Interest in inducements: A psychophysiological study on sports betting advertising

Journal Pre-proof Interest in inducements: A psychophysiological study on sports betting advertising

Lisa Lole, Alex Russell, En Li, Hannah Thorne, Nancy Greer, Nerilee Hing PII:

S0167-8760(19)30543-4

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2019.10.015

Reference:

INTPSY 11672

To appear in:

International Journal of Psychophysiology

Received date:

5 April 2019

Revised date:

16 October 2019

Accepted date:

18 October 2019

Please cite this article as: L. Lole, A. Russell, E. Li, et al., Interest in inducements: A psychophysiological study on sports betting advertising, International Journal of Psychophysiology(2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2019.10.015

This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

© 2019 Published by Elsevier.

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TITLE PAGE RESEARCH ARTICLE: Interest in inducements: A psychophysiological study on sports betting advertising AUTHORS and AFFILIATIONS: Lisa Lole,* Alex Russell, En Li, Hannah Thorne, Nancy Greer, and Nerilee Hing School of Health, Medical, and Applied Sciences,

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ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7756-3176

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* Corresponding Author (Lisa Lole): [email protected]

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Central Queensland University, Australia

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WORD COUNT:

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7,861 words (including Abstract, Main text, References, Figures, and Table contents) FUNDING SOURCES

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This study was funded by the Victorian Responsible Gambling Foundation, Australia. The

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project was entitled, ‘The Effect of Wagering Marketing on Vulnerable Adults.’

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AUTHORS’ CONTRIBUTION

All authors designed the study and conducted data collection. Nerilee Hing led the overall project. Lisa Lole lead this stage of the overall project and conducted the data analysis. All authors were involved in the drafting of the manuscript. All authors have approved it for submission.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST All authors wish to declare that they have received no direct funding from the gambling industry in the last five years.

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Abstract Recent research has shown an association between the viewing of wagering advertising, which often presents inducements to gamble, and maladaptive sports-betting behaviours; however, the mechanisms underlying the development of the intention to gamble remains relatively understudied. Eye-tracking and tonic electrodermal activity was recorded from 59 participants (including 49 regular gamblers and 10 non-gamblers), while they watched a series of advertisements. Following each advertisement, participants were asked to rate how likely they would be to take up the offer presented, therein. The number of fixations placed on each offer differed according to the type of inducement shown (p < .001), with reduced

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risk and cash back inducements being looked at more often than better odds and bonus bet inducements by all groups. Increased electrodermal activity while viewing the advertisements

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was associated with greater severity of gambling-related harm (p < .001), as well as greater ratings of desire for most advertisements. Rating of desire were, likewise, positively

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associated with gambling-related harm (p < .001). These results may suggest that, while the offers in gambling advertisements may be looked at by most viewers, unless there in an

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attendant increase in arousal, it is quite unlikely that these inducements will elicit a desire to gamble. For individuals already at risk of gambling problems, exposure to these

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advertisements, especially those offering what is perceived to be safer betting options that minimise financial losses, may exacerbate existing harms. Such information may prove

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useful in guiding industry practice, government regulations, therapeutic interventions, and

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future research on this topic.

Keywords: arousal; advertising; eye tracking; gambling; gambling disorder; inducements; problem gambling; sports betting; wagering

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Interest in inducements: A psychophysiological study on sports betting advertising 1.

Introduction

Betting on sports is an increasingly popular pastime for many Australians (Armstrong & Carroll, 2017). While, for many, sports betting presents a means to enhance their enjoyment of sporting events, for others, it is the cause of severe financial, personal, and interpersonal problems (Armstrong, Thomas, & Abbott, 2017). Associated with this increase in popularity, is the attendant exposure to gambling opportunities via media advertising, across a wide range of platforms, including via smart devices, television broadcasts, emails, phone calls, and text messages (Gainsbury, King, Delfabbro, Hing, Russell, Blaszczynski, & Derevensky,

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2015; Sproston, Hanley, Brook, Hing, & Gainsbury, 2015). This has raised community concerns about the ability of wagering advertisements to normalise gambling behaviours,

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including by exposing them to young people (ACMA, 2013; Derevensky, Sklar, Gupta, & Messerlian, 2010; Hanss, Mentzoni, Griffiths, & Pallesen, 2015; Hing, Lamont, Vitartas, &

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Fink, 2015b; Lamont, Hing, & Vitartas, 2016; Milner, Hing, Vitartas, & Lamont, 2013; Pitt, Thomas, & Bestman, 2016; Thomas, Lewis, Duong, & McLeod, 2012).

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It is widely recognised that wagering advertisements emphasise the positive aspects of the gambling experience (Binde, 2014; Deans, Thomas, Daube, Derevensky, & Gordon,

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2016; Sproston et al., 2015; Thomas, Lewis, McLeod, & Haycock, 2012). Such marketing material has been shown to increase the desire to gamble amongst problem-, moderate-, and

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low-risk gamblers (Hanss et al., 2015; Sproston et al., 2015), but interestingly, do not usually

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entice non-gamblers to start gambling (Binde, 2009; Hing, Cherney, Blaszczynski et al., 2014; McGrath, Meitner, & Sears, 2018). The underlying mechanism behind this phenomenon is unclear, but is likely to involve cognitive and emotional factors (e.g., invoking feelings of positive gambling-related emotions and thoughts; Sproston et al., 2015), as well as conditioning processes (Robinson & Berridge, 1993; Sharpe & Tarrier, 1993). Gambling marketing cues are also believed to increase the intention to gamble, and the awareness of different opportunities to do so; thus, such advertising can play an important role in driving impulse buying/betting behaviour (Amos, Holmes, & Keneson, 2014; Hing, Russell, Li, & Vitartas, 2018) by providing an immediate opportunity to purchase, with diminished regard for the consequences (Rook, 1987). This is of particular concern for individuals experiencing gambling-related problems, as research has shown that these individuals display more impulsive tendencies than non-problem gamblers (Russell, Hing, Li, & Vitartas, 2018; van Holst, van den Brink, Veltman, & Goudriaan, 2010), meaning that

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existing problems and harms experienced by them are likely to be exacerbated. While the relative contributions of the individual characteristics of the gambler, and their exposure to advertising materials in the uptake of wagering opportunities, is yet to be determined (e.g., atrisk individuals may have a greater number of accounts with more operators, which in turn is associated with increased exposure to marketing materials), it is, nevertheless, important to examine the impact of this type of marketing material on sports-betting gamblers who are, and who are not, at risk of gambling-related harm. In conjunction with a recent proliferation of different wagering operators and marketing approaches (including market segmentation, competitive pricing, and target marketing), a

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recent analysis of wagering advertisements showed that many include inducements to gamble (Hing, Sproston, Brading, & Brook, 2015). Typically, these inducements present an extra, short-term incentive to bet (i.e., in addition to the provision of basic wagering products), with

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the aim of compelling immediate betting, by convincing the consumer that the benefit of

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placing a bet outweighs any risks of doing so (Beem & Shaffer, 1981; Emanuel, Currie & Herman, 2005; van Waterschoot & Van den Bulte, 1992). Inducements may present

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promotions that offer temporary price cuts, monetary savings, bonus bets, and/or refunds. For example, some of the most frequently occurring inducement types include reduced risk,

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better odds, cash back, and bonus bet offers (Hing, Sproston, Brook, & Brading, 2017). Reduced risk inducements involve the gambler receiving a partial (or sometimes total) refund

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of the stake made if the bet is not successful, but another criterion is still met (e.g., if a team

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loses, but scores a specified minimum number of points). The refunds are typically paid as bonus/additional bets, but sometimes in cash. Better odds inducements present a short-term odds offer, in addition to regular ongoing odds, with the implication that the punter will receive the maximum possible return of a bet amount. Cash back inducements are those where winnings are paid in the case of a ‘near win/close call’ (i.e., within a given range of outcomes), or where a rebate is provided, regardless. Bonus bet inducements award customers with the opportunity to gamble on a certain number of future events for ‘free,’ although they often have terms and conditions that require further betting before any benefit from the bonus bet can be released (Hing, Browne, Russell, Greer, Thomas, Jenkinson, & Rockloff, 2018). As noted from the brief outline above, while inducements may offer various incentives to bet, their common feature is that they are designed to lead the customer to believe that they are taking a ‘safer’ bet, and that winning is more likely (Hing, Russell, Thomas, & Jenkinson,

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2019; Hing, Sproston et al., 2017); however, these price promotions are often only able to be redeemed in a way that encourages further betting (Hing, Sproston, et al., 2015), and are also subject to various terms and conditions, which tend to be difficult to find and understand, for the average consumer (Hing, Sproston et al., 2017). Thus, despite being portrayed as a prudent way to bet, empirical evidence suggests that uptake of inducement offers is actually associated with more harmful betting behaviours; specifically, they may lead to intensified purchasing of the wagering product, placing of riskier bets, chasing losses, and underestimation of gambling problems, as many gamblers do not actually understand the implications of these bets (Hing, Browne et al., 2018; Hing, Cherney, Blaszczynski et al.,

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2014; Hing, Lamont, Vitartas, & Fink, 2015a; Hing, Vitartas, & Lamont, 2017; LopezGonzalez, Estévez, & Griffiths, 2017; Griffiths, Estévez, Guerrero-Solé, & Lopez-Gonzalez, 2018; Lucas & Bowen, 2002; Newall, 2015; Responsible Gambling Council, 2013; Schottler

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Consulting, 2012; Southwell, Boreham, & Laffan, 2008; cf. Edelhoff, Grimes, & Battista,

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2014).

Despite its potential to provide valuable information on the impact of such marketing

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materials, there is limited research demonstrating which types of inducements are more likely to attract the attention of gamblers. Such information has potential practical implications, in

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terms of guiding regulation, consumer education programs, and therapeutic interventions. Recent literature has identified that eye-tracking research may provide an objective and

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unique insight into which elements of wagering advertisements that gamblers find the most

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appealing (Binde, 2014; McGrath et al., 2018). The basic premise for using this psychophysiological measure, that involves recording how many times a participant fixes their eyes on certain visual stimuli, is that a greater number of fixations reliably and objectively indicates a greater deal of information-uptake of that stimulus (Duchowski, 2007; Salvucci & Goldberg, 2000; Sandenberg, Gidlöf, & Holmberg, 2011; cf., Drèze & Hussherr, 2003). Such methodology is able to overcome the biases often associated with self-report measures (Sudman, 2001), an issue that is particularly pertinent in populations where there is immense stigma and privacy concerns, associated with their behaviours. The attention, interest, desire, action (AIDA) model of advertising persuasion (Rawal, 2013) posits that, for advertising material to be effective, it must, first, be able to attract the attention of its target audience. After this, the next aim is to garner an interest in the product or service being offered, as well as a desire to purchase it. Finally, the ultimate aim is to encourage the consumer to action: specifically, to proceed with the purchase. To date,

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research on wagering inducements has focussed on the latter stages of this postulated process (e.g., Browne, Hing, Russell, Thomas, & Jenkinson, 2019; Hing et al., 2019; Hing, Russell et al., 2018; Russell, Hing, Browne, & Rawat, 2018); however, it is also important to examine whether certain messages differentially capture the attention and interest of those at-risk of gambling problems, those who do not gamble in a harmful way, and individuals who do not gamble at all. Such information may be used to guide interventions to assist vulnerable individuals. For instance, education programs may aim to make gamblers aware of the techniques marketers use to attract potential customers, as well as their own reactions to these, and to give them methods to overcome physiological responses to such, before

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cognitive and emotive processes related to the latter desire and action stages of the sports betting process are able to flourish.

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The current study sought to use eye-tracking technology to examine the impact of the most commonly occurring inducements that offer financial incentives to gamble (as identified

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by Hing, Sproston et al., 2017); specifically, whether the viewers of these dynamic commercials pay more attention to particular marketing approaches (the majority of previous

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research has primarily focussed on examining static displays, e.g., McGrath et al., 2018; also see Hanss et al., 2015). It also sought to examine the relative amount certain inducement

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types are looked at by vulnerable and non-problem sports bettors, as well as those who do not gamble at all. Due to the paucity of information regarding the effect of different inducements

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on the gambling experience, this investigation was exploratory in nature.

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The study also sought to examine the between-group differences in tonic physiological arousal levels (i.e., those that occur over an extended period of time, as opposed to reactions to specific events) as an objective indicator of interest when viewing these advertisements. Electrodermal activity has been shown to be a reliable, objective indicator of stimulus significance (Barry, 1996, 2006; Bouscien, 1992). Based on previous research, it was hypothesised that viewing such advertisements would result in significantly higher tonic skin conductance levels for gamblers, compared to non-gamblers. Finally, the relationship between subjective ratings of desire for each inducement offer, and both the number of fixations placed on these and overall electrodermal activity during the experiment, was investigated. Based on the work of Rawal (2013), it was hypothesised that ratings of the likelihood to take up the offer presented in each advertisement would be positively correlated with objective levels of interest (i.e., with higher skin conductance levels), but not necessarily with the amount of time the offer was looked at.

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2. Method 2.1. Participants All participants were screened prior to taking part in the current research project. To be eligible to participate, problem, moderate-risk, and low-risk gamblers were required to have bet on sports at least once a fortnight in the previous 12 months. Due to difficulties in recruiting non-problem gamblers who had gambled on a fortnightly basis in the preceding year, the frequency criterion for this group was relaxed so that non-problem gamblers could

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participate if they engaged in sports-betting on an at-least-monthly basis in the past year. Sixty participants attended our research laboratory; however, one participant was

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excluded from the statistical analyses, due to unsolvable eye-tracking calibration issues; thus, fifty-nine participants (47 male), aged between 19 and 65 years (M = 39.70, SD = 10.20),

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provided their data for the current study. While we aimed to recruit equal numbers of participants in each group, the final distribution of participant classifications was as follows:

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12 as non-problem gamblers, ten as low-risk gamblers, 18 as moderate-risk gamblers, and nine as problem gamblers, according to scores on the Problem Gambling Severity Index

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(PGSI; Ferris & Wynne, 2001). Due to low numbers in these cells, non-problem and low-risk gambler participants were grouped together for statistical analyses and referred to below as

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lower-risk gamblers (n = 22); moderate-risk and problem gambler participants were grouped

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together to form a higher-risk gambler group (n = 27). In addition, 10 people who had not gambled on any form in the past 12 months formed a non-gambler control group. Age (p = .280), income (p = .422), and level of education (p = .297) did not significantly differ between groups.

All participants who contributed their data: were compensated for their time and travel; were fully informed of the study protocol before they participated; were advised that they were free to withdraw from the study at any time; provided their consent to participate in this study before testing commenced, and; had normal, or corrected-to-normal, vision. None reported using nicotine, alcohol, illicit drugs, or prescription drugs known to affect electrodermal activity in the 12 hours prior to testing.

2.2.

Materials

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2.2.1. Questionnaires. The problem gambling severity index (PGSI) of the Canadian Problem gambling index (CPGI; Ferris & Wynne, 2001) was used to classify gambling participants into four categories, according to their vulnerability towards experiencing problems as a result of their gambling. The PGSI contains nine items (e.g., Have you bet more than you could really afford to lose?), and response options range from 0 (never) to 3 (almost always), that are summed to produce a final estimate of gambling-related harm, ranging from zero to 27. Due to low numbers in the original PGSI categories, these were condensed as follows: lower-risk gambler (score of 0 to 2) and higher-risk gambler groups (score of 3 and above). Following the viewing of each advertisement, participants also filled

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out a short questionnaire that assessed their reaction to the advertisement, including their

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desire to take up the offer in the advertisement (“How likely would you be to take up the offer in this advertisement?” rated on a sliding scale, from 1 = not at all likely to 100 = extremely

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likely).

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2.2.2. Advertisement Stimuli. Twelve advertisements, which were recorded from television broadcasts, were presented to each individual on a computer screen using Tobii Studio 3.3.2 1150, Professional Edition software. Six of these advertisements were from wagering

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operators, with four showing one type of inducement offer (either better odds, reduced risk,

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bonus bet, or cash back), and two general brand awareness content that did not feature any inducement (these two, along with the other six advertisements were from car companies and

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will not be examined here. Due to copyright issues, further information on these cannot be provided here; however, interested readers can contact the research team for further information and/or copies of these advertisements). The presentation of these advertisements was counterbalanced, using a subset of a Latin square design across participants, in order to offset order effects. Attempts were made to keep the length of the advertisements uniform but, due to the limited control over experimental parameters when using stimuli with high ecological validity, this was not possible; thus, the advertisements ranged between 15 and 30 seconds. We attempted to find advertisements from one single gambling operator, in order to control for differences between the advertisements (i.e., that were not related to inducement type), but were unable to do so. Instead, all advertisements came from different gambling operators. Details of the four advertisements relevant to the current study are shown in Table 1.

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Insert Table 1 2.2.3. Apparatus All data were collected in an air-conditioned testing laboratory, with vents positioned so that air was not blowing directly onto participants, to reduce the occurrence of eye-blinks. Eyetracking equipment (Tobii X2-30 Compact Edition, using Tobii Studio 3.3.2 1150, Professional Edition software) was used to assess participants’ relative interest in each advertisement. This device measured participants’ binocular eye movements (at a rate of 30 Hz) during the viewing of each advertisement, in an unrestrained set up, where participants

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Acer laptop (Aspire V5-431 Series, model MS2360).

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were seated approximately 900 mm from the eye-tracker. These data were recorded to an

The data obtained from this device was quantified by two members of the research

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team, who watched the recorded eye-tracking videos and coded the number of fixations on

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any text-based inducement information featured in each gambling advertisement. Because the aim of the study was to explore the number of fixations on, or near, different types of

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text-based inducement information, the data were coded in a post hoc manner, rather than a priori regions of interest (since comparable areas of text were not present in the stimuli).

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Before the data were coded, the two raters reached an agreement on what constituted relevant inducement. For each of the four advertisement presentation orders, the two raters randomly

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chose one participant, and discussed with each other their respective codes for these advertisements. The rest of the participants were coded by both raters without further

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discussion. Inter-rater reliability was analysed through intraclass correlation coefficients based on a mean-rating (k = 2), absolute-agreement, and two-way mixed model. The 95% confidence intervals of intraclass correlation coefficient estimates for all inducement information was greater than .98, indicating excellent inter-rater reliability (Koo & Li, 2016) and that the values coded by the two raters were suitable for use in the subsequent analyses. Electrodermal (skin conductance) activity, recorded in micro siemen (µS), was also recorded from each participant with Procomp Infiniti equipment (model T7500M, using Biograph Infiniti software, version 6.0; Thought Technology Ltd), while they watched the series of advertisements. After cleaning the volar surface of the hands, two silver/silverchloride (Ag/AgCl) dry electrodes, 8 mm in diameter, were placed on the distal phalanx of the third and fourth digits of the participant’s non-dominant hand to measure electrodermal

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activity. Skin conductance was recorded at a constant voltage of 0.5 V, and sampled at 256 Hz.

2.3.

Procedure

Upon arrival at the testing location, and after providing their informed consent, participants filled out some demographic and individual difference questionnaires, including those mentioned above, and the psychophysiological equipment was fitted and calibrated to their individual physiology. They then watched the series of advertisements, while their

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physiological activity was recorded. The twelve advertisements were shown sequentially,

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with a two-minute rest-period following each advertisement. During these periods, participants answered subjective questions pertaining to the advertisement they had just seen,

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and then rested before viewing the next advertisement. The study’s protocol was approved by the CQUniversity Australia Human Research Ethics Committee (Project Approval

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Number: H16/09-256).

Statistical analyses

2.4.1.

Data modelling with advertisement sequence and personality variables

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2.4.

A repeated-measures ANOVA, with presentation order as the independent variable and the

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fixation data as the dependent variable, showed that the order in which the advertisements were presented did not significantly impact the amount of attention paid to each

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advertisement, F(1,55) = 1.21, p = .314); thus, this variable was not included in subsequent analyses. The average number of weighted fixations to the inducement information, across all advertisements, did not correlate with participants’ attitudes towards gambling, r(57) = .05, p = .699, nor levels of impulsivity, r(57) = .19, p = .150, depression, r(57) = .03, p = .806, anxiety, r(57) = .02, p = .896, or stress, r(57) = .17, p = .204). These variables were not examined in further analyses.

2.4.2. Research question analyses In order to measure the effect of relative exposure (vs actual exposure) to the advertisements presented (i.e., the amount of time the inducements were fixated upon, in proportion to the time they were available for viewing vs purely the time they were available for viewing; see Binde, 2014), a repeated-measures mixed-model ANOVA was conducted. Inducement type

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served as a within-subjects’ independent variable (with four levels: better odds/winnings, reduced risk, bonus bet, cash back), and PGSI group served as a between-subjects’ independent variable (with three levels: non-gambler, lower-risk gambler, higher-risk gambler). The weighted number of fixations, calculated by dividing the total number of fixations on the inducement information within each advertisement by the proportion of time this information was available for viewing, served as the dependent variable. The values for the dependent variable were calculated by taking the average of the times recorded by two members of the research team. The inter-rater reliability for this was, again, analysed through intraclass correlation coefficients, based on a mean-rating (k = 2, absolute-agreement,

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two-way mixed model, and returned a result of .98 [CI 95% .94 .99] (Koo & Li, 2016). Posthoc pairwise comparisons, with Bonferroni corrections, were conducted to examine the impact different inducement types have on the weighted eye-tracking data, for each PGSI

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group.

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Please see the attached supplementary information for the non-weighted results. This analysis examines the relationship between PGSI group and the total number of fixations on

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each inducement type. This analysis was used to explore the notion of actual exposure (Binde, 2014), in response to the advertisement stimuli. The results support Binde’s (2014)

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conjecture that eye-tracking studies may be useful in better understanding the relationship between actual and relative exposure; the former reflecting the total number of seconds the

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advertisements were presented.

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To test the impact that wagering marketing has on skin conductance level (SCL; a posited manifestation of the theoretical concept of interest; Rawal, 2013), a one-way ANOVA was conducted. This analysis treated PGSI group (three levels: non-gambler, lower-risk gambler, higher-risk gambler) as the between-subjects’ independent variable and average tonic skin conductance (SCL) level (recorded over all advertisements) as the dependent variable. A follow-up, planned comparison analysis was performed to compare the SCL of the gambling groups (lower-risk and higher-risk participants, combined) to that of the non-gambler control group (thus, indicating greater perceived significance, or interest, in the advertisements to the former). In order to explore the factors contributing to the desire to take up the offers presented in the advertisements, a repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted. This analysis treated PGSI group (three levels: non-gambler, lower-risk gambler, higher-risk gambler) as the between-subjects independent variable, inducement type (with four levels: better

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odds/winnings, reduced risk, bonus bet, cash back), as the within-subjects independent variable, and mean subjective ratings of desire as the continuous dependent variable. Pairwise comparisons, with Bonferroni correction, were conducted to further explore any effects identified in the analysis of PGSI group and inducement type on ratings of desire. A series of correlation analyses examined the relationship between psychophysiological indices of attention (i.e., eye-tracking) and interest (i.e., electrodermal activity), and subjective ratings of desire for each advertisement. This analysis sought to compare whether these subjective ratings were more likely to reflect one of these, more than the other.

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A final, post-hoc analysis (based on the findings of the previous analyses) was

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conducted to test the notion that higher physiological arousal levels are associated with increased ratings of desire for the offer presented in the corresponding advertisement.

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Participants were ranked by tonic skin conductance level (SCL), then the data in the top- and bottom-thirds (n = 20) was extracted and subjected to a repeated-measures ANOVA. For

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this analysis, SCL group (with 2 levels: low-SCL, high-SCL) was treated as the between-

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subjects independent variable, inducement type (with four levels: better odds/winnings, reduced risk, bonus bet, cash back) as the within-subjects independent variable, ratings of desire as the dependent variable, and continuous PGSI score as a covariate. Accordingly, we

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expected the high-SCL participants to report higher attraction scores than the low-SCL

3. Results

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participants across all advertisement types.

3.1. Eye-tracking data

The analysis that examined whether the weighted number of fixations varied according to inducement type and PGSI group revealed a main effect for inducement type, F(3,168) = 24.33, p < .001, η2 = .30; however, the main effect for PGSI group, F(2,56) = .40, p = .676, and the interaction effect between inducement type and PGSI group were not statistically significant, F(6,168) = .43, p = .858). Pairwise comparisons for inducement type showed that a greater number of fixations were placed on reduced risk (M = 4.69, SE = .39) and cash back (M = 4.24, SE = .36) inducements than bonus bet (M = 2.67, SE = .23) and better odds (M = 2.77, SE = .31) inducements (all comparisons were significant at p < .001). No significant differences were found between reduced risk and cash back inducements, nor between bonus bet and better odds inducements.

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Electrodermal activity data

The omnibus analysis of tonic physiological arousal levels revealed a significant effect of PGSI group on SCL, F(2,56) = 4.42, p = .017, η2 = .14. The planned comparison for this measure revealed that the gambling groups displayed significantly higher SCL (M = 3.93 µS, SD = 3.04) while watching the advertisements, compared to the non-gambler control group (M = 1.41 µS, SD = 1.03, p = .019).

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Subjective ratings of desire

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3.3.

The repeated-measures ANOVA that examined whether ratings of desire for each

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advertisement were differentially affected by PGSI group found a significant main effect of inducement type, F(3,168) = 14.86, p < .001, η2 = .21, and PGSI group, F(2,56) = 16.70, p <

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.001, η2 =.81; however, the interaction effect was not significant, F(6,168) = 1.18, p = .322. Consistent with expectations, follow-up analyses showed non-gamblers (M = 19.81, SE =

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5.54) significantly less likely to desire the offers presented, compared to lower-risk gamblers (M = 46.69, SE = 4.71; p = .002) and higher-risk gamblers (M = 59.27, SE = 3.99; p < .001).

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The comparison between lower-risk gamblers and higher-risk gamblers was not significant, p = .065. Pairwise comparisons revealed reduced risk advertisements (M = 57.85, SE = 4.12)

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were rated, across all groups, to be more desirable than cash back (M = 42.17, SE = 3.94; p =

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.007), bonus bet (M = 35.34, SE = 3.77; p < .001), and better odds (M = 30.38, SE = 3.38; p < .001) advertisements. Apart from some evidence for cash back advertisements to also be rated as more desirable than better odds inducements (this effect was not statistically significant, p = .060), no other effects were found.

3.4. The relationship between physiological and subjective ratings of desire None of the correlations between the fixation data (i.e., for either total or weighted values) and subjective ratings of desire for any advertisement were significant. Tonic skin conductance scores were found to be positively correlated with ratings of desire for the bonus bet, r(57) = .31, p = .021, and cash back advertisements, r(57) = .27, p = .044, and a trend towards a positive correlation was found for the reduced risk advertisement, r(57) = .26, p = .052, but not the better odds advertisement, r(57) = .21, p = .117.

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The final repeated-measures ANOVA that examined whether electrodermal activity (as well as inducement type, with PGSI score as a covariate) could predict subjective ratings of desire, showed all effects to be independent of PGSI score. A significant main effect of SCL group was observed, F(1,37) = 5.34, p = .027, η2 = .17, with higher desire scores reported for high-SCL subjects (see Figure 1) compared to low-SCL subjects across all inducement types. Consistent with the findings above, the analysis also revealed a significant main effect of inducement type, F(3,111) = 6.77, p < .001, η2 = .16, but the interaction between SC group and inducement type was not significant, F(3,111) = .42, p = .736, η2 = .01. Follow-up pairwise comparisons for the main effect of inducement type revealed similar results to those

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described above in Section 3.3.; however, the reduced risk and cash back comparison failed to reach statistical significance (p = .084), and the comparison between cash back and better odds inducements, in this instance, was found to be statistically significant, p = .013.

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Insert Figure 1

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4. Discussion

The current study sought to explore the impact that inducements in sports betting advertising have along the dimensions specified in the AIDA model of advertising persuasion (Rawal,

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2013), for gamblers and non-gamblers. Psychophysiological measures were used to examine

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whether PGSI groups differ, in terms of the relative number of fixations placed on these offers, their levels of arousal in response to them, and their ratings of desire to take up such

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offers in the future. The ecologically-valid nature of the advertisement stimuli used in the current study meant that meaningful comparisons in marketing variables could be made between each inducement type, based on participants’ risk of experiencing gambling-related harm.

The results from the weighted eye-tracking data showed that, despite being presented on the screen for less time than other inducement types, more attention was generally paid to reduced risk and cash back offers compared to bonus bet and better odds offers. These results indicate that the number of fixations placed on inducement information was not merely the result of text being available on the screen for a greater period of time, but rather, due to how the inducement information was displayed and/or the significant meaning of the information. This finding is consistent with theoretical notions of marketing materials, which posit that the amount of attention paid to inducements is more dependent on the message being presented, than merely being exposed to a message for a longer time (Binde, 2014).

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The findings suggest that certain inducements are effective at attracting the gaze of individuals across a broad spectrum of gambling harm, ranging from non-problem gamblers, to those at risk of, and experiencing, problem gambling behaviours, which contrasts with a recent study by McGrath et al. (2018), who found an increased preference for gambling images amongst people who had gambled in the previous three months, perhaps highlighting the attractive nature of motion vs static advertisements. The current results do, however, corroborate with previous research suggesting that gamblers are more likely to find bets (that they believe to be) offering a safer betting option and minimise financial losses more appealing (Rockloff, Browne, Russell, Hing, & Greer, 2019).

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If these preliminary results are corroborated in future research, this information could have

potentially important implications for informing government policy concerning the regulation

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of gambling advertisements. A targeted approach to reducing the negative impact on gamblers, associated with this type of commercial enterprise, might be to ban, or minimise

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the number of, advertisements containing certain types of inducement offers. For example, recent research indicates that most direct messages (texts, emails, etc.) that customers receive

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from wagering operators advertise an inducement to bet (Russell, Hing, Browne, & Rawat, 2018). Sports-betting companies also need to be mindful to not promote inducements,

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particularly those that offer reduced risk and cash back incentives, in a manner that can mislead bettors into thinking that this approach is a safer, more prudent betting option, where

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this is not necessarily the case. Education programs may also prove fruitful in combating

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misconceptions about the costs, as well as the likelihood and nature of any returns, that result from taking up such offers, so that gamblers can make better-informed choices. Inducements in the current study were also effective at gaining attention from nongamblers, a concern that has been raised previously (Hing, Cherney, Blaszczynski et al., 2014; Hing, Cherney, Gainsbury, Lubman, Wood, & Blaszczynski, 2014; Sproston et al., 2015; Thomas, Lewis et al., 2012). However, while some wagering inducements are associated with a greater number of fixations in all types of viewers, the attenuated levels of autonomic arousal of the non-gambler control group while viewing the advertisements suggests that such marketing material fails to capture the interest these individuals. Furthermore, the finding that subjective ratings of desire are, generally, positively correlated with this psychophysiological measure, and not with the number of fixations, suggests that arousal may be an important determinant in the gambling experience. That is, even though non-gamblers may be exposed to marketing materials, unless they also have a corresponding

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interest in this (which is better-reflected in physiological arousal levels), they are unlikely to proceed to the desire stage of the theoretical AIDA model (Rawal, 2013). The inability of these offers to increase arousal levels, and perhaps produce interest in them (which for gamblers may be experienced as feelings of excitement), is perhaps due to the lack of gambling-related conditioning processes for this group (Sharpe & Tarrier, 1993). Interestingly, higher ratings of desire were associated with SCL, but, not with self-reported gambling problems. This suggests that there may be important differences between people who find an offer attractive, but do not experience problems as a result of their gambling, and those who also find it attractive but do experience gambling-related problems. While this

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notion also needs to be verified with further research, it also has some potentially promising applications for therapeutic interventions for those seeking assistance with their gambling problems, through encouraging them to be more self-aware of the impact these marketing

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materials are having on them, and providing techniques on how to manage these.

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Although the current study provides an interesting perspective on the impact wagering inducements have on gamblers, some limitations of the research need to be identified.

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Firstly, although ecologically-valid stimuli were used, the data were collected in a laboratory environment, meaning that the results are subject to associated biases, such as fatigue and

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lack of significance of the experimental stimuli to the participant’s life. This limitation also meant that no information was available on how the results of the current study relate to the

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final, and, arguably, the most important stage of the AIDA model, action. Another limitation

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is that aural information on the inducement offer was not accounted for in any way in the current analysis, but may possibly influence findings in complex ways. Finally, due to the low numbers in each original PGSI group, the variables of interest to the current study could not be more closely examined, according to this validated measure (Ferris & Wynne, 2001), and only relied on collapsed groups of lower and higher-risk gamblers. While gambling harm lies on a spectrum, future research is needed to further explore how the most vulnerable (i.e., problem gamblers) are impacted by this type of marketing material (Hanss et al., 2015). Further research is needed to examine how, specifically, the action-precursor stages contribute to actual gambling behaviours, as well as to uncover other protective factors, along the spectrum of behaviour-change models, that assist non-gamblers and non-problem gamblers in maintaining healthy gambling practices. For example, future studies may seek to explore the reasons why gamblers find reduced risk and cash back inducements more attention-grabbing/interesting/appealing, in the context of other cognitive biases and/or other

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risk factors (e.g., McMullan & Miller, 2009; Schottler Consulting, 2012), perhaps by using a qualitative or mixed-methods approach. While recent research supports the findings of the current study (Rockloff et al., 2019), which is perhaps also reflected in the frequency with which wagering operators offer reduced risk and cash back inducements (Hing, Sproston et al., 2017), future research should also look to confirm whether these inducement types remain to be the most attention-grabbing/interesting/appealing when the wider context in which these are presented is manipulated (e.g., in terms of colours, sounds, when the offer is presented within the advertisement, etc.; see also Lopez-Gonzalez, Guerrero-Sole, Estevez, & Griffiths, 2017).

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With the proliferation of sports-betting advertisements through an increasing number of channels in recent times, investigating the impact of this type of marketing, on both

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vulnerable and healthy individuals, is of vital importance. The current study sought to contribute to this pursuit by using psychophysiological methods to examine the mechanisms

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that underlie the perception, and appeal, of wagering advertisements. The findings indicate that the desire to take up inducements is dependent on factors other than just mere exposure

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to such offers. Ultimately, it appears that this desire involves increased physiological arousal, as well as the desire for safer betting options. The novel insight into this phenomenon

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afforded by the current study can further guide industry best-practice, government

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regulations, and therapeutic interventions, as well as future research on this topic.

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Table 1. The Details for Each Advertisement, Including the Type of Inducement Presented, the Total Length of Time of the Advertisement, and the Length of Time the Inducement Messages were presented on the screen.

Total Inducement Time

Bonus bet

30

14.60

Better odds

15

3.25

Reduced risk

30

8.65

Cash back

15

6.91

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Total Time

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Inducement Type

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Note. All times are displayed in seconds.

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Figure 1. The average rating of desire for each inducement type, based on skin conductance level (SCL) across the recording session. The high SCL group includes participants (n = 20) who were ranked the top third, in

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terms of SCL, when viewing all advertisements, and the low SCL group (n = 20) includes participants who were

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ranked the bottom third.

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Highlights Used applied psychophysiological methods to examine effect of wagering advertising Arousal during advertisements related to the desire to bet on the offer presented Some wagering inducement offers are more attractive to gamblers than others

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  

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