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Intent and Choice Regarding Maternal Employment Following Childbirth
JOURNAL OF VOCATIONAL BEHAVIOR ARTICLE NO.
53, 372–385 (1998)
VB971636
Intent and Choice Regarding Maternal Employment Following Childbirth James Werbel Department of Management, Iowa State University This study examined the impact of personal values, perceived spouse preference, and family income on maternal employment intent and maternal employment following childbirth. This study followed a sample of 70 expectant working mothers from the last trimester of pregnancy to 6 months following childbirth. Traditional gender role values and perceived spouse preference influenced maternal employment intent measured prior to childbirth. Maternal employment intent and marital partner’s income influenced maternal employment 6 months after childbirth. The results of this study provided support for Brown’s (1996) value-based theory of career choice. Results also suggested that some women who preferred to be withdrawn from the labor force had to work to provide greater family income. © 1998 Academic Press
Childbirth is a very significant biological event that distinguishes women’s careers from men’s careers (Marshall, 1987). While both marital partners are likely to experience increased family demands with the birth of a child, parental responsibilities usually fall disproportionately on married women (Kamo, 1988). To manage the increased parental responsibilities, a new mother may withdraw from the work force. While this choice may provide more time to manage childcare and potentially provide higher quality childcare than daycare, it decreases the family’s standard of living. It may negatively impact future employment opportunities and future earnings (Lehrer, 1992), as well as job involvement and organizational commitment (Gould & Werbel, 1983). On the other hand, if maternal employment is chosen, the new mother is likely to experience both role overload and work and family conflicts. Research indicates that working women are more likely to experience work and family conflict than are working men (Duxberry, Higgins, & Lee, 1994; Greenhaus, Parasuraman, Granrose, Rabinowitz, & Beutell, 1989). The higher levels of personal stress may negatively impact career satisfaction (Peluchette, 1993; Aryee & Luk, 1996) and may have negative consequences on marital satisfaction (Schumm & Bugaighis, 1986). Regardless of the chosen career path, the wide ranging implications of the Address reprint requests to James Werbel, Department of Management, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011. 372 0001-8791/98 $25.00 Copyright © 1998 by Academic Press All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
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choice on the implementation of women’s careers suggests that research is needed to investigate the factors that influence maternal employment. While some of the consequences of maternal employment upon work and family attitudes are relatively well known (Spitze, 1988; Watkins & Subich, 1995), surprisingly little research has prospectively and concurrently examined both the predictors of prebirth maternal employment intent and maternal employment following childbirth. Existing research has examined economic predictors of maternal employment. For example, Volling and Belsky (1993) examined the impact of family finances on the decision to work or not work following childbirth. Avioli and Kaplan (1992) examined work patterns of married women over a 5-year period and found that previous full-time work experience, intentions to work, and not having a young child were the most relevant variables for predicting maternal employment. Granrose (1983) examined predictors of maternal employment preferences. She found that unmarried women in college preferred to remain at home following childbirth if they valued their family and an efficient household. Those that preferred to work valued accomplishment, variety, and their career. However, these preferences may change after getting married, entering the workforce, and getting pregnant. This paper prospectively examines the predictors of maternal employment intent measured prior to childbirth and the maternal employment choice following childbirth. To better understand how childbirth affects women’s careers, it is important to understand factors related to maternal employment intent and how they may be modified after childbirth. While prebirth maternal employment intent may be a primary influence on the final maternal employment following childbirth, other personal or life issues may modify prebirth maternal employment intent. PREDICTORS OF INTENT AND CHOICE IN MATERNAL EMPLOYMENT FOLLOWING CHILDBIRTH Figure 1 presents a model of the predictors of intent and choice in maternal employment following childbirth. The model assumes that personal values, spouse preference, and family income influence prebirth maternal employment intent. Maternal employment intent and family income influence maternal employment following childbirth. The model is based partially on Brown’s (1996) value-based model of career choice. Brown assumes that values with high priorities are important determinants of career choice preferences. People will either strive to make choices congruent with high priority values or avoid potential conflicts with their high priority values. Brown also assumes that people who make career choices based on their value systems will be more satisfied with their work situation than are people who do not make choices based on their value systems. Additionally, Brown and Crace (1996) acknowledge that people hold multiple roles and that they need to balance their work roles with their nonwork roles in making career choices. Career choices need to be made in ways that minimize interrole
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FIG. 1.
A model of maternal employment intent and choice.
conflicts. Value priorities may be used to manage these conflicts. Thus, the model includes job involvement as a work value and traditional gender orientation as a family value. Expectant mothers need to manage both of these roles. Based on Brown’s theory, prioritized work and family values would likely influence the choice to work or not work following childbirth. The Brown model is prescriptively driven and directed towards facilitating effective career decision making of clients making career choices (Brown, 1996). It emphasizes the development of career preferences and fails to fully consider that career choices may not match one’s psychologically based career preferences. Osipow and Fitzgerald (1996) are critical of career choice theories that fail to consider sociological and economic influences on career choice. Career literature gives credence to factors such as random events (Osipow, 1983), sociological influence (Gottfredson, 1981), and interpersonal influence (Greenstein, 1986) that deflect one’s ability to pursue career intent. Thus, Fig. 1 includes external influence and family income that may deflect career choices from value-based career intent. Personal values. Two personal values may influence prebirth maternal employment intent: traditional gender role values and job involvement. Traditional gender roles reflect the traditional division of household labor with the husband being the primary breadwinner and the wife being primarily responsible for household and childcare activities (Nye & Gecas, 1976). Based on the assumption that prioritized values can guide career choices, those women who value the traditional family support roles will act in ways by which they can readily meet those role expectations. They will tend to avoid situations that create work and
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family conflicts and withdraw from the labor force. Some research indicates that women who have traditional gender role values are more likely to have stronger intent to remain at home following childbirth than are married women who did not have traditional gender role values (Greenstein, 1986; Granrose, 1984). Hypothesis 1: The more the traditional gender role values, the lower the prebirth maternal employment intent. Job involvement is a value that indicates the degree to which work is a part of one’s self-identity. Job involvement is a predictor of outcomes associated with career success (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977). Thus, those who have high job involvement have the ability and desire to achieve long-term career success. Leaving the labor-force may be associated with previously mentioned negative career consequences that are incompatible for expectant mothers with high job involvement. While acknowledging that maternal employment may create work and family conflicts, mothers with high job involvement may be willing to live with those negative consequences in order to gain the benefits from maternal employment. Research indicates that some women pursue maternal employment because they intrinsically value work (Volling & Belsky, 1993; Silberstein, 1992). These women may work because they have high levels of job involvement. Hypothesis 2: The greater the job involvement, the greater the prebirth maternal employment intent. Personal values are relatively stable and are most likely to impact career preferences (Brown, 1996). They are likely to be realistic self-assessments and are not readily subject to external pressures. They are unlikely to change with advent of a new child. As such, they would have a greater impact on prebirth maternal employment intent than on maternal employment following childbirth. External influence. Contrary to some theories of career choice, people make career choices in a social context (Werbel & Roberg, 1989). While the decision to seek or not seek maternal employment is ultimately a mother’s choice, she may be subject to external influence from family members. Marital partners may have their own career and family goals to pursue that may or may not be compatible with the expectant mother’s career and family goals. A marital partner is likely to have more freedom to pursue career options and experience less interrole conflict between work and family expectations if the mother withdraws from the workforce. Furthermore, the partner may also have some traditional role expectations about family roles. These preferences and expectations may influence the expectant mother’s intent to leave the labor force. On the other hand, the marital partner may prefer maternal employment to help meet family financial need and reduce the pressures of being a primary wage earner.
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This partner preference may influence the expectant mother’s intent to pursue maternal employment. There is some research suggesting that spouse influence is important in making career decisions. Wallstrom, Foster, and Berger (1978) report that the perceived partner’s expectations about willingness to relocate influences women’s hypothetical decisions to accept a job that requires geographic relocation. Spitze and Waite (1981) found direct support that husband’s attitudes influence wife attitudes towards maternal employment, especially after the initial stage of marriage. However, more research needs to investigate the role of spouse influence on maternal employment choice processes following childbirth. Hypothesis 3: The more marital partners are perceived to prefer maternal employment, the greater the wife’s prebirth maternal employment intent. As with personal values, marital partner’s maternal employment preference should be relatively stable over time. While the childbirth event may slightly change spouse preference, sufficient thought is likely to be given to the preference in the latter stages of pregnancy. Consequently, it is likely to have a stronger direct impact on prebirth maternal employment intent than maternal employment following childbirth. Family income. People pursue employment for financial gain. A mother’s withdrawal from the work force will affect current family income and there is evidence that withdrawal from the work force negatively affects wages when the mother returns to work (Lorenman & Neumark, 1992; Chandler, Kamo, & Werbel, 1994). Thus, a mother needs to consider financial pressures/financial freedom to work or not work following childbirth. Two family income variables could influence maternal employment following childbirth: marital partner’s income and mother’s income. Marital partner’s income is related to financial freedom. Higher incomes are associated with greater family discretionary spending and savings. Thus, a family with high partner income has more financial flexibility to withstand a loss of income than does a family with low partner income. Family financial flexibility is an important factor governing the decision to withdraw from the labor force. Research suggests that those who have sufficient financial resources are likely to retire (Hanisch, 1994). Family financial pressures appear to be one of the dominant factors for maternal employment following childbirth (Volling & Belsky, 1993). Marital partner’s income should influence maternal employment intent and maternal employment. To the extent one can accurately anticipate family financial need, marital partner’s income is likely to influence maternal employment intent. However, while taking maternity leave, some new mothers may find that the costs associated with having a child may be unexpectedly high. Some
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families may be too optimistic about the marital partner’s abilities to support the family as single wage earner and the mother may need to work to provide sufficient family income to meet expenses. Thus, Hypothesis 4: The more the marital partner’s income, the less maternal employment intent. Hypothesis 5: The more the marital partner’s income, the less the probability of maternal employment. Mother’s income may also affect maternal employment following childbirth for two reasons. First, a family unit may make long-term financial plans dependent on the income of both family members. Family members buy cars, obtain housing, or seek post-secondary education that require extensive financial investments. Financial plans may be difficult to alter the greater mother’s income. It is also possible that some people make long-term career choices to maximize wages throughout their adult life (Becker, 1964). Based on this, expectant mothers with high prestige and high paying jobs have accumulated more human capital than have expectant mothers in low prestige and low paying jobs. Mothers who have accumulated human capital and withdraw from the labor force may be unable to attain their previous pay level if they decide to return to work at a later time. Similarly, mothers who withdraw from the labor force may be unable to return to work with the same employer. Even if they return to the same employer, seniority benefits may have deteriorated during that time. Some research supports this perspective. There is evidence that women are more likely to remain on the job following childbirth the more years of work experience they have (McLaughlin, 1982). Furthermore, childbirth is associated with decreases in wages of married women (Lehrer, 1992; Chandler, Kamo, and Werbel, 1994). Hypothesis 6: The greater the wife’s income, the stronger the maternalemployment intent. Maternal employment intent. Finally, the model proposed in Fig. 1 assumes that prebirth maternal employment intent mediates the relationship between the independent variables and maternal employment. Intentions are commonly considered to be the single best predictor of behaviors (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Intentions have been used to predict career choices, such as the decision to take a new job (Mobley, 1977), changing careers (Rhodes & Doering, 1993), and retirement (Hanisch, 1994). Maternal employment intent should play a significant mediating role in the relationships between personal values, spouse preference, and family income.
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Hypothesis 7: Prebirth maternal employment intent mediates the relationships between personal value variables, family income, and spouse preference with maternal employment. Methods Procedure. The data for this study were collected from expectant parents attending hospital based prenatal education classes in two separate states and regions of the country. Part of the sample came from an urban area in the South and part from a rural area in the Midwest. The classes went for two to four class periods. The researcher distributed the survey in the first class period and returned in the second class period. Parents normally enrolled in these classes in the last trimester of pregnancy. Typically at the start of the class, the researcher solicited volunteers to participate in the study. To participate in the study, the expectant mothers had to be married and currently working full time. Those who agreed to participate were given a survey to complete. Each parent also provided the expected date of delivery and contact information. Six months after delivery, those who participated in the study were contacted and asked to describe their current employment status. Sample. One hundred and seventy people who met the requirement to participate in the study agreed to complete a survey. This was approximately 20% of all expecting parents who attended prenatal classes. It was not clear how many people in the full class met the requirements. Of the 170 people, 92 completed and returned the survey (53% response rate). Of the 92 who completed a survey, we contacted 70 mothers who were employed prior to childbirth and determined their work status 6 months after pregnancy. We were unable to contact 22 because they were no longer at their prebirth address and left no forwarding address. Altogether, this was a 41% response rate of those that met the requirements and agreed to participate in the survey. Seventy-one percent of the respondents contacted following childbirth were having their first child. Mothers who normally attend prenatal classes were most likely to be having their first child. Fifty-seven percent held technical, managerial, or professional jobs. Correspondingly, this sample tended to be well educated, with 3.5 years of postsecondary education. The average length of marriage was 43.5 months and the average age of the women was 28.07 years. Measurements. Three of the five independent variables used multi-item scales and two used self-reported measurements. Family income was measured using self-reported measurements of the marital partner’s income and the expectant mother’s income. Two of the three multi-item scales were job involvement and values about traditional gender roles. The job involvement scale was a four-item short scale from Lohdahl and Kejner (1965). Sample items include: “A great satisfaction in my life comes from my work” and “I am very much involved personally with my work.” A five-point Likert scale (1 5 strongly disagree to 5 5 strongly agree)
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was used to measure job involvement. The mean of the responses was used to score the scale and scores ranged from 1 to 5 (a 5 .86). Traditional gender role values were measured using a scale developed by Scanzoni (1978). This scale was used because the items are directly tied to values associated with mothers working and raising a family. The scale has been used to predict family satisfaction (Weigel & Weigel, 1990), family decision making styles (Scanzoni & Szinovacz, 1980), and parenting behaviors (Arditti, Godwin, & Scanzoni, 1991). Principal components factor analysis suggested there was a seven-item scale. Sample items included: “A married woman’s most important task should be taking care of her husband and children” and “Having a job for herself should be just as important as encouraging her husband in his job” (reverse coded). A five-point Likert (1 5 strongly disagreed to 5 5 strongly agreed) was used to measure values about traditional gender roles (a 5 .84). The mean of the responses was used to score the scale and scores ranged from 1 to 4.29. Perceived marital partner’s maternal employment preference was measured using a three-item scale created for this survey. The items were: “My husband feels that only serious complications should prevent me from returning to my job after having a child,” “My husband would prefer to have me leave my job so I could stay at home and raise our child” (reverse coded), and “My husband feels that our child will be healthier if I would stay at home with it” (reverse coded). A five-point Likert scale (1 5 strongly disagree to 5 5 strongly agree) was used to measure marital partner’s maternal employment preference (a 5 .78). The mean of the responses was used to score the scale and scores ranged from 1 to 4.67. The mediating variable of maternal employment intent was measured with five items from the predelivery survey. They were created for this survey. The five items were: “Within six months or sooner after having a child, I plan to be working on my current job,” “I would prefer to leave my job so I could stay at home and raise our child” (reverse coded), “Our child will be healthier if I would stay at home with it” (reverse coded), “I will be more satisfied with my life if I stayed at work after having a child,” and “Only serious complications would prevent me from returning to my job after having a child.” A five-point Likert scale (1 5 strongly disagree to 5 5 strongly agree) was used to measure maternal employment intent (a 5 .84). The mean of the responses was used to score the scale and scores ranged from 1 to 5. The dependent variable, maternal employment, was self-reported in the follow-up contact. The follow-up contact was made 6 months after the expected date of delivery, because previous research indicates that the rate of return to work declines significantly after 6 months (Joesch, 1994). The variable was dummy coded (0 5 not working; 1 5 working). In summary, 73% reported that they were working at 6 months. Analysis. To assess the degree to which maternal employment intent mediated the relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable,
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JAMES WERBEL TABLE 1 Means, Standard Deviations, Reliability Coefficients, and Correlation Matrix
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Mean
S.D.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
.73 3.13 2.56 3.07 2.78 $26,607 $35,288
.45 1.00 .74 .97 .73 16,082 19,684
– .62 2.39 .59 .22 .29 2.29
(.84) 2.59 .76 .36 .35 .00
(.84) 2.58 2.27 2.34 2.17
(.78) .31 .30 .08
(.86) .34 .22
– .32
–
1, Maternal employment; 2, Maternal employment intent; 3, Traditional gender role values; 4, Perceived spouse preference for working; 5, Job involvement; 6, Mother’s income; 7, Marital partner’s income. If r $ .29; p , .01.
James and Brett (1984) recommended that one must first demonstrate that the independent variables would be associated with both the mediating variable and the dependent variable. The mediating variable must then be associated with the dependent variable. Finally, when controlling for the mediating variable, the independent variables must be not significantly related to the dependent variable. Based on these three criteria, correlation and stepwise regression analysis were used to analyze the data. Results Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, and correlation matrix of the variables in the study. The correlation matrix determined which, if any, variables were associated with the mediating and dependent variables. Maternal employment intent was significantly and negatively associated with traditional gender roles (r 5 2.59) and was positively associated with perceived marital partner’s preference for maternal employment (r 5 .76), mother’s income (r 5 .35), and TABLE 2 Stepwise Regression Predictors of Maternal Employment Intent and Maternal Employment Maternal employment intent
Maternal employment
Independent variable
DR2
FDR2
DR2
FDR2
Perceived spouse preference Traditional gender role values Maternal employment intent Marital partner’s income
.58 .03 – –
94.52** 5.22* – –
– – .38 .08
– – 40.87** 8.85**
* 5 p , .05 ** 5 p , .01
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job involvement (r 5 .36). Maternal employment was positively and significantly associated with maternal employment intent (r 5 .62) and wife’s income (r 5 .29). It was significantly and positively associated with perceived marital partners preference for maternal employment (r 5 .59) and negatively associated with marital partner’s income (r 5 2.29). Because some independent variables were correlated with each other, stepwise regression analysis was used to evaluate the unique explained variance of independent variables. In predicting maternal employment intent, Table 2 indicates that two variables significantly entered the equation explaining 61% of the variance: perceived marital partner’s maternal employment preference (b 5 .76; DR2 5 .58; FDR2 5 94.52) and traditional gender roles b 5 2.22; DR2 5 .03; FDR2 5 5.22). In predicting maternal employment, Table 2 indicates that two variables significantly entered the equation explaining 46% of the variance: maternal employment intent (b 5 .61; DR2 5 .38; FDR2 5 40.87) and marital partner’s income (D 5 2.29; DR2 5 .08; FDR2 5 8.85). Additional analyses suggested that mothers were more likely to shift from labor market withdrawal intentions to maternal employment than the opposite direction. In summary, the results supported hypotheses one and three. Traditional gender role values and martial partner’s perceived maternal employment preference were significantly associated with maternal employment intent. However, the results failed to support hypotheses two and four regarding maternal employment intent. Job involvement and marital partner’s income were not significantly associated with maternal employment intent using stepwise regression. Marital partner’s income was associated with maternal employment supporting hypothesis five. The results failed to support hypothesis six. Mother’s income was not significantly associated with maternal employment intent using stepwise regression. Supporting hypothesis seven, maternal employment intent mediated the relationship between traditional gender role values and perceived marital partner’s preference with maternal employment. As hypothesized, it failed to mediate the relationship between marital partner’s income with maternal employment following childbirth. Discussion The results of this study provided support for Brown’s (1996) value based model of career decision making. Maternal employment intent was influenced by values based on traditional gender roles. Women who valued the caretaker role were more inclined to remain at home where those values can be fulfilled than women who less clearly valued the caretaker role. Women who had nontraditional views were more likely to intend to remain at work. It is interesting to note that traditional gender roles had a greater impact on maternal employment intent than job involvement. To some extent, this may be related to the type of decision being made. In this study, the career decision involved leaving the work force. These were women who were working in the last trimester of pregnancy. They were in a position to return
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to work. Thus, values associated with family roles and leaving the work force may have played a more important role than did job involvement. In contrast, job involvement may be more important for willingness to return to work after an extended maternity leave. There is also evidence that maternal employment intent was a joint family decision as opposed to an individual career choice. This research supported Osipow’s and Fitzgerald’s (1996) call for the need to consider sociological influences in career decision making. Maternal employment intent was highly associated with perceived marital partner’s preference. It was not assessed whether marital partners openly discussed and commonly shared maternal employment preferences or if marital partners’ preferences were perceived as unilateral and uncompromising. Regardless of the way in which family members discussed maternal employment, there was significant evidence that maternal employment intent was compatible with perceived spouse preference. Maternal employment choice processes are an intersection between a family choice and an occupational choice. Consequently, it may be more open to family influence than other types of career choices. Nonetheless, many types of career choices affect family matters in terms of income, impact on spouse career options, and ability to provide family social support. This may make family member influence more pervasive than current theories espouse. The results also suggested that marital partner’s income significantly impacted compromise in career choice. In this study, marital partner’s income was not significantly related to maternal employment intent but was related to maternal employment. This suggested that family financial circumstances were not directly considered when evaluating maternal employment intent. They were either undervalued or the mother/family was unable to fully anticipate the financial needs associated with having a new child. However, in spite of preferences, some mothers accommodated family financial circumstances in contrast to their initial preferences. This suggested that marital partner’s income created compromise with maternal employment intent and that external factors may have deflected mothers from pursuing their prebirth maternal employment intent. Perhaps the biggest limitation of this paper was that the sample was not representative of all mothers. Some mothers may have resigned from fulltime employment before the last trimester of pregnancy. These women were excluded from the study because they had already made their career choice. The design of this study focused on the impact of maternal employment intent and choice. To fully separate the relationship between intent and choice, the author assumed that it would be best to assess intent before the maternal employment decision was made. Additionally, the sample largely consisted of mothers having a first child (50 of 70 subjects). Mothers having a second child may approach the decision to pursue maternal employment differently. In this study, 17 or 34% of the mothers having their first child stayed at home. Only 2 or 10% of the mothers having previously had a child stayed at home. Additional research with a larger sample
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of mothers with children is needed to assess the degree to which decision processes vary between expectant mothers having no children and expectant mothers having at least one child. Furthermore, this study should control for attrition from the labor force after having a first child. Finally, the sample is not geographically representative of all mothers. While the sample includes different regions of the country, the sampling methods may have biased the results. In summary, the results of this study highlight the need for more research on some important issues. First, maternal employment appears to be a family choice process as opposed to an individual choice process. Career choice theory largely focuses on career choice as an autonomous and individual choice process. In this situation, spouse preference was considered in developing maternal employment intent. While maternal employment may be more open to spouse influence than other types of career choices, it would be fair to assume that many married employees make career plans and choice intentions in consultation with a marital partner. Thus, future research should address how marital partners express preferences and influence career choices, such as maternal employment. Second, this study raises questions concerning economic factors that influence compromises in career choices. Does the effect of family income extend to other types of career choices, such as choice of job change? Also, Brown (1996) assumes that value-based career choices will enhance job satisfaction. What happens with career satisfaction and marital satisfaction when family income alters employment intent? Finally, from a practical perspective, the results suggested that some people continue to work in spite of their intent to remain at home. This may place stress on all family members, especially if it leads to low levels of job satisfaction and high levels of work and family conflict. Organizations and legislatures could make efforts to financially accommodate and reduce family stress of new parents who would prefer to remain at home. While the current Family Leave Act is an incremental improvement to reduce family stress by providing a 2-month period for maternal leave, more efforts could be made to financially assist those who would prefer to be homemakers but do not have the financial resources to afford that opportunity. For example, corporations could offer more freedom to pursue professional, administrative, or technical part-time employment. Legislators could offer larger tax deductions for dependents under age 5 to financially support families with a new child. REFERENCES Aryee, S., & Luk, V. (1996). Work and nonwork influences on the career satisfaction of dual-earner couples. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 49, 38 –52. Avioli, P. S., & Kaplan, E. (1992). A panel study of married women’s work patterns. Sex Roles, 26, 227–242. Arditti, J. A., Godwin, D. D., & Scanzoni, J. (1991). Perceptions of parenting behavior and young women’s gender role traits and preferences. Sex Roles, 25, 195–203.
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Peluchette, J. (1993). Subjective career success: The influence of individual difference, family, and organizational variables. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 43, 198 –208. Rabinowitz, S., & Hall, D. T. (1977). Organizational research on job involvement. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 265–288. Rhodes, S. R., & Doering, M. M. (1993). Intentions to change careers: Determinants and process. Career Development Quarterly, 42, 76 –92. Scanzoni, J., & Szinovacz, M. (1980). Family decision making: A developmental sex role model. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Schumm, W. R., & Bugaghis, M. A. (1986). Marital quality over marital career: Alternative explanations. Journal of Marriage and Family, 48, 165–168. Silberstein, L. (1992). Dual career marriage: A system in transition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Sorenson, A. (1983). Women’s employment after marriage. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 45, 311–338. Spitze, G. (1988). Women’s employment and family relations: A review. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 50, 595– 618. Spitze, G., & Waite, L. (1981). Wives’ employment: The role of husband’s perceived attitude. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 43, 117–124. Volling, B., & Belsky, J. (1993). Maternal employment, parent, infant, and constitutional characteristics related to maternal employment decision in the first year of infancy. Family Relations, 42, 4 –12. Wallstrom, B. S., Foster, M. A., & Berger, M. (1978). I will follow him: Myth, reality, or forced choice—Job seeking experiences of dual career couples. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 3, 9 –21. Watkins, C. E., & Subich, L. M. (1995). Annual review, 1992–1994: Career development, reciprocal work/non-work interaction, and women’s workforce participation. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 47, 109 –163. Weigel, D. J., & Weigel, R. R. (1990). Congruency preferences for family based gender roles and family satisfaction in two generation farm families. Sex Roles, 22, 649 – 660. Werbel, J. D., & Roberg, A. G. (1989). A role theory perspective on career decision making. In G. R. Ferris & K. M. Rowland (Eds.), Research in personnel and human resources management. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Received: April 1, 1997
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Intent and Choice Regarding Maternal Employment Following Childbirth James Werbel Department of Management, Iowa State University This study examined the impact of personal values, perceived spouse preference, and family income on maternal employment intent and maternal employment following childbirth. This study followed a sample of 70 expectant working mothers from the last trimester of pregnancy to 6 months following childbirth. Traditional gender role values and perceived spouse preference influenced maternal employment intent measured prior to childbirth. Maternal employment intent and marital partner’s income influenced maternal employment 6 months after childbirth. The results of this study provided support for Brown’s (1996) value-based theory of career choice. Results also suggested that some women who preferred to be withdrawn from the labor force had to work to provide greater family income. © 1998 Academic Press
Childbirth is a very significant biological event that distinguishes women’s careers from men’s careers (Marshall, 1987). While both marital partners are likely to experience increased family demands with the birth of a child, parental responsibilities usually fall disproportionately on married women (Kamo, 1988). To manage the increased parental responsibilities, a new mother may withdraw from the work force. While this choice may provide more time to manage childcare and potentially provide higher quality childcare than daycare, it decreases the family’s standard of living. It may negatively impact future employment opportunities and future earnings (Lehrer, 1992), as well as job involvement and organizational commitment (Gould & Werbel, 1983). On the other hand, if maternal employment is chosen, the new mother is likely to experience both role overload and work and family conflicts. Research indicates that working women are more likely to experience work and family conflict than are working men (Duxberry, Higgins, & Lee, 1994; Greenhaus, Parasuraman, Granrose, Rabinowitz, & Beutell, 1989). The higher levels of personal stress may negatively impact career satisfaction (Peluchette, 1993; Aryee & Luk, 1996) and may have negative consequences on marital satisfaction (Schumm & Bugaighis, 1986). Regardless of the chosen career path, the wide ranging implications of the Address reprint requests to James Werbel, Department of Management, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011. 372 0001-8791/98 $25.00 Copyright © 1998 by Academic Press All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
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choice on the implementation of women’s careers suggests that research is needed to investigate the factors that influence maternal employment. While some of the consequences of maternal employment upon work and family attitudes are relatively well known (Spitze, 1988; Watkins & Subich, 1995), surprisingly little research has prospectively and concurrently examined both the predictors of prebirth maternal employment intent and maternal employment following childbirth. Existing research has examined economic predictors of maternal employment. For example, Volling and Belsky (1993) examined the impact of family finances on the decision to work or not work following childbirth. Avioli and Kaplan (1992) examined work patterns of married women over a 5-year period and found that previous full-time work experience, intentions to work, and not having a young child were the most relevant variables for predicting maternal employment. Granrose (1983) examined predictors of maternal employment preferences. She found that unmarried women in college preferred to remain at home following childbirth if they valued their family and an efficient household. Those that preferred to work valued accomplishment, variety, and their career. However, these preferences may change after getting married, entering the workforce, and getting pregnant. This paper prospectively examines the predictors of maternal employment intent measured prior to childbirth and the maternal employment choice following childbirth. To better understand how childbirth affects women’s careers, it is important to understand factors related to maternal employment intent and how they may be modified after childbirth. While prebirth maternal employment intent may be a primary influence on the final maternal employment following childbirth, other personal or life issues may modify prebirth maternal employment intent. PREDICTORS OF INTENT AND CHOICE IN MATERNAL EMPLOYMENT FOLLOWING CHILDBIRTH Figure 1 presents a model of the predictors of intent and choice in maternal employment following childbirth. The model assumes that personal values, spouse preference, and family income influence prebirth maternal employment intent. Maternal employment intent and family income influence maternal employment following childbirth. The model is based partially on Brown’s (1996) value-based model of career choice. Brown assumes that values with high priorities are important determinants of career choice preferences. People will either strive to make choices congruent with high priority values or avoid potential conflicts with their high priority values. Brown also assumes that people who make career choices based on their value systems will be more satisfied with their work situation than are people who do not make choices based on their value systems. Additionally, Brown and Crace (1996) acknowledge that people hold multiple roles and that they need to balance their work roles with their nonwork roles in making career choices. Career choices need to be made in ways that minimize interrole
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FIG. 1.
A model of maternal employment intent and choice.
conflicts. Value priorities may be used to manage these conflicts. Thus, the model includes job involvement as a work value and traditional gender orientation as a family value. Expectant mothers need to manage both of these roles. Based on Brown’s theory, prioritized work and family values would likely influence the choice to work or not work following childbirth. The Brown model is prescriptively driven and directed towards facilitating effective career decision making of clients making career choices (Brown, 1996). It emphasizes the development of career preferences and fails to fully consider that career choices may not match one’s psychologically based career preferences. Osipow and Fitzgerald (1996) are critical of career choice theories that fail to consider sociological and economic influences on career choice. Career literature gives credence to factors such as random events (Osipow, 1983), sociological influence (Gottfredson, 1981), and interpersonal influence (Greenstein, 1986) that deflect one’s ability to pursue career intent. Thus, Fig. 1 includes external influence and family income that may deflect career choices from value-based career intent. Personal values. Two personal values may influence prebirth maternal employment intent: traditional gender role values and job involvement. Traditional gender roles reflect the traditional division of household labor with the husband being the primary breadwinner and the wife being primarily responsible for household and childcare activities (Nye & Gecas, 1976). Based on the assumption that prioritized values can guide career choices, those women who value the traditional family support roles will act in ways by which they can readily meet those role expectations. They will tend to avoid situations that create work and
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family conflicts and withdraw from the labor force. Some research indicates that women who have traditional gender role values are more likely to have stronger intent to remain at home following childbirth than are married women who did not have traditional gender role values (Greenstein, 1986; Granrose, 1984). Hypothesis 1: The more the traditional gender role values, the lower the prebirth maternal employment intent. Job involvement is a value that indicates the degree to which work is a part of one’s self-identity. Job involvement is a predictor of outcomes associated with career success (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977). Thus, those who have high job involvement have the ability and desire to achieve long-term career success. Leaving the labor-force may be associated with previously mentioned negative career consequences that are incompatible for expectant mothers with high job involvement. While acknowledging that maternal employment may create work and family conflicts, mothers with high job involvement may be willing to live with those negative consequences in order to gain the benefits from maternal employment. Research indicates that some women pursue maternal employment because they intrinsically value work (Volling & Belsky, 1993; Silberstein, 1992). These women may work because they have high levels of job involvement. Hypothesis 2: The greater the job involvement, the greater the prebirth maternal employment intent. Personal values are relatively stable and are most likely to impact career preferences (Brown, 1996). They are likely to be realistic self-assessments and are not readily subject to external pressures. They are unlikely to change with advent of a new child. As such, they would have a greater impact on prebirth maternal employment intent than on maternal employment following childbirth. External influence. Contrary to some theories of career choice, people make career choices in a social context (Werbel & Roberg, 1989). While the decision to seek or not seek maternal employment is ultimately a mother’s choice, she may be subject to external influence from family members. Marital partners may have their own career and family goals to pursue that may or may not be compatible with the expectant mother’s career and family goals. A marital partner is likely to have more freedom to pursue career options and experience less interrole conflict between work and family expectations if the mother withdraws from the workforce. Furthermore, the partner may also have some traditional role expectations about family roles. These preferences and expectations may influence the expectant mother’s intent to leave the labor force. On the other hand, the marital partner may prefer maternal employment to help meet family financial need and reduce the pressures of being a primary wage earner.
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This partner preference may influence the expectant mother’s intent to pursue maternal employment. There is some research suggesting that spouse influence is important in making career decisions. Wallstrom, Foster, and Berger (1978) report that the perceived partner’s expectations about willingness to relocate influences women’s hypothetical decisions to accept a job that requires geographic relocation. Spitze and Waite (1981) found direct support that husband’s attitudes influence wife attitudes towards maternal employment, especially after the initial stage of marriage. However, more research needs to investigate the role of spouse influence on maternal employment choice processes following childbirth. Hypothesis 3: The more marital partners are perceived to prefer maternal employment, the greater the wife’s prebirth maternal employment intent. As with personal values, marital partner’s maternal employment preference should be relatively stable over time. While the childbirth event may slightly change spouse preference, sufficient thought is likely to be given to the preference in the latter stages of pregnancy. Consequently, it is likely to have a stronger direct impact on prebirth maternal employment intent than maternal employment following childbirth. Family income. People pursue employment for financial gain. A mother’s withdrawal from the work force will affect current family income and there is evidence that withdrawal from the work force negatively affects wages when the mother returns to work (Lorenman & Neumark, 1992; Chandler, Kamo, & Werbel, 1994). Thus, a mother needs to consider financial pressures/financial freedom to work or not work following childbirth. Two family income variables could influence maternal employment following childbirth: marital partner’s income and mother’s income. Marital partner’s income is related to financial freedom. Higher incomes are associated with greater family discretionary spending and savings. Thus, a family with high partner income has more financial flexibility to withstand a loss of income than does a family with low partner income. Family financial flexibility is an important factor governing the decision to withdraw from the labor force. Research suggests that those who have sufficient financial resources are likely to retire (Hanisch, 1994). Family financial pressures appear to be one of the dominant factors for maternal employment following childbirth (Volling & Belsky, 1993). Marital partner’s income should influence maternal employment intent and maternal employment. To the extent one can accurately anticipate family financial need, marital partner’s income is likely to influence maternal employment intent. However, while taking maternity leave, some new mothers may find that the costs associated with having a child may be unexpectedly high. Some
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families may be too optimistic about the marital partner’s abilities to support the family as single wage earner and the mother may need to work to provide sufficient family income to meet expenses. Thus, Hypothesis 4: The more the marital partner’s income, the less maternal employment intent. Hypothesis 5: The more the marital partner’s income, the less the probability of maternal employment. Mother’s income may also affect maternal employment following childbirth for two reasons. First, a family unit may make long-term financial plans dependent on the income of both family members. Family members buy cars, obtain housing, or seek post-secondary education that require extensive financial investments. Financial plans may be difficult to alter the greater mother’s income. It is also possible that some people make long-term career choices to maximize wages throughout their adult life (Becker, 1964). Based on this, expectant mothers with high prestige and high paying jobs have accumulated more human capital than have expectant mothers in low prestige and low paying jobs. Mothers who have accumulated human capital and withdraw from the labor force may be unable to attain their previous pay level if they decide to return to work at a later time. Similarly, mothers who withdraw from the labor force may be unable to return to work with the same employer. Even if they return to the same employer, seniority benefits may have deteriorated during that time. Some research supports this perspective. There is evidence that women are more likely to remain on the job following childbirth the more years of work experience they have (McLaughlin, 1982). Furthermore, childbirth is associated with decreases in wages of married women (Lehrer, 1992; Chandler, Kamo, and Werbel, 1994). Hypothesis 6: The greater the wife’s income, the stronger the maternalemployment intent. Maternal employment intent. Finally, the model proposed in Fig. 1 assumes that prebirth maternal employment intent mediates the relationship between the independent variables and maternal employment. Intentions are commonly considered to be the single best predictor of behaviors (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Intentions have been used to predict career choices, such as the decision to take a new job (Mobley, 1977), changing careers (Rhodes & Doering, 1993), and retirement (Hanisch, 1994). Maternal employment intent should play a significant mediating role in the relationships between personal values, spouse preference, and family income.
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Hypothesis 7: Prebirth maternal employment intent mediates the relationships between personal value variables, family income, and spouse preference with maternal employment. Methods Procedure. The data for this study were collected from expectant parents attending hospital based prenatal education classes in two separate states and regions of the country. Part of the sample came from an urban area in the South and part from a rural area in the Midwest. The classes went for two to four class periods. The researcher distributed the survey in the first class period and returned in the second class period. Parents normally enrolled in these classes in the last trimester of pregnancy. Typically at the start of the class, the researcher solicited volunteers to participate in the study. To participate in the study, the expectant mothers had to be married and currently working full time. Those who agreed to participate were given a survey to complete. Each parent also provided the expected date of delivery and contact information. Six months after delivery, those who participated in the study were contacted and asked to describe their current employment status. Sample. One hundred and seventy people who met the requirement to participate in the study agreed to complete a survey. This was approximately 20% of all expecting parents who attended prenatal classes. It was not clear how many people in the full class met the requirements. Of the 170 people, 92 completed and returned the survey (53% response rate). Of the 92 who completed a survey, we contacted 70 mothers who were employed prior to childbirth and determined their work status 6 months after pregnancy. We were unable to contact 22 because they were no longer at their prebirth address and left no forwarding address. Altogether, this was a 41% response rate of those that met the requirements and agreed to participate in the survey. Seventy-one percent of the respondents contacted following childbirth were having their first child. Mothers who normally attend prenatal classes were most likely to be having their first child. Fifty-seven percent held technical, managerial, or professional jobs. Correspondingly, this sample tended to be well educated, with 3.5 years of postsecondary education. The average length of marriage was 43.5 months and the average age of the women was 28.07 years. Measurements. Three of the five independent variables used multi-item scales and two used self-reported measurements. Family income was measured using self-reported measurements of the marital partner’s income and the expectant mother’s income. Two of the three multi-item scales were job involvement and values about traditional gender roles. The job involvement scale was a four-item short scale from Lohdahl and Kejner (1965). Sample items include: “A great satisfaction in my life comes from my work” and “I am very much involved personally with my work.” A five-point Likert scale (1 5 strongly disagree to 5 5 strongly agree)
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was used to measure job involvement. The mean of the responses was used to score the scale and scores ranged from 1 to 5 (a 5 .86). Traditional gender role values were measured using a scale developed by Scanzoni (1978). This scale was used because the items are directly tied to values associated with mothers working and raising a family. The scale has been used to predict family satisfaction (Weigel & Weigel, 1990), family decision making styles (Scanzoni & Szinovacz, 1980), and parenting behaviors (Arditti, Godwin, & Scanzoni, 1991). Principal components factor analysis suggested there was a seven-item scale. Sample items included: “A married woman’s most important task should be taking care of her husband and children” and “Having a job for herself should be just as important as encouraging her husband in his job” (reverse coded). A five-point Likert (1 5 strongly disagreed to 5 5 strongly agreed) was used to measure values about traditional gender roles (a 5 .84). The mean of the responses was used to score the scale and scores ranged from 1 to 4.29. Perceived marital partner’s maternal employment preference was measured using a three-item scale created for this survey. The items were: “My husband feels that only serious complications should prevent me from returning to my job after having a child,” “My husband would prefer to have me leave my job so I could stay at home and raise our child” (reverse coded), and “My husband feels that our child will be healthier if I would stay at home with it” (reverse coded). A five-point Likert scale (1 5 strongly disagree to 5 5 strongly agree) was used to measure marital partner’s maternal employment preference (a 5 .78). The mean of the responses was used to score the scale and scores ranged from 1 to 4.67. The mediating variable of maternal employment intent was measured with five items from the predelivery survey. They were created for this survey. The five items were: “Within six months or sooner after having a child, I plan to be working on my current job,” “I would prefer to leave my job so I could stay at home and raise our child” (reverse coded), “Our child will be healthier if I would stay at home with it” (reverse coded), “I will be more satisfied with my life if I stayed at work after having a child,” and “Only serious complications would prevent me from returning to my job after having a child.” A five-point Likert scale (1 5 strongly disagree to 5 5 strongly agree) was used to measure maternal employment intent (a 5 .84). The mean of the responses was used to score the scale and scores ranged from 1 to 5. The dependent variable, maternal employment, was self-reported in the follow-up contact. The follow-up contact was made 6 months after the expected date of delivery, because previous research indicates that the rate of return to work declines significantly after 6 months (Joesch, 1994). The variable was dummy coded (0 5 not working; 1 5 working). In summary, 73% reported that they were working at 6 months. Analysis. To assess the degree to which maternal employment intent mediated the relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable,
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Mean
S.D.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
.73 3.13 2.56 3.07 2.78 $26,607 $35,288
.45 1.00 .74 .97 .73 16,082 19,684
– .62 2.39 .59 .22 .29 2.29
(.84) 2.59 .76 .36 .35 .00
(.84) 2.58 2.27 2.34 2.17
(.78) .31 .30 .08
(.86) .34 .22
– .32
–
1, Maternal employment; 2, Maternal employment intent; 3, Traditional gender role values; 4, Perceived spouse preference for working; 5, Job involvement; 6, Mother’s income; 7, Marital partner’s income. If r $ .29; p , .01.
James and Brett (1984) recommended that one must first demonstrate that the independent variables would be associated with both the mediating variable and the dependent variable. The mediating variable must then be associated with the dependent variable. Finally, when controlling for the mediating variable, the independent variables must be not significantly related to the dependent variable. Based on these three criteria, correlation and stepwise regression analysis were used to analyze the data. Results Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, and correlation matrix of the variables in the study. The correlation matrix determined which, if any, variables were associated with the mediating and dependent variables. Maternal employment intent was significantly and negatively associated with traditional gender roles (r 5 2.59) and was positively associated with perceived marital partner’s preference for maternal employment (r 5 .76), mother’s income (r 5 .35), and TABLE 2 Stepwise Regression Predictors of Maternal Employment Intent and Maternal Employment Maternal employment intent
Maternal employment
Independent variable
DR2
FDR2
DR2
FDR2
Perceived spouse preference Traditional gender role values Maternal employment intent Marital partner’s income
.58 .03 – –
94.52** 5.22* – –
– – .38 .08
– – 40.87** 8.85**
* 5 p , .05 ** 5 p , .01
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job involvement (r 5 .36). Maternal employment was positively and significantly associated with maternal employment intent (r 5 .62) and wife’s income (r 5 .29). It was significantly and positively associated with perceived marital partners preference for maternal employment (r 5 .59) and negatively associated with marital partner’s income (r 5 2.29). Because some independent variables were correlated with each other, stepwise regression analysis was used to evaluate the unique explained variance of independent variables. In predicting maternal employment intent, Table 2 indicates that two variables significantly entered the equation explaining 61% of the variance: perceived marital partner’s maternal employment preference (b 5 .76; DR2 5 .58; FDR2 5 94.52) and traditional gender roles b 5 2.22; DR2 5 .03; FDR2 5 5.22). In predicting maternal employment, Table 2 indicates that two variables significantly entered the equation explaining 46% of the variance: maternal employment intent (b 5 .61; DR2 5 .38; FDR2 5 40.87) and marital partner’s income (D 5 2.29; DR2 5 .08; FDR2 5 8.85). Additional analyses suggested that mothers were more likely to shift from labor market withdrawal intentions to maternal employment than the opposite direction. In summary, the results supported hypotheses one and three. Traditional gender role values and martial partner’s perceived maternal employment preference were significantly associated with maternal employment intent. However, the results failed to support hypotheses two and four regarding maternal employment intent. Job involvement and marital partner’s income were not significantly associated with maternal employment intent using stepwise regression. Marital partner’s income was associated with maternal employment supporting hypothesis five. The results failed to support hypothesis six. Mother’s income was not significantly associated with maternal employment intent using stepwise regression. Supporting hypothesis seven, maternal employment intent mediated the relationship between traditional gender role values and perceived marital partner’s preference with maternal employment. As hypothesized, it failed to mediate the relationship between marital partner’s income with maternal employment following childbirth. Discussion The results of this study provided support for Brown’s (1996) value based model of career decision making. Maternal employment intent was influenced by values based on traditional gender roles. Women who valued the caretaker role were more inclined to remain at home where those values can be fulfilled than women who less clearly valued the caretaker role. Women who had nontraditional views were more likely to intend to remain at work. It is interesting to note that traditional gender roles had a greater impact on maternal employment intent than job involvement. To some extent, this may be related to the type of decision being made. In this study, the career decision involved leaving the work force. These were women who were working in the last trimester of pregnancy. They were in a position to return
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to work. Thus, values associated with family roles and leaving the work force may have played a more important role than did job involvement. In contrast, job involvement may be more important for willingness to return to work after an extended maternity leave. There is also evidence that maternal employment intent was a joint family decision as opposed to an individual career choice. This research supported Osipow’s and Fitzgerald’s (1996) call for the need to consider sociological influences in career decision making. Maternal employment intent was highly associated with perceived marital partner’s preference. It was not assessed whether marital partners openly discussed and commonly shared maternal employment preferences or if marital partners’ preferences were perceived as unilateral and uncompromising. Regardless of the way in which family members discussed maternal employment, there was significant evidence that maternal employment intent was compatible with perceived spouse preference. Maternal employment choice processes are an intersection between a family choice and an occupational choice. Consequently, it may be more open to family influence than other types of career choices. Nonetheless, many types of career choices affect family matters in terms of income, impact on spouse career options, and ability to provide family social support. This may make family member influence more pervasive than current theories espouse. The results also suggested that marital partner’s income significantly impacted compromise in career choice. In this study, marital partner’s income was not significantly related to maternal employment intent but was related to maternal employment. This suggested that family financial circumstances were not directly considered when evaluating maternal employment intent. They were either undervalued or the mother/family was unable to fully anticipate the financial needs associated with having a new child. However, in spite of preferences, some mothers accommodated family financial circumstances in contrast to their initial preferences. This suggested that marital partner’s income created compromise with maternal employment intent and that external factors may have deflected mothers from pursuing their prebirth maternal employment intent. Perhaps the biggest limitation of this paper was that the sample was not representative of all mothers. Some mothers may have resigned from fulltime employment before the last trimester of pregnancy. These women were excluded from the study because they had already made their career choice. The design of this study focused on the impact of maternal employment intent and choice. To fully separate the relationship between intent and choice, the author assumed that it would be best to assess intent before the maternal employment decision was made. Additionally, the sample largely consisted of mothers having a first child (50 of 70 subjects). Mothers having a second child may approach the decision to pursue maternal employment differently. In this study, 17 or 34% of the mothers having their first child stayed at home. Only 2 or 10% of the mothers having previously had a child stayed at home. Additional research with a larger sample
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of mothers with children is needed to assess the degree to which decision processes vary between expectant mothers having no children and expectant mothers having at least one child. Furthermore, this study should control for attrition from the labor force after having a first child. Finally, the sample is not geographically representative of all mothers. While the sample includes different regions of the country, the sampling methods may have biased the results. In summary, the results of this study highlight the need for more research on some important issues. First, maternal employment appears to be a family choice process as opposed to an individual choice process. Career choice theory largely focuses on career choice as an autonomous and individual choice process. In this situation, spouse preference was considered in developing maternal employment intent. While maternal employment may be more open to spouse influence than other types of career choices, it would be fair to assume that many married employees make career plans and choice intentions in consultation with a marital partner. Thus, future research should address how marital partners express preferences and influence career choices, such as maternal employment. Second, this study raises questions concerning economic factors that influence compromises in career choices. Does the effect of family income extend to other types of career choices, such as choice of job change? Also, Brown (1996) assumes that value-based career choices will enhance job satisfaction. What happens with career satisfaction and marital satisfaction when family income alters employment intent? Finally, from a practical perspective, the results suggested that some people continue to work in spite of their intent to remain at home. This may place stress on all family members, especially if it leads to low levels of job satisfaction and high levels of work and family conflict. Organizations and legislatures could make efforts to financially accommodate and reduce family stress of new parents who would prefer to remain at home. While the current Family Leave Act is an incremental improvement to reduce family stress by providing a 2-month period for maternal leave, more efforts could be made to financially assist those who would prefer to be homemakers but do not have the financial resources to afford that opportunity. For example, corporations could offer more freedom to pursue professional, administrative, or technical part-time employment. Legislators could offer larger tax deductions for dependents under age 5 to financially support families with a new child. REFERENCES Aryee, S., & Luk, V. (1996). Work and nonwork influences on the career satisfaction of dual-earner couples. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 49, 38 –52. Avioli, P. S., & Kaplan, E. (1992). A panel study of married women’s work patterns. Sex Roles, 26, 227–242. Arditti, J. A., Godwin, D. D., & Scanzoni, J. (1991). Perceptions of parenting behavior and young women’s gender role traits and preferences. Sex Roles, 25, 195–203.
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