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International talks on Atlantic salmon
Volume 9/Number 7/July 1978
and Pollution Prevention. The Government opted for a set of anti-pollution standards which were cheaper, but less effective than those advocated by such nations as the United States, Sweden, Norway and Greece. The Amoco Cadiz disaster has highlighted the acute safety problems associated with ships flying flags of convenience. ACOPS believes that an earnest campaign must be waged against all sub-standard vessels, regardless of the flag they fly. Furthermore, many sub-standard ships were on charter to oil companies of considerable repute when accidents occurred. Oil companies justify such chartering on the grounds of economic necessity, but they must be held as answerable for the accidents as are the flag States which allow such carriers to operate. International measures concerning this responsibility are overdue, says the report. ACOPS believes that many flaws in Britain's maritime policy could be avoided if the Government accepted the concept of sea-use planning, whereby the maritime issues would be coordinated under a specially designated senior Cabinet Minister. The Committee also commended development of bilateral and regional co-operation on oil pollution, particularly among the North Sea countries and at the European Community level. It also urged the Government to step up its research into mechanical devices for clean-up, as Britain still mainly relies on dispersants. ACOPS was in agreement with most of the provisions in the environmental section of the negotiating text which was discussed at the spring 1978 session of the 3rd United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea. However, it said that the Amoco Cadiz disaster clearly pinpointed lacunae which currently exist within the laws of salvage. The Committee also expressed its hope that the June International Conference on Training and Certification of Seafarers would go a long way towards minimising human error as the most frequent source of ship accidents.
U N E P on Environmental Impacts of Fossil Fuels The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) recently convened a meeting in Warsaw on the environmental impact of extraction, transportation and utilization of fossil fuels. Fifty experts from various developed and developing countries participated. This study is the first in a series U N E P is undertaking, and will be followed by studies on nuclear energy and on renewable sources of energy (hydroelectric, solar, wind, wave, tidal, sea-temperature differentials, vegetation). Among the major issues that emerged from the review on fossil fuels are: (1) human health effects of atmospheric emissions, especially sulphur dioxide; (2) effects of sulphur dioxide on vegetation and bodies of freshwater; (3) potential effect on climate from atmospheric carbon dioxide arising from fossil fuel
combustion; and (4) long-term ecological effects of oil spills in the sea. The best estimate of surface air temperature increase for a doubling of the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration is 1.9°C, but this could vary from 1.5 to 3.0°C depending on cloudiness and other factors used in the model. By the year 2000, it is predicted that there will be about a 17~0 increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide over the 1976 concentration of 332 ppm. There are basically 4 pools of carbon on the planet: atmosphere, 70 × 10~0 tonnes carbon as carbon dioxide; worldwide biota, 80×10~0 tonnes; organic matter of the soil (humus and peat), 100-300× 1010 tonnes; and oceans, 4000× 10~0 tonnes. All these pools have an interchange of carbon, but the rate of exchange between the atmosphere and the oceans as a whole is considered to be low. The most rapid exchange occurs between the atmosphere and the upper 100 m mixed layer of the sea, where there is a reservoir of 60 x 101° tonnes of inorganic carbon. Currently, there is an annual injection into the atmosphere of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels amounting to 0 . 5 x 1 0 ~° tonnes of carbon, which leads to an annual atmospheric increase of 0.23 x 10 x° tonnes of carbon. This leaves 0.27 x 10 ~° tonnes of fussil-fuel carbon to be removed by some combination of terrestrial and oceanic processes. The net effect of oceanic processes in buffering the input of fossil-fuel carbon dioxide into the atmosphere has not yet been established.
Arabian Gulf Action Plan The coastline of the Arabian G u l f - one of the most oilpollution prone areas in the world - is to be protected by an Action Plan backed by a $6m trust fund. First steps to be taken include assessing and monitoring the extent of oil pollution as well as the effects of coastal engineering and mining. The disposal of municipal wastes into the Gulf's waters will also be scrutinized. Sixty per cent of the world's oil shipments pass through the Gulf and because of the resulting high risk of a major oil spill from a collision or grounding, the Action Plan also contains contingency plans to set up a marine emergency centre in Bahrain. The trust fund financing the Action Plan has been backed by eight of the richest oil-producing states including Saudi Arabia, Iran and Kuwait.
International Talks on Atlantic Salmon More than 250 delegates are expected to attend an International Symposium in Edinburgh this September on threats to the survival of the Atlantic salmon. The survival of this species is being jeopardized by increased pollution, illegal netting and the disregard by 171
Marine Pollution Bulletin
m a n y countries of international agreements on salmon fishing regulations. Further details about the symposium, which is cosponsored by the Atlantic Salmon Research Trust and the International Atlantic Salmon Foundation, are obtainable from W. Campbell, University of Edinburgh, Scotland.
EEC Moves Against Marine Pollution EUROFORM, the weekly bulletin of the Commission of the European Communities devotes its issue of 2 May 1978 to the C o m m u n i t y ' s moves against marine pollution. The Amoco Cadiz oil spillage, the sixth major disaster of its kind to threaten the coasts of Europe, provides the impetus for the assembly of preventive measures taken and proposed. Oil spillages at sea can have so m a n y causes that the threat of further oil slicks must be regarded as permanent. In view of the difficulties in ratifying International Conventions and applying controls the C o m m u n i t y has launched its own anti-pollution p r o g r a m m e while still playing its part in promoting world wide action to prevent oil pollution. Its action plan consists of processing existing information and centralizing methods of dealing with oil pollution, so as to disseminate this information, to file data on tankers and offshore drilling rigs that could pollute C o m m u n i t y waters and coastlines; to strengthen cooperation between anti-pollution teams in its Member countries; to examine such measures as c o m m o n antipollution ships equipped to deal with oil pollution; to see that tugboats suitable for C o m m u n i t y waters are available; to study legal methods that may be devised to ensure that the direct costs of cleaning up after oil spills and the indirect costs resulting from loss of earnings of those whose livelihood depends upon marine based industries are recoverable, possibly by compulsory insurance; and to carry out research programmes to develop more methods of dealing with oil spills and to determine the short and long term effects of oil pollution on the marine environment. The European Council of Ministers has been advised to negotiate C o m m u n i t y participation in the 1969 Bonn Agreement to combat oil pollution in the North Sea and also to conclude the 1976 Barcelona's Convention protocol for controlling pollution from hydrocarbons and harmful substances in the Mediterranean. On the subject of accident prevention the report refers to several safety and navigation regulations intended to regulate pollution discharges. These have yet to come into force. Applying these rules will be a step towards preventing such accidents as the Amoco Cadiz. By ratifying them simultaneously the EEC countries can bring pressure on other countries to follow suit. Another measure to prevent accidents will be for all the nine Member Countries to extend the limit for their territorial waters to 12 miles so as to be able to enforce their jurisdiction up to this limit. 172
The competence of crews and their living and working conditions have been called into question recently. The eight countries bordering on the North Sea will police vessels anchored in their ports in order to ensure that the labour norms established by the International Labour Organisation concerning crews and their conditions are respected. The Commission is examining the action that could be taken jointly (within the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organisations - IMCO) to extend shipping lanes compulsorily in coastal waters subject to pollution and to see that these measures are respected; to require that pilots are used in dangerous areas; to provide for mutual assistance where pollution is threatened; and to accelerate the adoption and implementation of the scheme for the award of certificates of proficiency now being prepared by IMCO. The Council of Ministers has yet to act on a report sent to it in June 1977 following the Ekofisk oil rig accident in the North Sea. This report covered the Bonn agreement and the Barcelona convention already referred to. The Commission later took the view, in December 1977, that action should be stepped up against the large proportion of the world's vessels that do not c o n f o r m to recommended standards of safety and working conditions, even to the extent of denying port facilities to such vessels. In a forthright section headed " M a n y Conventions But Few Results", the reality of the achievement of international conventions and their problems is disclosed. Little seems to have changed since the Torrey Canyon ran aground in 1967. The conventions have been signed but not come into force. It is doubted whether ships dumping oil at sea or failing to meet ILO norms would be refused port facilities even if IMCO member countries were to ratify outstanding conventions. The guilt of a ship is difficult to prove once the vessel is out of territorial waters; the same vessel allegedly guilty of an offence can re-enter the territorial waters with impunity by changing its flag or owner. At present it is cheaper to pollute and risk being taken to court than to face the cost of cleaning tanks in port. The facilities available to deal with accidental oil spillages are described as derisory, the techniques ineffective and the use of detergents as ecologically questionable. Co-ordinative action at world level is non-existent though regional co-operation is in force. International shipping standards have to be enforced, since norms are not enough. Enforcement of the use of shipping lanes, pilots, constant notification of the movement of vessels, proper training of crews are measures that are necessary to ensure implementation of international conventions. Such implementation seems to be too slow for some countries. The US, C a n a d a and South Africa have barred port access to vessels which do not meet the required norms and forbid super tankers in certain coastal areas. France is drawing up similar measures and E u r o f o r m asks " W h y is the C o m m u n i t y not trying harder to do the s a m e ? " . The C o m m u n i t y would be at an economic disadvantage if it were to enforce minimum standards
and Pollution Prevention. The Government opted for a set of anti-pollution standards which were cheaper, but less effective than those advocated by such nations as the United States, Sweden, Norway and Greece. The Amoco Cadiz disaster has highlighted the acute safety problems associated with ships flying flags of convenience. ACOPS believes that an earnest campaign must be waged against all sub-standard vessels, regardless of the flag they fly. Furthermore, many sub-standard ships were on charter to oil companies of considerable repute when accidents occurred. Oil companies justify such chartering on the grounds of economic necessity, but they must be held as answerable for the accidents as are the flag States which allow such carriers to operate. International measures concerning this responsibility are overdue, says the report. ACOPS believes that many flaws in Britain's maritime policy could be avoided if the Government accepted the concept of sea-use planning, whereby the maritime issues would be coordinated under a specially designated senior Cabinet Minister. The Committee also commended development of bilateral and regional co-operation on oil pollution, particularly among the North Sea countries and at the European Community level. It also urged the Government to step up its research into mechanical devices for clean-up, as Britain still mainly relies on dispersants. ACOPS was in agreement with most of the provisions in the environmental section of the negotiating text which was discussed at the spring 1978 session of the 3rd United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea. However, it said that the Amoco Cadiz disaster clearly pinpointed lacunae which currently exist within the laws of salvage. The Committee also expressed its hope that the June International Conference on Training and Certification of Seafarers would go a long way towards minimising human error as the most frequent source of ship accidents.
U N E P on Environmental Impacts of Fossil Fuels The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) recently convened a meeting in Warsaw on the environmental impact of extraction, transportation and utilization of fossil fuels. Fifty experts from various developed and developing countries participated. This study is the first in a series U N E P is undertaking, and will be followed by studies on nuclear energy and on renewable sources of energy (hydroelectric, solar, wind, wave, tidal, sea-temperature differentials, vegetation). Among the major issues that emerged from the review on fossil fuels are: (1) human health effects of atmospheric emissions, especially sulphur dioxide; (2) effects of sulphur dioxide on vegetation and bodies of freshwater; (3) potential effect on climate from atmospheric carbon dioxide arising from fossil fuel
combustion; and (4) long-term ecological effects of oil spills in the sea. The best estimate of surface air temperature increase for a doubling of the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration is 1.9°C, but this could vary from 1.5 to 3.0°C depending on cloudiness and other factors used in the model. By the year 2000, it is predicted that there will be about a 17~0 increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide over the 1976 concentration of 332 ppm. There are basically 4 pools of carbon on the planet: atmosphere, 70 × 10~0 tonnes carbon as carbon dioxide; worldwide biota, 80×10~0 tonnes; organic matter of the soil (humus and peat), 100-300× 1010 tonnes; and oceans, 4000× 10~0 tonnes. All these pools have an interchange of carbon, but the rate of exchange between the atmosphere and the oceans as a whole is considered to be low. The most rapid exchange occurs between the atmosphere and the upper 100 m mixed layer of the sea, where there is a reservoir of 60 x 101° tonnes of inorganic carbon. Currently, there is an annual injection into the atmosphere of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels amounting to 0 . 5 x 1 0 ~° tonnes of carbon, which leads to an annual atmospheric increase of 0.23 x 10 x° tonnes of carbon. This leaves 0.27 x 10 ~° tonnes of fussil-fuel carbon to be removed by some combination of terrestrial and oceanic processes. The net effect of oceanic processes in buffering the input of fossil-fuel carbon dioxide into the atmosphere has not yet been established.
Arabian Gulf Action Plan The coastline of the Arabian G u l f - one of the most oilpollution prone areas in the world - is to be protected by an Action Plan backed by a $6m trust fund. First steps to be taken include assessing and monitoring the extent of oil pollution as well as the effects of coastal engineering and mining. The disposal of municipal wastes into the Gulf's waters will also be scrutinized. Sixty per cent of the world's oil shipments pass through the Gulf and because of the resulting high risk of a major oil spill from a collision or grounding, the Action Plan also contains contingency plans to set up a marine emergency centre in Bahrain. The trust fund financing the Action Plan has been backed by eight of the richest oil-producing states including Saudi Arabia, Iran and Kuwait.
International Talks on Atlantic Salmon More than 250 delegates are expected to attend an International Symposium in Edinburgh this September on threats to the survival of the Atlantic salmon. The survival of this species is being jeopardized by increased pollution, illegal netting and the disregard by 171
Marine Pollution Bulletin
m a n y countries of international agreements on salmon fishing regulations. Further details about the symposium, which is cosponsored by the Atlantic Salmon Research Trust and the International Atlantic Salmon Foundation, are obtainable from W. Campbell, University of Edinburgh, Scotland.
EEC Moves Against Marine Pollution EUROFORM, the weekly bulletin of the Commission of the European Communities devotes its issue of 2 May 1978 to the C o m m u n i t y ' s moves against marine pollution. The Amoco Cadiz oil spillage, the sixth major disaster of its kind to threaten the coasts of Europe, provides the impetus for the assembly of preventive measures taken and proposed. Oil spillages at sea can have so m a n y causes that the threat of further oil slicks must be regarded as permanent. In view of the difficulties in ratifying International Conventions and applying controls the C o m m u n i t y has launched its own anti-pollution p r o g r a m m e while still playing its part in promoting world wide action to prevent oil pollution. Its action plan consists of processing existing information and centralizing methods of dealing with oil pollution, so as to disseminate this information, to file data on tankers and offshore drilling rigs that could pollute C o m m u n i t y waters and coastlines; to strengthen cooperation between anti-pollution teams in its Member countries; to examine such measures as c o m m o n antipollution ships equipped to deal with oil pollution; to see that tugboats suitable for C o m m u n i t y waters are available; to study legal methods that may be devised to ensure that the direct costs of cleaning up after oil spills and the indirect costs resulting from loss of earnings of those whose livelihood depends upon marine based industries are recoverable, possibly by compulsory insurance; and to carry out research programmes to develop more methods of dealing with oil spills and to determine the short and long term effects of oil pollution on the marine environment. The European Council of Ministers has been advised to negotiate C o m m u n i t y participation in the 1969 Bonn Agreement to combat oil pollution in the North Sea and also to conclude the 1976 Barcelona's Convention protocol for controlling pollution from hydrocarbons and harmful substances in the Mediterranean. On the subject of accident prevention the report refers to several safety and navigation regulations intended to regulate pollution discharges. These have yet to come into force. Applying these rules will be a step towards preventing such accidents as the Amoco Cadiz. By ratifying them simultaneously the EEC countries can bring pressure on other countries to follow suit. Another measure to prevent accidents will be for all the nine Member Countries to extend the limit for their territorial waters to 12 miles so as to be able to enforce their jurisdiction up to this limit. 172
The competence of crews and their living and working conditions have been called into question recently. The eight countries bordering on the North Sea will police vessels anchored in their ports in order to ensure that the labour norms established by the International Labour Organisation concerning crews and their conditions are respected. The Commission is examining the action that could be taken jointly (within the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organisations - IMCO) to extend shipping lanes compulsorily in coastal waters subject to pollution and to see that these measures are respected; to require that pilots are used in dangerous areas; to provide for mutual assistance where pollution is threatened; and to accelerate the adoption and implementation of the scheme for the award of certificates of proficiency now being prepared by IMCO. The Council of Ministers has yet to act on a report sent to it in June 1977 following the Ekofisk oil rig accident in the North Sea. This report covered the Bonn agreement and the Barcelona convention already referred to. The Commission later took the view, in December 1977, that action should be stepped up against the large proportion of the world's vessels that do not c o n f o r m to recommended standards of safety and working conditions, even to the extent of denying port facilities to such vessels. In a forthright section headed " M a n y Conventions But Few Results", the reality of the achievement of international conventions and their problems is disclosed. Little seems to have changed since the Torrey Canyon ran aground in 1967. The conventions have been signed but not come into force. It is doubted whether ships dumping oil at sea or failing to meet ILO norms would be refused port facilities even if IMCO member countries were to ratify outstanding conventions. The guilt of a ship is difficult to prove once the vessel is out of territorial waters; the same vessel allegedly guilty of an offence can re-enter the territorial waters with impunity by changing its flag or owner. At present it is cheaper to pollute and risk being taken to court than to face the cost of cleaning tanks in port. The facilities available to deal with accidental oil spillages are described as derisory, the techniques ineffective and the use of detergents as ecologically questionable. Co-ordinative action at world level is non-existent though regional co-operation is in force. International shipping standards have to be enforced, since norms are not enough. Enforcement of the use of shipping lanes, pilots, constant notification of the movement of vessels, proper training of crews are measures that are necessary to ensure implementation of international conventions. Such implementation seems to be too slow for some countries. The US, C a n a d a and South Africa have barred port access to vessels which do not meet the required norms and forbid super tankers in certain coastal areas. France is drawing up similar measures and E u r o f o r m asks " W h y is the C o m m u n i t y not trying harder to do the s a m e ? " . The C o m m u n i t y would be at an economic disadvantage if it were to enforce minimum standards