Intelligent packaging to improve shelf life

Intelligent packaging to improve shelf life

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Valentina Siracusa⁎, Nadia Lotti† ⁎ Department of Chemical Science (DSC), University of Catania, Catania, Italy, †Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy Chapter outline 1 Introduction  261 2 Intelligent packaging systems  265 2.1 Sensors  266 2.2 Indicators  269 2.3 Radio frequency identification (RFID) tags  272

3 Global market and perspectives of intelligent food packaging  273 4 Life cycle assessment evaluation of intelligent food packaging  273 5 Legal and safety aspects  275 6 Conclusions  276 References  277

1 Introduction It is well known that the main purpose of a food packaging system is to preserve the food from external contamination, maintaining its freshness and quality and, if possible, extending its shelf life. As reported by several authors, a traditional food packaging has four basic functions, shown in Fig. 1. Traditional packaging has provided all those basic functions together with the traditional methods used to preserve food such as drying, refrigeration, freezing, curing, and sugaring (Lee et al., 2015); however, in recent years, due to the increasing demand for innovative and creative packaging to guarantee food safety, quality, and traceability, these methods have become insufficient. The requirement for new technologies, integrated in the food packaging, has become even more pressing. This new packaging must extend or maintain the shelf life and quality in a large range of fresh products such as vegetables, fruit, meat, and fish. Food producers, food processors, logistic operators, retailers, and consumers are the subjects of this innovation. But these innovations, before becoming commercially viable and adopted by all, must respect the regulatory requirements and overcome the possible major expenses for the newly adopted technology. Further, in order to take into account the environmental aspects, food packaging innovation is called to consider a broad range of sustainability issues, Food Quality and Shelf Life. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817190-5.00008-2 © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Fig. 1  The four basic functions of traditional food packaging.

such as waste preservation, process optimization, recycling, reuse, correct use of resources, and so on. In the end, the innovation must be discussed, not only considering the four basic functions of traditional food packaging, but also taking into account the contribution to the environment. Consequently, a more sustainable solution is required in order to reduce the impact of both packaging waste and food loss. Within the new generation of food packaging, active and intelligent packaging has gained even more interest as an innovative system (Realini and Marcos, 2014; Han, 2005). Active packaging technology has been extensively studied and reported in several studies (Lee et al., 2015). In this case, compounds are incorporated into the packaging system to extend shelf life and maintain and/or enhance food quality. It is a system where product, package and environment interact with each other in a positive way in order to extend food shelf life, improving food quality and safety. The type of active agents that could be used are diverse and they deliberately alter the inside packaging environment or the kind of interaction between the food and the packaging material. In general, as reported by Lee et al. (2015), active packaging application can be classified into four categories: a) absorbing and scavenging of chemicals such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, moisture, ethylene, UV light, contaminants, and flavors; b) removal of food chemicals such as, for example, lactose and cholesterol; c) temperature control, self-heating or self-cooling; and d) microbial control and quality control.

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An example is the modified atmosphere packaging technology (MAP), used to extend the shelf life of fresh food, delay the ripening, reduce loss, and improve appearance. Temperature and different gas formulation are the main variables that must be considered, related to different product types and microorganisms. Other examples of active packaging are the use of antimicrobial packaging materials, gaseous agents, or antimicrobials (organic acid, pediocins, enzymes, essential oils) in the package headspace, and the use of oxygen scavengers, carbon dioxide absorbers and generators, ethylene scavenging, and moisture absorbers. Current active packaging systems, together with an indication of substance used, advantages, and applications, are reported in Fig. 2. From the beginning of this millennium, research activity on food packaging innovation has greatly increased, devoted principally to the development of intelligent packaging. In this case, the function is to record, detect, sense, trace, and communicate between the packed food and the environment and vice versa, in order to extend the shelf life, provide information, improve the food quality, and advise of internal or external problems that reflect on the packed food products (Biji et al., 2015; Yucel, 2016). The principal systems of intelligent packaging, together with the indication of the type, advantages, and applications, are shown in Fig. 3. These systems differ from each other not only for composition but also in the type and quantity of data that can be obtained, and how it can be obtained and analyzed (Heising et al., 2014). As reported by Vanderroost et al., research on the three major technologies has increased since 2002, largely on sensor and indicator systems. They also report a list of research projects related to intelligent packaging, reflecting the trend of interest in the development, implementation, commercialization, and standardization of those materials and technologies. According to the standard definition (EC 450-2009, 2009; Vanderroost et al., 2014), intelligent packaging permits continuous control of food package condition and the environment surrounding the food during storage and transport. Also, the package integrity is controlled during the whole lifecycle of the food/packaging system. In this manner, users are able to collect all the information concerning the packed products and its environment, thanks to the ability of the intelligent packaging to sense, detect, and record any changes. In the last 20 years, the numbers of publications has increased considerably, especially from 2009. In fact, considering the financial crisis of 2007, the interest in new, efficient, and economic business processes, as well as in the reduction of losses (in terms of money, resources, and food), has driven research into these innovative types of packaging. It is important to note that this packaging provides continuous information on food condition and on packaging integrity, which are important not only for the final consumers but also to detect any abuse or problems occurring in the entire supply chain, from the farm to the table. Thanks to that, it is possible to reduce food loss, to reduce waste, and to control and eventually reduce unnecessary transport and storage steps. Intelligent packaging is also considered a valid help in the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) and Quality Analysis and Critical Control Points

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Fig. 2  Active packaging systems.

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Fig. 3  Intelligent packaging systems (Lee et al., 2015).

(QACCP) methodologies, used to control, detect, prevent, reduce, and eliminate any possible criticisms that could affect the final food quality. EC 2009, Intelligent packaging and active packaging can be used together in the realization of so-called “smart packaging”. The product and the environment can be monitored continuously by the use of intelligent packaging and the changes that inevitably occur can be controlled by the use of active packaging. The purpose of this chapter is to give an overview of recent scientific research results on recent and emerging technologies related to intelligent packaging systems that could be easily integrated with traditional packaging materials. The aim is to discuss the major technologies such as sensor, indicator, and radio frequency identification systems, considered the most promising technologies for the next generation of intelligent packaging systems. Subsequently, market share and perspectives of intelligent packaging systems will be given, together with an indication of the approach that could be followed to design, produce, and apply those intelligent food packaging systems in a sustainable manner.

2 Intelligent packaging systems Intelligent packaging represents a large and important step in avoiding food waste, while improving food logistics and traceability. Indicators, sensors, and different devices are incorporated to detect, sense, record, and transmit all the recorded information from the package system and its environment, in order to monitor continuously the quality and the state of the product throughout the whole supply chain (Realini and Marcos, 2014; Yam et al., 2005).

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2.1 Sensors A sensor is an analytical device used to detect and quantify chemical or physical change in a food product inside a package. Sensors can provide quantitative results about, for example, concentrations, temperature, pH, and other quantitative data, and can store the data recorded. The positive and negative aspects of sensor systems are summarized in Fig. 4. Chemical sensors are gaining much attention thanks to the fact that the receptor, the sensing part of the chemical sensor, is chemically capable of detecting the presence, activity, composition, and concentration of a specific chemical molecule or gas type through a surface adsorption mechanism. The result is a change of a coating property that is converted proportionally into a signal by the transducer (the measuring part of the sensor). The transducer is called “active” if it requires external power for the measurements, otherwise it is called “passive.” The most important feature is that chemical sensors have to be small and flexible. They can be used to detect organic volatile compounds (VOCs) and small gas molecules such as H2, CO, CO2, NO2, CH4, NH3, H2S, O2, and so on, which could be produced by food deterioration, or by the loss of package integrity. In general, these sensors could be used to substitute more binding measures performed with fixed or portable instruments such as gas chromatography mass spectrometer (GC-MS) or gas analyzers that require breakage of package, not real time measurements, not on-line control, and small scale usage. They can provide high sensitivity measures, but the chemical sensors commercially available still require high power (as for example, high operating temperature), are too large, not selective, too rigid, and not small enough to be inserted or integrated directly into the food package. As reported by Vanderroost et al. (2014), technologists are now devoting their interest to the development of a new generation of chemical sensors.

Fig. 4  Positive and negative aspect of sensors.

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2.1.1 Biosensors Those intelligent systems are able to detect, record, and transmit target metabolites produced by biochemical reactions occurring in the food degradation process. According to the type of food packed, they can be properly tailored in order to detect the formation of specific degradation products. They are formed by two components: a bioreceptor that detects the chemical compounds and a transducer that converts the chemical signals into a quantitative response. Realini and Marcos (2014) reported some of those commercial biosensors, but not currently commercialized. The great interest is to insert those sensors directly in the food packaging. An interesting result was achieved by molecular imprinting technology where a polymer matrix is used as substrate for the sensor (Ghaani et al., 2016).

2.1.2 Printed electronics technology Printed electronic devices could be considered the future of intelligent packaging technology. They are made by the combination of electrically functional inks on flexible substrates of film, such as polymers (polyimide, PEEK, PET, polyesters), steel, and paper. The production process is simple, with less material waste, and is less time consuming than traditional silicon based production processes. Inkjet printing is used for research and development studies, while gravure printing could be applied for mass production of printed electronic devices (Vanderroost et  al., 2014). In addition, they present several advantages such as being lightweight, rollable, portable, foldable, bendable, thin, and, considering that the substrate could be different, they can be produced with shape and characteristics well tailored for each specific application. Flexible printed chemical sensors are the most attractive intelligent packaging devices. The research in this field is still active in order to reach major challenges. In particular, the research is devoted to optimizing electronic ink formulation, in order to improve sensitivity and selectivity across the all kinds of environmental conditions that could occur during the transport and storage of food products. The minimization of power requirements for those sensors are also an important requirement as well as the optimization of processes to parameters such as printing speed, drying, ink viscosity, ink deposition and smoothness, wettability, reactivity, and roughness of the substrate (Monero et al., 2011).

2.1.3 Carbon nanotechnology Carbon nanomaterials (CNs) such as carbon black, fullerenes, grapheme, graphite nanofibers, and nanotubes have been an object of great interest from researchers. Thanks to the fact that numerical simulation can be easily realized to predict the physicochemical behavior of CNs, the interest in such materials has increased their potential application. Those materials could be applied as chemical sensors (receptor and/or transduce) thanks to their excellent electrical properties and mechanical performance such as light-weight and high flexibility, even at low temperatures.

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Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene are candidates for gas sensors because they show change in resistivity connected to change in gas concentration (Schedin et al., 2007). Their sensitivity is very high with detection limits at ppm levels of gas molecules concentration. In particular, thanks to its two dimensional shape, every atom of graphene could be considered as a surface atom. In this manner, every atom site could be involved in gas interaction, detection capability increasing enormously, with the detection of a single molecule. Fullerenes and fullerene-based film are interesting materials because they can resist great pressure (over 3000 atm) (Grynko et al., 2009). Carbon nanofibers (CNFs) are extremely pure materials, with high mechanical strength and high geometrical surface, that can easily be functionalized and surface modified, making them suitable to be used as chemical sensors (receptors). Despite the great interest in CNs materials, there are still some problems concerning their application as intelligent packaging materials. First of all, the presence of contaminants on the surface must be absolutely avoided. This problem could be solved by functionalization of the CN surface with specific chemical or biological molecules. Further, the cost must be lowered and the production methods must be industrial scaled.

2.1.4 Silicon technology Due to the increasing performance of silicon photonics, research on transducer devices generating an optical signal is gaining even more interest in the scientific community as well as at industry level. This sensor does not need an electrical power supply but can be powered by using UV, visible, and IR light. The optical circuit is integrated in silicon semiconductor material. Actually, they were developed for very selective gas concentration detection in the headspace of food packaging. The major problems concerning this technology are noise sensitivity, low detection sensitivity, and the high development and operational costs of infrared lasers and detectors needed for sensor read-outs (Baets et al., 2013; Puyol et al., 1999). The advantages are low cost of production and the possibility to produce on a large scale, using the same methodologies and infrastructure used for the production of conventional silicon semiconductors. Thanks to the cost, size, scale, and energy employed, this technology could become a commercially alternative to the traditional technologies and applied in the near future for large-scale food-related applications.

2.1.5 Biotechnology Biotechnology has enabled the possibility of isolating and purifying living organisms such as cells, antibodies, and enzymes to be used in the realization of biosensors. In respect to chemical sensors, these are able to detect chemical analytes through biological receptors and are applied to identify allergens and analytes such as sugars, alcohols, lipids, nucleotides, and so on (Vanderroost et al., 2014). Most of the applications of these sensors are in the medicine field, but they can be applied in food and process control. Their integration in food packaging is still at the research stage. The most important need is to control the possibility of hazards due to the migration of

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the biological components of the food. As reported by Vanderroost et al. (2014), one application of a biosensor for the detection of pathogens in food grain, fruits, and wine was presented by Flex Alert—Scheelite Technologies LLC. Biosensors could be used also to detect the presence of food spoilage associated with particular odors released by food ripening, fermentation, cooking, and so on. They are highly sensitive but limited in use due to their high selectivity for specific compounds.

2.1.6 Nose system These systems are used to mimic the human nose to smell and taste flavor, odors, and savors associated with food. Sensors used for this purpose must have the same sensitivity as the human nose, a high selectivity to different compounds, small dimension, high stability, reproducibility, reliability of the data recorded, and short response and recovery time. Research is devoted to the production of small and cheap nose systems, that could be integrated directly in food packaging and that could be considered as a substitute for the traditional forms used for research purposes and control in food industry production (Gardner and Bartlett, 1993; Ouellette, 1999).

2.2 Indicators In contrast to sensors, indicators can be used to obtain direct visual information about the food packed by evaluation of color change, increasing/decreasing of color intensity, diffusion of a color along a path (Kerry et al., 2006; Resem Brizio, 2016). The data are qualitative and the process irreversible. It means that the color diffusion or intensity change must be irreversible in order to avoid false information. The most commercially available indicators for food packaging application are shown in Fig. 5, together with specific information about their applications and some commercialized trade name indicators.

Fig. 5  Indicators for food packaging applications.

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2.2.1 Gas indicators These indicators are principally used to detect package integrity, which is an essential requirement, especially when food is stored in a controlled internal atmosphere (MAP) (Vu and Won, 2013). It is a noninvasive approach that provides qualitative or semiquantitative data on alteration of internal gas concentration, performed by a visual color change. This uses a special pigment for plastic packaging that change clearly its color intensity, giving the retailer or manufacturers the possibility to remove the product from the supply chain before it reaches the supermarket or the final consumer. In addition, it alerts on the integrity of the package to avoid the use of unsafe products (Vanderroost et al., 2014). The most common gas indicator used for MAP application technology is the oxygen indicator, which detects the O2 level inside the package (Yam et al., 2005). When it reaches a nonpermitted level, a color change is observed, due to a colorimetric oxidation of a dye-based indicator. If the oxygen level is reduced, the color returns to the original one. This reversibility is not always desired because the oxygen could be used by microbial growth inside the package (Hurme, 2003). Generally, O2 gas sensor indicators are used together with O2 scavengers or adsorbers (Kuswandi et al., 2011). Some example are the Ageless Eye® tablets of the Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Company Inc., the Tell-Tab O2 indicator tablets of IMPAK supplier, the EMCO indicators, and the O2Sense™ of the FreshPoint Lab supplier.

2.2.2 Freshness indicators These indicators provide information about the quality of the food packed. By this kind of indicators, the microbial growth and/or the chemical change of food are detected. In this case, the reaction between the indicator and the microbial growth metabolites is recorded. The metabolites produced during storage, such as glucose, organic acids, ethanol, amines, nitrogen compounds, and so on, could be detected and their changes in concentration associated with the loss of food freshness. It could be used to detect, for example, volatile amines produced by the deterioration process of seafood, producing the characteristic fishy odor. These volatiles react with the dye indicator, causing a color change that indicates the loss of food freshness. Another example is the detection of the aromas released by fresh fruits ripening. The label indicator changes its color from red to orange to yellow, indicating the rate of freshness loss (Kuswandi et al., 2013; Vanderroost et al., 2014). Freshness indicators could be based not only on the detection by color indicator change but also by using biosensors to detect target metabolites, and could be incorporated into the food packaging.

2.2.3 Time-temperature indicators Temperature is one of the most important parameters that must be carefully controlled in order to avoid loss in food quality and safety, especially for fresh food such as meat and fish. These indicators are useful because they are able to record the temperature history during the distribution and storage of food products, especially for chilled and frozen products (Pavelkova, 2012, 2013). Over a period of time, or due to change in temperature, a self-adhesive indicator composed of active zones changes its color ir-

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reversibly, faster at higher temperatures or slower at lower temperatures (Galagan and Su, 2008). Time-temperature indicators (TTIs) can be used to have information about the cold chain break. Producers and retailers, as well as consumers, are consequently informed on the shelf life of fresh products, in order to avoid food consumption over the data codes. The TTIs available commercially are those based on physical, chemical, enzymatic, and biological systems (Kerry et al., 2006). Realini and Marcos (2014) reported a list of such indicators. All are related to color change. As an example, the TTI indicator 3M Monitor Mark® of the 3M Company, containing a fatty acid ester, changes its color due to the melting of the ester and its diffusion, when the temperature exceeds a critical value. The range of temperature detection is between −15 and 26°C, and the response indicator depends on the concentration and type of fatty acid ester (Kuswandi et al., 2011). The Keep-it® indicator of Keep-it Technologies is based on a chemical reaction between an immobilized chemical reactant and a mobile chemical reactant, stored in a separate compartment. When the sealing between the two compartments is removed, the two reactants come into contact in a time-temperature dependent manner, giving a visual signal. The Fresh-Check® indicator of Temptime Corporation is based on a polymerization reaction with the production of a colored polymer (Kerry et al., 2006). VITSAB® indicator of VITSAB International AB is based on an enzymatic reaction between an aqueous solution of enzymes and a substrate, contained in separate compartments. When the separation is removed, the contents are mixed and, by an enzymatic hydrolysis reaction of the substrate, a color change is detected (Galagan and Su, 2008). OnVu™ detector, supplied by Ciba and Freshpoint™, is an indicator based on a photochemical reaction. By UV exposure, a pigment changes its color gradually in a time-temperature dependent manner. The characteristic of this indicator is that it can be applied on the packaging as a label or it can be printed directly on the packaging surface (O’Grady and Kerry, 2008). The TopCryo™ indicator of the TRACEO supplier is based on a microbiological system, with microorganism, indicator, and nutritive medium closed in a plastic sachet attached in to the food package. Finally, FreshCode™ of Varcode Ltd. and Tempix® of Tempix AB are indicators in the form of labels, where the bare code is printed with fading inks that disappear with time-temperature increment (Realini and Marcos, 2014).

2.2.4 Thermochromic inks detector These indicators are based on the use of thermo-sensitive ink that can be printed on the package. The color of these indicators could change reversibly or irreversibly depending on the temperature exposure. Irreversible inks are invisible until a certain temperature is not reached. Once the color appears, it remains constant if no change of temperature is recorded. If temperature increases, the color changes, leaving an indication of the temperature change history. Reversible inks change their color if heated but they return to original when the temperature decreases (Vanderroost et al., 2014). As reported by Ghaani et al. (2016), the color change could be accompanied by the indication of a “ready to serve” message.

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2.3 Radio frequency identification (RFID) tags RFID was originally used to control food products during distribution and storage. It represents a separate technology, different from those related to sensors and detectors. In general, this technology is not used to provide qualitative or quantitative information about the food quality status or shelf life. It is generally applied for the identification, automatization, theft prevention, and counterfeit protection of food products. RFID is considered an automatic identification technology (Auto ID), and includes barcodes, QR-codes, magnetic ink, and so on. Actually, this technology is used, not only to track the movement of raw materials and products, but also to monitor storage conditions and food quality during the entire supply chain (large production networks). Depending on the type of power supply, RFID tags can be classified into three categories: ●

●

●

passive RFID tags, with no battery, where the data between the tag and the reader are transferred by induction or backscatter coupling; these tags are small, light and can be read in a distance of a few meters; semipassive RFID tags, with a small battery, that records data in the tag; and active RFID tags, with an internal battery used to run the microchips and to transmit the signal to the reader; these are more expensive and can be read in a range of 100 m.

The communication between the RFID tags and the reader can be at low, high, and ultra-high frequency (LF, HF, UHF). Despite this technology being used for many years in sectors such as ticketing, sports events timing, shipping, and so on, in the field of intelligent food packaging its use is still limited due to the fact that some technical adjustments, process and security issue must be controlled. In addition, in order to provide historical information of food distribution and storage, to monitor the package integrity, and to detect the quality status of the food, many parameters have to be controlled. Temperature, relative humidity, pH, pressure, light exposure, VOCs, and gas molecules concentration are some of them. Today, the combination of sensors with RFID tags is being studied by several researchers for future applications in the food supply chains. One or more sensors could be connected to an RFID tag, in order to record and collect continuously all the data measured by the sensors and memorized in the tag. Fruits, vegetables, meat, and fish, the most perishable and sensitive foods, could be easily controlled during their transport and storage, to avoid loss in freshness and quality, minimizing the amount of food spoiled before reaching retailers and consumers. There are several RFID suppliers that work in collaboration with food industries (Realini and Marcos, 2014). Currently, research is being devoted to find how to integrate the sensors in the RFID tag or how to integrate the sensors-RFID tag directly in the packaging materials. Vanderroost et  al. (2014) reported and described several research projects involved in the development of new sensors-enabled RFID tags for perishable foods such as fish, fresh fruits, and vegetables. Further, they reported the indication of some already widely commercially available sensors-RFID tags that can be inserted on the food packaging or in the box containing the food for transportation.

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3 Global market and perspectives of intelligent food packaging According to Realini and Marcos (2014), the market for active, intelligent, and advanced packaging is increasing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of about 5.8% with about $5.3 billion of intelligent packaging sales in 2017. Unfortunately, the applications of such materials are still limited, probably due to the high price and limited integration with other packaging materials. The advances in biotechnology, chemistry, microelectronics, and material science can contribute to the development of new and low cost intelligent packaging solutions. An interesting solution could be the integration of RFID systems with sensors and biosensors, to be used to collect information in real time about the state of the packed food, leading to improved safety, quality, and management, while reducing food losses. Advancement in printed electronics for developing electrical devices by deposition of conductive inks on different substrates could help to integrate intelligent systems into packaging materials. Printed devices show the advantages of low price and easy disposability. Graphene technology, with the use of graphene inks with high mechanical flexibility, high electrical conductivity, and chemical stability, could represent the next generation of intelligent devices, as well as the use of CNTs (Realini and Marcos, 2014). Organic photonics and electronic technologies are evaluating the possibility of integrating optical and electrical circuit devices with superior mechanical properties and similar, if not better, optical and electrical properties than silicon, into organic materials such as polymers. This technology is still in a fundamental stage and is not commercialized. CNs technology could be developed in order to take advantage, not only of the superior electrical and mechanical properties, but also their unique optical properties that could be applied for the realization of optical sensors. The adoption of this technology in the near future requires still research and development and, especially, cost reduction (Mlalila et al., 2016; Fuertes et al., 2016).

4 Life cycle assessment evaluation of intelligent food packaging Intelligent food packaging is required to improve the overall food supply chain but also to contribute to the global reduction of food loss and food waste (Poyatos-Racionero et al., 2018; Ingrao et al., 2018a, b). For this purpose, intelligent packaging, as well as all kinds of packaging materials, has to be sustainable in terms of application but also in terms of design and production. Packaging materials and intelligent devices such as tags, RFID, sensors, and so on, are not designed and conceptualized in respect of a closed-loop recyclability mechanism. Packaging has to be as cheap as possible and as functional as possible in order to improve food shelf life, as demanded by the industry, the market, and consumers; never mind if the packaging is difficult or even impossible to reuse or recycle. In addition,

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the use of different materials results in a complex and highly expensive recycling process and the demand for cheap and single use intelligent devices is more common thanks to the lower production process, ignoring the possibility of a future reuse. According to the Sustainable Packaging Coalition, sustainable packaging must be characterized by different criteria. As reported from the Institute of Food Technologists (Brody et al., 2008), the criteria are: 1. sustainable packaging must be beneficial, safe, and healthy for consumers throughout its life cycle; 2. must meet market requirements (performance, cost); 3. sourced, manufactured, transported, and recycled by using renewable energy; 4. the use of renewable or recycled resources must be maximized for its production; 5. produced by clean technologies and best practices; 6. produced from healthy materials; 7. the production process must be optimized in terms of materials and energy; and 8. recovered and used in biological and/or industrial cradle-to-cradle cycles.

The production of any good, as well as goods produced for food packaging application, involves the individuation and definition of all life cycle phases, as well as the technologies and the materials used for production, in order to control and determine point by point all the possible impacts than can adversely affect environmental quality. In this context, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology can be used, together with the technical solutions that can be adopted in the industrial production processes. LCA, environmental impact, and sustainable development are key concepts for sustainable evolution. The LCA methodology involves the determination and quantification of the environmental impacts associated with each of the production and developing phases, characterizing the life cycle of a given product or process. Through the individuation of the environmental impacts it is possible to evaluate possible solutions in order to respect the environmental sustainability of a product throughout its life cycle (Siracusa et  al., 2014). The key factor for sustainable development is to achieve the perfect balance between technological innovation and environmental protection. Packaging systems are designed to protect and maintain the quality and safety of food after processing, while food is traveling from the origin point to the consumption point. The impacts linked to packaging production, transportation, use, and final disposal must be taken into consideration because all those phases affect environmental sustainability. The LCA methodology can be considered a valuable tool as a design-support for highlighting environmental criticalities related to packaging production, use, and final disposal. Improvement solutions as well as the promotion of more eco-friendly products must be part of decision-making processes. According to Meneses et al. (2012), several packaging alternatives can be proposed to consumers, in terms of materials used, forms, and sizes. But, given that several factors must be considered in the food packaging field, such as food quality preservation, freshness conservation, pleasant image, good marketing appeal, correct product identification, storage and distribution information, and so on, choosing the best packaging solution while considering the environmental aspect is not always easy. For this pur-

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pose, LCA methodology is useful to have information about the main environmental hotspot related to the life cycle of each phase for a given packaging system (Ingrao et al., 2015, 2017). It is well known that there is a massive consumption of materials in the packaging sectors, especially polymers materials, due to the combination of favorable factors but this is of course accompanied by consistent waste generation with consequent environmental pollution problems. In addition, growing environmental awareness imposes the eco-friendly attributes to packaging products and processes. The development and use of materials with biodegradability and/or compostability attributes could be a good alternative to be followed in order to reduce environmental pollution as well as municipal solid waste (Peelman et al., 2013; Siracusa et al., 2008). Considering that the most important feature of packaging is to guarantee food conservation and preservation for long periods, reducing at the same time waste of food and materials and utilization of preservatives, to date, not many biopolymers have been fully employed for food packaging application. In addition, as shown by the results reported by Tabone et al. (2010), the comparison of the environmental impacts of 12 polymers, 7 obtained from fossil fuels, 4 from renewable resources, and 1 from both, showed that the employment of renewable resources instead of fossil ones does not necessarily guarantee reduction of the related environmental impacts.

5 Legal and safety aspects In contrast to the United States, Australia, and Japan where intelligent packaging systems are widespread, in Europe the legislative regulations have hindered the diffusion of new packaging solutions into the market. The first law related to materials intended to come into contact with food appeared in 2004 (European Commission, 2004). In particular, this law intended to underline the safety of the packaging materials versus human health, reporting that any component present in the packaging shall not transfer to food in forbidden quantity, bringing unacceptable change in the food composition or organoleptic deterioration of food characteristics. In addition, intelligent materials used in food packaging shall not give misleading information to the consumers and their presence, as well as their suitability to food contact and appropriate use, must be fully detailed. Dainelli et  al. (2008) reported an interesting interpretation of such laws. The Regulation EC 2023/2006 implemented the previous law, taking into consideration the migration process—that is, the transfer of chemical or biological components into food in unacceptable quantities (European Commission, 2006). In 2009 a specific regulation on active and intelligent packaging appeared (European Commission, 2009), with specific indications for such materials intended to come into contact with food, and with a list of the authorized substances that can be used for their manufacture. Further, this law states that when active or intelligent devices are used for food packaging applications, it is mandatory to write the words “DO NOT EAT” and, if possible,

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put a specific symbol on the package. The risk for releasing substances from intelligent packaging occurs mainly when they are put inside the primary packaging. In fact, this is the main cause of reluctance among consumers to these materials. The main risk could be the leaching or the swallowing of active components (Mills, 2005; Han et al., 2005; Restuccia et al., 2010). In addition, when separate nonedible parts are included into the primary packaging, the reluctance of consumers increases, compared to parts attached to the package such as, for example, labels. In conclusion, in order to increase the acceptance of consumers toward this technology, it is necessary to minimize any potential risk of food contamination (Song and Hepp, 2005; Lee et al., 2008).

6 Conclusions In the last 20 years, new packaging technologies have been developed in order to respond to ever more particular and sophisticated consumer demand. Preserved, fresh, tasty, and convenient food products with longer shelf life and controlled quality are objects of great interest to both consumers and industry. Market globalization has influenced the retailing process, with longer food distribution chains. In addition, consumer lifestyles have changed and, consequently, less time is spent shopping for fresh food and cooking. All these aspects have become driving forces for the development of a new package concept, created to extend the shelf life of food while maintaining and monitoring safety and quality. In this context, intelligent packaging is considered the newest technology in the food packaging field. It is seen as being able to improve the safety, quality, convenience, management, and traceability of food products, for suppliers, retailers, and final consumers. Despite the great interest in this technology, the documented results, and the interesting potentiality, it is still growing and not fully commercialized. There is still a gap between such technology and real market application. These systems are not fully commercially viable and not employed for everyday packaging commodities. Currently, intelligent packaging costs about 50%–100% of the whole cost attributed to the final packaging, while the commercial request is at most 10% of the total cost of the good available to the consumer. Despite the higher added benefits, which have been fully demonstrated to outweigh the higher costs of this technology, their commercial application is still limited. Further advancement of this technology in any case is needed. The gap between the results obtained from laboratory tests and the real food applications must be closed. The great variability of the food is the heaviest parameter to be controlled and fully analyzed. In addition, the possibility to integrate several functions within only one device is another technical goal for the future. For example, the possibility to detect and record several types of information at the same time could be of great relevance. Even education of the final consumers of the benefits resulting from the use of intelligent packaging must be considered. Information about the correct use of the devices, what purpose it serves, how it works, that it is not dangerous, and so on must be well communicated to final consumers. The safety of the final packaging in respect to human health, food quality and safety, and possible migration of contaminants must be fully detailed.

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Finally, but no less important, the sustainability of intelligent systems must be carefully checked, according to the universal concept of sustainable packaging. The interest versus reusable, reversible, and multiuse devices is the first challenge for an environmentally sustainable technology.

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