20 years, the percentage o f inhabitants subjected to excessive levels o f noise has
• •
the 50% increase in u r b a n i z a t i o n in western countries as a whole; the growth in mobility (the n u m b e r o f highway vehicles has tripled in 20 years); and the mechanization o f the m a j o r i t y o f activities
[ll.
0048-9697/94/$07.00 © 1994 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. SSDI 0048-9697(93)03983-Z
60 noise levels higher than 65 dB(A) (which constitutes the maximum desirable noise level to have in homes). In the specific case of Spain, according to data from 1980, of the order of 23% of the population was exposed to noise from highway transportation higher than 65 dB(A) [2]. Although it should not be forgotten that noise comes from diverse sources, the predominance in urban areas of the noise from transportation (including highway vehicles) over other sources of noise is clearly established. In noise originating from highway vehicles, noise from heavy vehicles is very significant. The threshold of maximum tolerable noise from trucks in the different existing ordinances is much higher (between 4 and 8 db(A)) than that admissible for light vehicles. According to studies, the equivalent noise level on a street with heavy traffic (30% heavy vehicles) is - 5 - 7 db(A) higher than if all the traffic is only light vehicles [3]. Moreover, when there are freight transportation firms and warehouses inside the cities, the noise caused by the activity related with the handling, loading, unloading and transfer of freight must be added to the traffic noise. 1.2. Air pollution It is generally agreed that in most cities more than 50% of polluting emissions originate from transportation. According to specific pollutants, 90% of the CO, almost 50% of the nitrogen oxides, 40% of the hydrocarbons, around 50% of the lead (a percentage that varies depending on the use of unleaded gasoline), 80% of the benzene emissions and nearly 40% of the emissions of CO2 in OECD countries originate from transportation in general, with highway transport as the main contributor. In the center of a medium-sized city, highway vehicle traffic produces almost 100% of the concentration of CO and of lead, around 60% ofthe nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons, 10% of SO2 and 50% of the suspended particulate matter present in the atmosphere. The contribution of motor vehicle emissions to the total pollutants in the atmosphere has been growing in past years. As an example, in the former German Federal Republic [41, between
J. v. Colorner Ferr6ndiz/ Sci. Total Environ. 146/147 (1994)59-65
1966 and 1982, the contribution of transportation in the total CO in the atmosphere increased from 34% to 65%, the percentage of nitrogen oxides passed from 40% to 54.6% and the percentage of hydrocarbons from 28.5% to 39%. In total urban area emissions, heavy vehicles have an important effect, not only from the direct perspective of their own emissions but also indirectly, since congestion increases, and the amount of emissions increases from the light vehicles which have to drive at very reduced speeds and consume more energy. 1.3. Improvements introduced in vehicles The improvements introduced for noise and pollution reduction have been importan in recent years. The adoption of strict measures on maximum vehicle emissions and the surveillance over their enforcement have given reductions of the order of 37% in the emissions of CO and of 46% in the emissions of hydrocarbons in the USA and Japan. However, the efficiency of measures based on vehicle improvements, regarding noise as well as air pollution, is clearly limited by the continuous growth of the total number of vehicles (the total vehicles of the OECD countries doubled between 1970 and 1987) and the growth in traffic use (the vehicles x km driven increased by 66% between 1970 and 1987 in the OECD countries as a whole) [5].
2. Situation of freight transportation by highway 2.1. Evolution of freight transportation by highway The transportation of freight by highway in
Table 1 Evolution of surface freight traffic (10 9 t km) Country
ECTM France UK Spain
Highway
Railroad
1970
1970
1988
% Highway/ total 1970
1988
438.9 887.8 273.8 256.9 61.6 66.3 111.8 67.6 52.3 49.5 85.0 124.8 24.5 18.2 77.6 51.7 133.0 10.3 12.0 83.3
77.6 68.1 87.3 91.7
Source: C.E.T.M. [61.
1988
J. V. Colomer Ferrhndiz/ Sci. Total Environ. 146/147 (1994) 59-65
Table 2 Public and private freight transportation in Spain 1988 Transport
Public Private
No. vehicles
239.687 861.070
Fleet capacity (t)
Fraction of total traffic (%,) Mg
Mg/km
1.829.700 1.497.200
88 12
91 9
Source: Ministerio de Transportes [7].
Europe has experienced strong growth in the last 20 years. Transporting by highway in Europe as a whole doubled between 1970 and 1987, while in the same period the railroad lost almost 10% of its traffic. The general situation in Europe is reproduced in Spain as well. In the period between 1980 and 1988, highway traffic in Spain increased more than 50%, going from 100 000 million t × km to approximately 150 000 million t × km. In the same period the railroad remained stable with figures of around 12 000 million t × km. Table I reflects the evolution of surface traffic between 1970 and 1988 in Spain, France, United Kingdom and in the countries of the European Conference of Transportation Ministers (ECTM). This evolution is evidence of the importance of freight transportation by highway today. 2.2. Organization o f the sector
Authorizations are always required for all freight transportation by highway in Spain. These authorizations can be given for the performance of public transportation, in which a vehicle can transport products from various different firms; or for
the performance of private transportation, in which a vehicle will only transport products from the firm to which this vehicle belongs. The vehicles authorized for private transportation are not allowed to perform public transportation. Regarding load capacity, public transportation has 55% of the load capacity, while the remaining 45°/,, corresponds to private transportation. However, 88% of the tonnes of the freight that is transported uses public transportation while the remaining 12°/,, corresponds to private transportation. Regarding company size, 98.3% of the firms with a load capacity of 69% of the total are firms with less than six trucks. There are only 357 firms with more than 20 vehicles and they support somewhat less than 15°/,, of the load. This situation gives rise to serious problems derived of a great number of very small firms, on the one hand, and unauthorized transportation, on the other, that are causing major conflicts in the sector. Tables 2 and 3 reflect in greater detail the situation stated. 2.3. Problems associated with jie~eht transportation by highway
The situation reviewed and the characteristics peculiar to freight transportation by highway give rise to a series of important problems, some of which have special implications for the urban environment [8]. In effect, the existence of many very small-sized firms located inside cities and their limited capital keeps them from undertaking modernization and moving to more suitable areas. This situation, which is found in most Spanish cities, gives rise to significant environmental impacts that go from the use of land in unsuitable
Table 3 Company structure of public freight transportation in Spain 1988 Type of firm
No. firms
Load capacity(t)
Percentof firms
Percentof capacity
1 vehicle 2-5 vehicles 6-20 vehicles > 20 vehicles
130 335 28 166 2501 357
664.000 599.000 299.000 268.000
80.8 17.5 1.55 0.22
36.3 32.7 16.3 14.6
Source: Ministerio de Transportes [7].
62
areas to considerable noise problems and air pollution derived from heavy vehicle traffic and from the operations inherent to freight transportation. Together with these problems of an environmental nature, other problems detected also are the sector's lack of organization, poor working conditions for crews, accidents caused by heavy vehicles, lack of suitable parking space for trucks and the repeated failure to observe regulations in force. The foreseeable evolution of freight transportation and growth in urbanization confirm that the magnitude and importance of the problems pointed out, with respect to urban areas, have been increasing and will increase in time.
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riers, producers, warehouse owners, distributors, agents, etc. [9]. 3.1. Functions With this definition as a starting point, it is possible to differentiate between the functions that can take place in an I.F.C., which can be identified as [10]: • • • • • •
3. Integrated freight transportation centres: functions, objectives and constraints • In order to address the problems identified in the previous section, diverse support infrastructures for freight transportation have arisen in different European countries. These go from simple parking lots to large complexes, among which the most impressive are the Integrated Freight Centers (I.F.C.) in the most important cities. The first I.F.C. (Garonor) that can be considered as such is located in Aulnay sous Bois, 12 km from Paris between highways A-l, A-3 and F-2 at less than 2 km from the Charles de Gaulle and Le Bourget airports. Garonor arose from the limitation established in the Plan of Paris of 1962 which prohibited entry of heavy vehicles in the capital and proposed the creation of 5 centers for transfer on the outskirts. This is, it arose for reasons directly related to urban planning with the goal of lessening in part the negative environmental impact derived from heavy vehicle traffic through Paris. In its general acceptation, an Integrated Freight Center (I.F.C.) is a set of installations and facilities where different activities directly related with national or international transportation take place, which can be used jointly by industrialists and distributors as a logistic center due to the relationship it has with the transportation sector. It also has a series of complementary services available that are at the disposal of the different users: car-
an intermodal coordination center; a load consolidation, partition and storage center; a storage and distribution logistic center; a load contracting center; a international transport center; a reception center for vehicles (parking, repair shops) and for crews (hotel, restaurant, bar, lounges, showers, etc.); and other specific functions.
Generally, each I.F.C. contemplates several of these functions, some of them prevailing over others. 3.2, Objectives The creation of the I.F.C.s responds to the achievement of certain objectives among which the following should be pointed out. Objectives of a general nature. •
•
Urban planning and environment: the transfer of transport firms out of the cities, avoiding the impacts derived from heavy vehicle traffic and recovering the areas where the firms were located. Transportation: to facilitate the operation of the market, coordinating supply and demand and the different modes of transportation (intermodality).
Objectives directly related to the users. •
•
To improve the organization, management and coordination of highway transportation companies. To improve the supply of load storage, consolidation and partition services and distribution of the firms located in the I.F.C.
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• •
To improve crew working conditions. To solve certain specific problems.
3.3. Technical constraints In order for the 1.F.C.s to fulfill their functions and achieve the objectives for which they are designed, it is necessary to keep in mind various constraints of different kinds. There are constraints of a general type, common to all I.F.C.s and of a particular type that affect a certain I.F.C. The general constraints can be technical, economic, legal, etc. This paper concentrates on the technical constraints, which are going to affect in greater measure the environmental aspects that will be dealt with below. The most important general constraints of a technical nature that impact on the I.F.C.s are those derived from the land area needed and location. Regarding the land area needed, the experience of the I.F.C.s in existence suggests 25 hectares as the minimum area to be able to lodge all the facilities that are generally present in all I.F.C.s. The maximum area depends on the functions that take place in the center, although currently - 100 ha can be established as a guide. Also related to area are the possibilities of extension. Existing experience makes it advisable to take into account possible sections of land for future extensions. These sections must be larger, the more important the Integrated Freight Center is. The location factor is, without doubt, the fundamental constraint if certain objectives are to be achieved with an I.F.C. It must not be forgotten that an I.F.C., because it is a center that attracts and generates heavy vehicle traffic, itself originates a series of environmental effects in the form of noise, pollution, risks of accidents, etc.) and urban effects (as a focus of attraction for firms, location of highway hotels, etc.) which must be taken into account. They are to be analysed in the following sections. The location of an I.F.C. too close to the city it serves may give rise to very significant unfavorable negative effects. A location far from the main communication routes requiring significant additional
63
mileage for heavy vehicles might jeopardize the success of the I.F.C. The function of I.F.C.s within freight transportation makes the connection with the main communication routes and proximity to the cities served fundamental constraints. The importance of location is also reflected in the ordinance that deals with the creation of the I.F.C.s. Thus, for example, in Italy, the Interportos (equivalent to the I.F.C.s) are defined by the 'Law of July 24, 1990 on Aid for the Building of Interportos' as 'organic complexes of integrated structures and services destined to the exchange of goods between the different modalities of transportation, comprising in all cases a suitable rail facility to form and receive whole trains and linked with ports, airports and main communication routes.' In Spain, the 'Law 16/1987 of July 30 on the Order of Surface Transportation (LOTT)' and its regulations contemplate the I.F.C.s in a global concept of 'Transport Stations' and with respect to its location, the LOTT indicates that ~... The location of the stations will respond not only to intrinsic operational needs of the services that will use them, but also coordinate with the remaining modes of surface transportation, including air and maritime modes and with urban transportation of the city in question . . . . In order to establish the site, the influence on urban planning, traffic, safety and population environment must be weighed
4. Environmental aspects of the integrated freight centers The establishment of an I.F.C. may lead to the following effects on the environment [11]. Impact on the landscape. Being an area of considerable size in which elements of different heights are distributed, which during use is occupied by trucks for the most part, it produces undeniable effects on the landscape which will be more or less admissible, according to the fragility of the surroundings where it is located Impact on the ecosystem. This is derived as much from its own functioning as from the accesses to it, from the activities that are carried out in it and
64
from the resulting traffic. It can affect the plant and animal communities of the area. Noise and vibrations. Noise and vibrations are produced by the great flow of heavy vehicles as well as by the activities carried out in the 1.F.C. of loading, unloading and handling goods. The activities of an I.F.C. can last throughout an entire day, including the periods of rest at night which causes the harmful effects to magnify due to their distribution in time. Atmospheric pollution. The emissions from heavy vehicles are concentrated in these installations and their access routes. To this concentration the possible emissions originating from the functioning of the installations must be added. Others. Included in this section are the spillage and waste of the I.F.C. itself, the risk of fire, the lighting at night which may affect rest time in nearby areas, etc. Due to these aspects, an in depth study of the environmental impact is necessary when studying the design of an I.F.C. and its location. When analysing the performance of an I.F.C. from the viewpoint of the improvement of the urban environment, a comparison must be made in which the improvements that the performance may bring about for the environment are weighed against the possible disadvantages derived from the impact that the I.F.C. causes. The improvements come, in general, from the diversion of heavy vehicle traffic from urban areas to the I.F.C., from the relocation of firms and warehouses situated in the cities to the I.F.C., from the environmental effects derived from the auxiliary activities that are transferred to the I.F.C., etc. Regarding the disadvantages, those already stated must be taken into account as environmental effects owing to the I.F.C. itself. In addition, the traffic from urban areas that the 1.F.C. may attract must be considered. As has been indicated, location is a key factor from the environmental point of view, since the proximity of an I.F.C. to residential areas is likely to cause a strong environmental impact, present or future, which cancels out the possible advantages that can be obtained from its building. In this sense, worthy of note is the correct location of the Madrid Transport Center, on the perimeter
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highway M-40, which connects the different accesses to Madrid, making it unnecessary to go through the city. The Center has an optimal connection with the airport and is close enough to Madrid to serve as a distribution center. On a project level, the Transport Area of Alicante also has an excellent location where the by-pass highway around Alicante (connection Valencia-Murcia) meets the future South-West penetration (connection Alicante-Madrid). Communication with the port and airport is optimal. It is located near Alicante but separated from the residential areas by land set aside for industrial use.
In the case of Valencia, however, the choice was made for a solution bordering on a residential area, far away from the by-pass around Valencia and very near the city. This will very probably cause problems due to its location as well as to the difficulties for future extension. 5. Main conclusions The following conclusions can be emphasized as the most important of the present paper. The environmental problems derived from highway vehicle traffic in urban areas are very important. The participation of transportation in the acoustic and atmospheric pollution is growing as time passes. The incidence of heavy vehicles on pollution is high. The improvements introduced by motor vehicles, although they have obtained interesting results, are limited in their global efficiency due to the strong and continuous growth experienced by the total number of vehicles and by their use. The tendencies analysed show that freight transportation by highway has increased considerably in recent years and it is foreseeable that this growth will continue in the future. The organization of the freight transportation sector in Spain and the location of a significant number of firms in urban areas mean that the problems derived from freight transportation will reach a considerable magnitude and that it will be necessary to take measures towards solving them. Among the measures that it is possible to carry out in medium- and large-sized cities, the I.F.C.s
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a p p e a r to be a p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n to the d i f f e r e n t p r o b l e m s o f freight t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , w i t h a clear i m p a c t on aspects related to u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t by m a n a g i n g to d i v e r t traffic a n d r e l o c a t e firms a n d w a r e h o u s e s a w a y f r o m the city. T h e I . F . C . , in turn, can p r o d u c e , b e c a u s e o f its features, a significant i m p a c t o n the e n v i r o n m e n t , b o t h f r o m the p o i n t o f v i e w o f the l a n d s c a p e a n d for its effect on the e c o s y s t e m , d u e to the v i b r a tions, the noise a n d the air p o l l u t i o n t h a t it causes directly o r indirectly, etc. W h e n a n a l y s i n g the e n v i r o n m e n t a l p o i n t o f v i e w o f the I . F . C . s , it is n e c e s s a r y to w e i g h the a d v a n tages and d i s a d v a n t a g e s d e r i v e d f r o m its c o n struction. T h e l o c a t i o n o f the I . F . C . s , c o n d i t i o n e d by the land a r e a n e e d e d , is a key factor, b o t h f r o m the p o i n t o f view o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n as well as f r o m the environmental viewpoint. An incorrect location can cause the t h e o r e t i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l a d v a n tages o b t a i n e d w i t h an I . F . C . to be lost.
6. References 1 M. Linster, Le Transport et l'Environnement. Fairs et Chiffres de Base. Rapport pour la C.E.M.T. Paris, 1989. 2 OCDE. Donn~es OCDE sur ['Environnement. Compendium 1989.
65 3 C. Lamure, Noise pollution, in Road Traffic Noise Generation, Propagation and Control"~ Scope 24, John Wiley & Sons, 1986, Chapter 12. 4 W. Rothengatter, Le Transport et I'Environnement. Aspects Economiques. Rapport pour la C.E.M.T. Paris, 1989. 5 C. Mitchell, A. Hickman, Le Transport et I'Environnement. Pollution Atmospherique et Emissions Sonores des Vehicules Routiers. Rapport pour [a C.E.M.T. Paris, 1989. 6 C.E.M.T., Evolution des Transports [970-1988. Paris, 1990. 7 Ministerio de Transportes (M.T.T.C.), Informe Sobre los Transportes, el Turismo y las Comunicaciones en Espana en 1989. Madrid, 1990. 8 J. Cotomer, R. lzquierdo, La Organizacion de los Centros de Apoyo al Transporte de Mercanclas en Francia e Italia. Revista TTC nfim 53. Madrid, Nov.-Dec. 1991. 9 J. Colomer. Infraestructuras de apoyo al transporte de mercancias por carretera, in II Congreso lnternacina[ de Ordenaci6n del Territorio. Universidad Polit6cnica Valencia, Valencia, Junio 1991. 10 J. Colomer, Centros de Transporte de Mercancias. Definicion y Caracteristicas. Efectos Territoriales que producen, in ! Congreso lnternacional de Ordenaci6n del Territorio. Universidad Polit6cnica Valencia, Valencia, Junio 1988. 11 A. Torres, Metodologia de Antilisis Mutticriterio Aplicada a la Localizacion de Centros lntegrados de Mercanclas en Areas Metropolitanas. Doctoral Thesis. Departamento de Transportes de la Universidad Politecnica de Valencia. Valencia, 1990.