Intergeneration differences in consumer behavior: Some evidence from a Developing Country

Intergeneration Differences in Consumer Behavior: Some Evidence from a Developing Country Ruby Roy Dholalua, Unwersrty of Rhode Island

Investlgatlon of consumer soclallzatlon processes provide mqhts into the learnmg of consumer skdls and values A study conducted m India reveal that chrldren may be Important sources of mformatlon and this role needs to be specrjlcally fostered Parents espectallv mothers, may not be rational’ soclalrzrng agents These findmgs contrast wrth those from soclalrzatlon studies conducted rn afluent so~letles such as the United States These differences m soctahzmg mjluences rejlect to some degree differences m levels of economic development However, they have lmplrcatrons for soctahzatlon research andpolu-les m both types of economies

Contemporary Interest m consumer soclahzatlon processes has focused on the young consumer [2,34] although soclahzatlon processes occur m all groups [7] The chief objective of these efforts has been to understand “the processes by which chddren acquire consumption-related skdls, knowledge, and attitudes” [34, p 1] The reasons given for the focus on young consumers include (1) the relevance for public pohcy and consumer education programs, and (11) the lmphcatlons for future adult behavior These research efforts are bemg undertaken pnmanly m developed countnes characterized by affluent economies and highly commercial mass media These factors have led to concerns among pohcy makers and consumer educators about the role of consumer soclahzmg agent and the ability of the young consumer to function effectively m the market place The marketing environment In developing countnes ISquite different The general level of econonuc development 1s low although there are pockets of affluence Mass media IS hnuted m avadablhty and their use for commercial purposes often restncted Emphasis on marketmg practices such as packaging, branding, and advertising IS quite new and their impact on society given Inadequate attention In these environments, not Address correspondence oj Rhode Island, Kmgston,

to Ruby RI 02881

Ro)’ Dholakla,

Journal of Busyness Research 12, 19-34 (1984) 0 Elsewer Science F’ubhshlngCo , Inc 1984 52 Vanderbdt Ave , New York NY 10017

Marketmg

Department,

Umverslty

0148-2%3/84/$3

19 00

20

Ruby

Roy Dholakla

only chddren but also adults need to learn consumption-related behavlors m order to adapt to the changmg condlhons In this paper, the research approaches for consumer soclahzatlon processes and their findings are cntlcally examined with respect to their relevance and apphcabdlty to developing countnes An emplncal study 1s reported that attempts to provide some mslghts on the expected differences m consumer behavior in a developmg country Current Research Approaches Two theoretical approaches charactenze current mvestlgatlons of consumer socialization processes (I) use of the cogmtlve development model [ 15,24--26) and (2) use of the social learning framework [ I 8,421 The cognitive development model has been useful m explammg dlfferences at various age levels for example, m the recall of advertisements [ 161, m the recall of brand names [29], m the use of mformation sources [20], and m consumer knowledge (2 I] Generally, these studies have found that older children recall and use a greater variety and complexity of information than younger children [33, 38, 391 The socral learning model, on the other hand, has been found useful m explammg differences among children of similar age groups Moschls and Moore [22] found the socmeconomlc status to be related to the strength of brand preference, Bearden, Tee1 and Wnght [5] concluded from their study on income effects that the attitudes of lower income children may bc less well formed than the attitudes of higher Income children Ward, Wackman, and Wartella [39] report an increase m the number of information sources with an increase in the famdy’s socioeconormc status Moschls and Church111 [2 1] conclude that while the cogmtlve development model influences knowledge and ability, it is the social learning model which influences attitudes and values of children A review of these studies reveals several assumptions about consumer soclahzatlons which guide current emplncal efforts These include assumptions about the influence of socializing agents Specifically I

2

Adults are expected to be more knowledgeable and rational than their children and it 1s beheved that parents “protect” the children from other sources of influence [3,28] Children are assumed to not only learn from their parents but learn the “goal onented” or “rational” aspects of consumption from them [23, 271 Furthermore, it 1s assumed that outslde-of-home influences like television and peers provide opportumtles for learnmg of “nonrational” consumer onentations [ IO]

Intergeneratron

Differences

21

Because of these assumptions, the parent-child relatlonshlp IS expected to flow from the parent to the chdd Tl~s influence relation&p IS assumed at both the positive and normative levels Tlus 1s tn keeping with traditional child studies which have assumed that “mfluence 1n parent-child relationship flowed only one way, from active parent to passive child” [3 I] Reverse !Socialization While there IS empmcal support for children’s learmng of rational goals from their parents [ 10, 20, 381, the reverse process has not been given much attention [2] Children’s attempts to influence parents-labeled the “reverse” or ‘ ‘retroactive” soclahzat1on [27, 341-1s viewed 1n a very limited perspective Several studies have exammed the influence of parents and other sources on children and have found parental influence to decrease with the age and intelligence of chddren [I 1, 20, 361 However most studies have limited themselves to product contexts that are of low importance to the family such as toys, snack foods, and cereals [6, 14,371 Frequently, the influence attempts have been characterized as “passive dlctatlon” [4 I] rather than as du-ect dependence of parents on their children This 1s because children’s influence on parents are viewed negatively at the normative level [8] Parents are considered to be more desirable soc1ahz1ng agents [2 1,341 whde children’s influence attempts are seen to cause increased famdy conflict [8,37] Empmcal1nvest1gatlons of consumer soclahzatlon processes are takmg place at a particular point 1n time and space In this environment 1t 1s not surpnslng to find that the child’s dependence on the parent 1s greatly valued Even within this environment, t.hts 1s a value which finds empmcal support because most of the research efforts have involved nuddle and upper class respondents [30] The attitudes toward and observations of parent-child dependence are by no means universal The Dependency Cycle In many settings, the child plays an active and dominant role 1n the influence relatlonshlp and these are not hrmted to low importance products such as toys and snack foods For example, when mumgrants come to a new country, they depend on their children for the acculturation process [ 1) Children, even very young children, become the major source of 1nformatlon about the new environment, Including information about consumption Current research IS pnmanly onented to exammmg parent-child relatlonshlp with the view that parents hold, or should hold, the donunant posltlon 1n the relat1onshlp Threats to this dommance are viewed negatively and research 1mpl1cafions are drawn to either strengthen parental dominance or to reduce threats to 1t This imposes a normative llrmtatlon on a research area that IS constramed 1n many other ways

22

Ruby

Roy Dholahla

Various factors affect the parent-child dependence relatlonshlp For example, the ablhty to accept mformatlon from children appears to be culturally determined [ 13, 321 Mead [ 191 noted that m the Umted States children are perceived to be quahtatlvely different, whereas, m other societies children are consldered as small adults Slmllarly, Hsu [ 131 finds that Chinese children possess a social matunty commensurate with their physical capablhtles and the parents are less threatened by the children’s independence The stage of economic and commercial development 1s a second important factor The effect of advertlsmg on children, for example, IS dependent on the degree of commerclahzatlon of the media environment [ 121 Exammmg mtormatlon processing m a difficult media envu-onment, Webb [40] concludes that m earlier stages of advertlsmg when there are fewer advertisements, recall IS higher and attitudes toward advertisements are also more favorable But as the “clutter” Increases, both recall and attitudes decline Other studies also show slmdar posltlve feelings at early stages of development Dependencies on such commercial soclahzmg agents and the normative acceptance of that relatlonship are hkely to be very different Recent evidence m the affluent countnes show a change m values and a reversal of role relatlonshlps As the commercial environment has grown more intense [4, 91, attitudes have become negative Comments by mothers about advertlsmg are strongly negative, regardless of socloeconomic status [39] However, there are still strong differences among social classes A negative relationship appears to exist between the social class of adolescents and their attitudes toward televlslon advertisement [2 1,351 Slmllarly, mothers who watched more television and had more positive attitudes toward commercials ylelded more often to children’s influence attempts [38] Maccoby [ 171 found lower class parents to watch more television than upper-middle class parents The parent-child relationship IS, therefore, contingent upon many factors It must be recognized that If outside-of-home influences are viewed positively, then adults will not only accept that influence more readily, there will be less pressure to protect the children from these sources of influence To the extent exposure to the various soclahzmg agents differ, children may have as many or even more opportunities to learn from these external sources and transmit the mformatlon, values, and skills to then parents Therefore, both the stages of development d\ well as mdlvldual attitudes toward various soclahzmg agents ~111mtluence the parent-child dependence relationship and the normatrve dcceptance of it These factors have to be taken mto account in order to make prescnptive Judgment about parent or child dominance

Intergeneratlon

Dzfferences

23

An Empirical Investigation To Investigate the learmng of consumption-related behaviors, an emplr~cal effort was undertaken m India India IS very representative of developing countnes Its marketing environment 1s characterized by rapid change even though the absolute level of marketing actlvlty IS still low If calculated m per capita terms The focus of the study 1s on mtergeneratlon differences m the attitudes toward and the use of marketing mformatlon Takmg both a cognltlve developmental approach [ 15,24,26] and the social learning framework [ 18,421, one would expect adults to be more active and rational users of marketing mformatlon whde expressing a more negative onentatlon towards advertising Slmllarly, children are expected to learn from and be dependent on their parents and to have a more positive onentatlon towards consumption and advertising However, several Interesting hypotheses can be developed that contrusf with the soclopsychologlcal approaches If the developmg envlronment of India IS taken mto account For example, the relatively uncluttered media environment and the recent increase of branded and packaged goods 1s hkely to lead to positive attitudes toward consumption and advertising by both adults and chddren Slmdarly, the changing marketing environment will require changes m consumer behavior that can lead to parental dependence on chddren The followmg three hypotheses are specifically exammed m the study Hl Adults would not be cntlcal of new consumption alternatives and will accept them readily H2 Adults would be 111equipped to deal with the Increasing envlronmental complexity and rely on simpler generalized cues such as brand names to evaluate consumption alternatives H3 Adults would rely on their children as a useful source of consumption mformation Methodology The respondents m the study were 168 eighth grade male students and 88 mothers The students were interviewed m the school after pernusslon was granted by the school authontles In a group setting, the students wrote down their own responses to questions asked verbally by a tramed mveshgator Mothers were contacted at home and interviewed personally The adult respondent was interviewed m one of two languages, depending on her native tongue The mvestlgator was fluent in both languages Several buyer behavior vanables of interest Measurement Instrument have been exammed such as attitudes, advertising and brand recall and

24

Rubv Rev Dholakla

use of sources of mformahon In deslgmng the measurement mstrument, a strong conslderatlon was that it be usable by both the chddren and their mothers To measure attitudes toward consumption, four statements were used to sohclt agreement or disagreement on a 1-3 scale (where 1 = disagree and 3 = agree) The four statements were 1 Whenever a new product comes out m the market, one must buy it 2 Fnends buy so many things, I feel I should buy more 3 Children put too much pressure on thetr parents to buy many ttungs 4 Children should only ask for things which their parents cdn afford to buy Advertising recall was obtamed through both ruded and unruded measures In the aded recall measure, a set of eight prmt advertisements were selected These advertisements were shown to the respondents and their responses obtamed In addlhon to noting whether the advertlsements were seen previously, the student respondents were asked to free associate with each advefisement In the case of adult respondents, the free associations evoked by each advertisement were recorded by the mvestlgator while the student respondents recorded their own assoclatlons For unaded recall, the respondents were asked to list all advertisements that they could elicit from their memory and to name the product or brand advertised They were encouraged to recall as many advertisements as possible Brand recall was obtamed for selected product categones The set of products selected represented those of low adult interest (e g candy, snack foods) as well as of high adult interest (e g cosmetics, clothing) The respondents were asked to recall as many brands as they were aware of m each product category Sources of marketing mformatlon were obtamed from the mothen only A list of five mformatlon sources-two personal and three marketer dommated-was given to the respondents and the perceived Importance of each source was measured on a five-point scale from low ( 1) to high (5) importance The socmeconomlc charactenstlcs Findings Sample Composltlon of the sample are given m Table 1 The data indicate that the sample represents the more pnvdeged section of the urban population m India The economic resources of the sampled group are far above the national averages, even televlslon, a new durable m the market, IS owned by over 70% of the sample The sample group represents the upper Income segment of Indian society and if viewed only m one point of time, the

Intergeneratzon Dzfferences

25

Table 1 Sample Charactenstlcs Age of mother Less than 30 years 30-40 years 40-50 years over 5 0 years

2 3% 614F 30 1% 5 7%

Cducatlon of mother Less than high school High school or more

11 6% 21 3%

Occupdtlon Housewife Employed

95% 5%

of mother

Occupation of father Own business SaldrIed

63% 35%

Monthly household mcomea Less than Rs 2,000 Rs 2,001-3,000 Over Rs 3,000 No response

23% 19% 51% 1%

Media access* Radio ownership Television ownership Dally newspaper subscrlptlon PerIodical subsLrlptlon Movies viewed

100% 13% 1 87 per month 2 35 per month 3 67 per month

(s d 0 702) (s d 1 213) (s d 1 522)

a Compare with annual average per capita mLome of Rs 1000 (m 1976) b Compare with national statistics of radio and television 0 5 TV set per 1,000 populatlon and 24 radio sets per thousand population (in 1975)

sample should exhibit smular parent-ctnld relationships among affluent fanuhes m developed societies

as obtamed

Mothers are more purchase onented than their Consumutlon Attztudes children (Table 2) Mothers perceive a greater need to buy new products Social pressures to consume are perceived from peers but not from theu chddren Mothers agree less with the statement that children should restrain their purchase requests due to economc conslderatlons The children, on the other hand, are less wlllmg to purchase new products and are more wllhng to consider the econon-uc lmphcatlons of their purchase requests The difference beween the mothers and children’s

should

4 Chddrcn

prcawrl

on that

0 Fhgher the xore, hp
grtatu

thL apruzmat

with the statemut

(I-3

can attord

SC&)

to buq

to buy m,my thmss

one mu?t buy it

thclr parents

pacnts

I ~LLII should buy more

out mto the mxkct

only ask ior thmgs wh~h

put too mwh

I ruxd\ buy \o many thmp\

3 Chddrcn

2

~omo

Towards Consumptlona

d new prodmt

Statements

1 Whenever

Attitude

Table 2 Attitude

(1 0) (0 453)

609) 54 685) 45 730) 86

01 = 88) 1 70 (0 878) 1 68 (0 929) 1 90 (0 995) 1 93 (H = 168) 1 45 (0 1 (0 2 (0 2

Mothers

Chddren

9 3b

s 5b

1 4L

2 sb

t value

IntergeneratIon

Differences

21

oplmons on the amtude statements are statlstlcally significant Tl~s supports the first hypothesis that mothers would be less cnfical of new consumption alternatives and embrace them more readily than their children

Consumer Sk& Despite the greater consumption onentatlon of the mothers, their processing of consumption-related mformatlon does not reflect a high degree of conscious effort and deliberation Evidence from advertisement and brand recall 1s used to test this hypothesis Both unsuded and aded recall of advertisements show the children to be more active processors of consumption-related mformatlon When asked to recall ads seen previously, only 22% of mothers recalled a specific advertisement whereas 99% of the children were able to do so (Table 3) In addition to low recall, the mothers remembered ads from only four product classes and 90% of those recalling named the ad for the same brand (Horhcks-a brand of hot drmk) The children’s recall pattern is quite different Aside from recall by almost all children of at least one ad, ads from 48 different product classes were recalled Although the most recalled ad was also that of Horhcks, the proportion of chddren recalling that specific advertisement was much lower All these differences are statlstlcally slgmficant

‘lIus difference m processing of mformatlon can be seen also from the pattern of aded recall of selected advertisements Recall of the selected advertisements 1s very high, both mothers and children responding having seen the advertisements before (Table 4) However, when the assoclatlons are analyzed, mothers are not able to verbalize any thoughts beyond the ad message (Z = 6 42, p < 0 001) Only 13% of the mothers generated thoughts that were unrelated to the ad messages whereas 58% of the children did so TIN difference 1s statistically slgmficant (Z = 8 6, p < 0 00 1) When the independent thoughts are further categorized as positive or negative towards the advertisement, children generated a larger proportion of negative thoughts This difference 1s marginally significant (Z = I 33, p < 0 07)

Although mothers do not appear to actively process advertisements, their awareness of brand names appears to be quite high When recall of brand names 1s examined for a selected set of products, mothers are able to recall as many brand names as their chddren (Table 5) Whether the

Ruby

1-8

Table 3 Unaided

Roy Dholakra

Recall of Advertisements Children (n = 168)

Mothers (n = 88)

99% 48 (0 721) 48 63’:

22’1 12 (0 64) 4 99’,

Chddren (n = 168)

Mothers (n = 88)

99’;

9351

2=2

6’, 36:~ 58’:

415 415, 1 2’4

2=642u Z = 1 63‘ Z= 861”

I ‘Ivor‘lblc to ‘Ld

82

Unfavorable

18

90 10

z = 1 83‘ z = 1 83C

1 ProportIon reialhng at least one ad 2 Average number of ad recailedb 3 Total number of product types reL&lcd* 4 The smgie most rec&lled br‘tndb

Z=8690 t = 20 i Ia

Z=5320

up


at least one .~d

Table 4 Aided Reed11 of Advertisements

seemg 8 ad, prwousl) 1 ProportIon wxllmg 2 Raxtlons to ad stm~ullb No thoughts Reptatmg dd >logdn/tc\t Independent thoughts 3 Category ot lndcpcndcnt thouehts

* Averaged cp
to dd

120

across elpht dd
products are those that are heavily used by children (e g ice cream, chocolate, blscmts, pen&) or those that are more adult onented (e g comestrcs, toiletries, clothes), the recall of brand names by mothers are comparable to those of their children Only m the case of penczls were the mothers able to recall a sq@icant larger number of brand names (t=392,p
Intergeneratlon

29

Differences

Table 5 Unaided

Recall of Brand Names Chddren

Mothers

Mean Product Categones 1

(sd)

Children onented Chocolate

3 01 (1 488) 4 50 (0 707) 160 (1 342) 34

Cookies Pen& Ice cream

Mean n

n

(s d.)

90

r

3 26

88

1 25

2

(0 78) 3 85

88

1 12

5

(0 81) 3 56

88

3 92a

(1 06) 119

_

(1 23) 2

Famdy onented soap

4 (0 3 (1 3 (1

Toothpaste Bread

66 721) 54 212) 88 176)

29

4 63

88

018

(0 83) 52 56

_ _

3 Adult onented Cosmetics

3 79

88

Garments

(0 86) 4 08

88

_

_

(0 83) apcoo5

Table 6 Perceived

Importance

of Information

Sources

Mothers Informatlon

(n = 88)

Sources

Personal sources Children Friends and neighbors

Mean 3 010 2 64

(sd) (1 24) (0 89)

Marketer dommated Salespersons Store display Advertisements

Mean 217 245 2 24

(s (1 (1 (0

sources

Q The higher the score, the more Important

the source

of mformatlon

d ) 08) 51) 98)

30

Rubv

Rov Dholahla

important than marketer-dommated ones While there appears to be general reluctance to consider any source very Important, the average Importance ratmg for IShighest for children When the difference between the average rating for children and for advertising IS tested, then thus difference 1s statlstlcally large (t = 26 83, p < 0 001) Mothers themselves perceive the children to be an important source of their mformatlon, supporting our third hypothesis

Discussion This study focused on mother-child differences m a transltlonal, developing society to provide a comparative perspective on consumer behablor The evidence appears to support a more active role for children In these socletles Mothers, on the other hand, appear to rely on brand names to a much greater degree and to hold a more posmve onentatlon towards consumption and advertlsmg These findings contrast with those reported for developed socletles such as United States The children m the more developed societies learn aspects of consumption from their “goal onented” or “rational” parents [27], while outside-of-home Influences hke televlslon and peers provide opportumtles for learning of “nonrational” consumer onentatlons [lo] Parents do and should “protect” their children from other sources of mformatlon [3, 281 However, as the emplncal evidence from India shows, this view of the parent-child relationship IS not universal, it 1s contingent upon many factors, one of which 1s the level of economic development of the society Children can be a valuable source of mformatlon To the extent exposure to the various soclahzmg agents differ, children may have as many or even more opporturuties to learn from these external sources and transmit the mformatlon, values, and skdls to their parents Mother-child differences m the attitudes toward and the use of marketing mformatlon are likely to exist not only across national boundanes but also wlthln a nation These are accounted for by social class dlfferences within a society These have been found m several studies m the United States A negative relationship appears to exist between the so4 class of adolescents and their attitudes toward televlslon advertisement [2 I, 351 Slmllarly, mothers who watched more televlslon and had more positive attitudes toward commercials yielded more often to children’s influence attempts [38] Maccoby [ 171 found lower class parents to watch more televlslon than upper-middle class parents Lower class

Intergeneratmn

Dzfferences

31

parents may have more positive atmudes toward advertlsmg and also view chddren’s influence attempts more positively The attitudes of the Indian mothers and their children can also be seen along this perspective if social classes are viewed wlthm a larger mternational context Although highly affluent within India, the sampled group of respondents represent the “underpnvdeged” groups m a more global comparison of consumption levels The amtudes of Indian mothers are sun&r to those of the lower classes m developed countnes because both groups aspire to the consumption standards of the affluent classes in developed societies To the extent these relative differences m economc resources persist, both within and across nations, there ~111be differences m consumption related attitudes, values, and skills Llmttattons of the Study There are several lmutahons of the study that need to be considered in evaluating the results The sample was conveniently selected and does not represent the population of India Instead, it was a very upscale group with income and consumption resources far m excess of the national averages If the mothers from tl~s background exhlblt a favorable attitude towards consumption, it 1s hkely to be even more pronounced among lower income groups However, this assumption was not specifically tested m the study Second, only male students were interviewed and the mother-child differences may also be attnbuted to sex differences This needs to be examined m future research Finally, the procedure by which mformatlon was elicited from the sample may have affected the response The classroom setting may have encouraged the cluldren to exert the effort m responding, e g , m recalling the advertisements unaded However, since the mothers did recall names of brands comparable to theu sons but not the advertisements, one can accept the validity of the results with some confidence Conclusion Given the data from the selected mothers and their children, it may be concluded that parents (specifically mothers) need not be the best soclahzmg agents for their children m India Chddren exhlblt a more “cntlcal” awareness of consumption related mformation and unless reinforced, they may be under pressure to move towards a brand dependent pattern of consumption The posltlve consumption onentatlon of the mothers combined with their economic resources will speed the development of modem marketing m these countnes In terms of public pohcy and consumer research, there 1s need to study consumer soclahzahon processes m wider contexts The parent-child relationship has been investigated only m few economies and among limited population segments and intervention strategies suggested on the basis of these lusted studies In terms of developing countries, these

Ruby

32

Roy

Dholakza

studies are even more lmuted m relevance For example, based on the data on India, It may be Important to generate soclahzmg agents outszde the home who can foster a more “ra~onal” process of declslon makmg m order to counter the parents’ sensmvlty to brand names Fmanclal supportfor this study was provided by the I&an Institute of Management, Calcutta and M-s Rupah Gupta served as the research assistant I am gratefilfor the assistance Send correspondence to Ruby Roy Dholakla, Marketing Department, Umverslty of Rhode Island, Kingston, R I 02881

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