Intraplate geodynamics and magmatism in the evolution of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt

Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 93 (2014) 158–179

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Intraplate geodynamics and magmatism in the evolution of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt V.V. Yarmolyuk a, M.I. Kuzmin b,⇑, R.E. Ernst c,d a

Institute of the Geology of Ore Deposits, Petrography, Mineralogy, and Geochemistry (IGEM), Russian Academy of Sciences, Staromonetnyi per. 35, Moscow 109017, Russia Vinogradov Institute of Geochemistry, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Favorskogo 1a, Irkutsk 664033, Russia c Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa K1S 5B6, Canada d Ernst Geosciences, 43 Margrave Ave., Ottawa K1T 3Y2, Canada b

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 21 February 2014 Received in revised form 29 April 2014 Accepted 7 July 2014 Available online 16 July 2014 Keywords: Central Asian Orogenic Belt Siberia Active continental margin Hot spot Intraplate magmatism Rare element Isotopic composition Mantle plume Geodynamic reconstruction

a b s t r a c t The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) was produced as a consequence of the successive closure of the Paleoasian Ocean and the accretion of structures formed within it (island arcs, oceanic islands, and backarc basins) to the Siberian continent. The belt started developing in the latest Late Neoproterozoic, and this process terminated in the latest Permian in response to the collision of the Siberian and North China continents that resulted in closure of the Paleoasian ocean (Metcalfe, 2006; Li et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2009; Xiao et al., 2010; Didenko et al., 2010). Throughout the whole evolutionary history of this Orogenic Belt, a leading role in its evolution was played by convergent processes. Along with these processes, an important contribution to the evolution of the composition and structure of the crust in the belt was made by deep geodynamic processes related to the activity of mantle plumes. Indicator complexes of the activity of mantle plumes are identified, and their major distribution patterns in CAOB structures are determined. A number of epochs and areas of intraplate magmatism are distinguished, including the Neoproterozoic one (Rodinia breakup and the origin of alkaline rock belt in the marginal part of the Siberian craton); Neoproterozoic–Early Cambrian (origin of oceanic islands in the Paleoasian Ocean); Late Cambrian–Early Ordovician (origin of LIP within the region of Early Caledonian structures in CAOB); Middle Paleozoic (origin of LIP in the Altai–Sayan rift system); Late Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic (origin of the Tarim flood-basalt province, Central Asian rift system, and a number of related zonal magmatic areas); Late Mesozoic–Cenozoic (origin of continental volcanic areas in Central Asia). Geochemical and isotopic characteristics are determined for magmatic complexes that are indicator complexes for areas of intraplate magmatism of various age, and their major evolutionary trends are discussed. Available data indicate that mantle plumes practically did not cease to affect crustal growth and transformations in CAOB in relation to the migration of the Siberian continent throughout the whole time span when the belt was formed above a cluster of hotspots, which is compared with the African superplume. Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) is a classic example of an accretionary orogen. It was derived through the convergence of the Siberian paleocontinent with structures (island arcs, oceanic islands, and accretionary terranes) formed in the adjacent paleoocean (called the Paleoasian ocean). With time the paleocontinent grew in size as the oceanic accretionary structures bordered the Siberian paleocontinent in the south and southwest (in the present ⇑ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.I. Kuzmin). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2014.07.004 1367-9120/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

frame of reference) (Mossakovsky et al., 1993; Sßengör et al., 1993; S ß engör, 1987; Jahn, 2001; Jahn et al., 2004a, 2004b; Kröner et al., 2007; Xiao et al., 2010). Namely, the Vendian-Cambrian stage produced an Early Paleozoic orogen (the so-called Caledonian superterrane) as well as multi-stage collision between the Siberian, Kazakhstan, Tarim and North China blocks (Yuen et al., 2007; Windley et al., 2007; Xiao et al., 2010; Safonova et al., 2011); the Early–Middle Paleozoic stage gave rise to the respective orogen (Hercynides) through the accretion of structures in South Mongolia, Ob-Zaisan zone, and South-Gobi microcontinent; and the Permian-Early Triassic stage was responsible for the origin of the Solonkersky oceanic island arc (Indosinides). The western part

V.V. Yarmolyuk et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 93 (2014) 158–179

of the Paleo-Asian Ocean closed in the Late Paleozoic resulting in formation of the western CAOB, i.e., collisional and post-collisional granitoids within the suture zones formed by the collision of the Kazakhstan block and Siberian craton (Vladimirov et al., 2008). Finally during the Late Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic stage, the Paleoasian ocean closed as Siberia collided with North China (Xiao et al., 2003; Li et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2009; Guy et al., 2014). Eastwards within the Mongol-Okhotsk ocean the accretion and collision lasted up to the terminal Early Mesozoic. Thus, the Central Asian Orogenic Belt is now interpreted as produced by the successive closure of an oceanic basin and the accretion of arcs and microcontinents in the paleobasin that was formed as a result of break up of the Rodinia supercontinent. Hence, it records the accretion history of the arcs and microcontinents of during a time span of 400 Ma. The present article shows that the crust and structures in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt were generated both by the plate tectonics processes and the activity related to the mantle plumes. Starting in the Neoproterozoic, when the Paleoasian ocean was formed, mantle hotspots were responsible for the formation of oceanic islands and oceanic plateaus. A variety of rocks of OIB and E-MORB affinities were produced within Orogenic Belts of different age: the Early (800 Ma) and Late (670 Ma) Neoproterozoic orogeny known in the Russian literature as the Baikalides (Kovach et al., 2005; Khain et al., 2002; Plotnikov et al., 2000; Kuz’michev, 2004), the Early Paleozoic Caledonide orogeny (570– 500 Ma) (Yarmolyuk and Kovalenko, 2003a; Almukhamedov et al., 1996; Gordienko et al., 2007; Safonova, 2009; Safonova et al., 2009), and the Middle-Late Paleozoic Hercynides (400 Ma) (Ruzhentsev et al., 1989; Helo et al., 2006). A mantle plume also initiated the eruption of Siberian flood basalts (Dobretsov, 2005; Almukhamedov et al., 2004; Reichow et al., 2009; Sobolev et al., 2011), the origin of the associated West Siberian rift systems with typical basaltic and bimodal volcanic associations (Yarmolyuk and Kovalenko, 2003a; Yarmolyuk et al., 2013), and giant magmatic areas with large batholiths in their central parts (Yarmolyuk and Kovalenko, 2003b). This latter insight led us to conclude that mantle plumes had a more significant role in development of continental crust and its reworking than is generally appreciated (Zonenshain et al., 1991; Kuzmin et al., 2010; Yarmolyuk and Kuzmin, 2011). Condie (2001) and others have discussed the role of mantle plumes in generating oceanic plateaus that during ocean closure are partly accreted to the active margin thus contributing to the building of continental crust. A less wellrecognized role for plumes in building continental crust arises from the role of mantle plumes in generating silicic magmatism. It is becoming increasingly clear that mantle plumes can generating large volumes of silicic magmatism through magmatic underplating that melts fusible lower crust (Bryan and Ferrari, 2013; Ernst, 2014). Such hotspot generated silicic rocks of LIP-scale volume have been termed SLIPs (Silicic LIPs; e.g., Bryan and Ferrari, 2013; Ernst, 2014). Given the large number of mantle plumes through time that produce large igneous provinces (LIPs) at a rate of about one every 290–300 Ma (e.g., Ernst and Buchan, 2001; Dobretsov, 2005, 2011), then even if only a fraction produce significant regions of silicic magmatism then the overall contribution of this silicic magmatism to development of new continent crust could be significant. This article discusses the interaction between the structures of the belt and mantle plumes, geologic influence from such interaction as well as a contribution of the mantle plumes into the geologic evolution of the CAOB. The article uses a great scope of the published data as well as new original results concerning the age division of magmatic complexes as well as their geochemical and isotope characteristics. Based on these results we distinguished the stages of intra-plate magmatism, evaluated the geologic effects

159

from intra-plate processes and characterized the sources of magmatism for different geodynamic settings. As a tool for identifying intra-plate processes, we use modern hotspots and their associated magmatism as a guide (Kearey et al., 2009; Kuzmin, 1985; Hofmann, 1997; Condie, 2001). In the modern oceanic environment, hotspot related magmatism produces OIB and/or E-MORB type basalts, whereas in post-collisional belts hotspot related magmatism includes ophiolites with basalts having OIB-type or high-Ti subalkaline gabbro compositions. In intraplate setting, the hotspot related magmatism consists of flood basalts and their plumbing system of dyke swarm, sill province and layered mafic-ultramafic intrusions. Alkaline-basalt association can also be present. These can include carbonatites, peralkaline granites, nepheline syenites, and rare-metal granites. These rocks are frequently associated with grabens (rifts) and intraplate uplifts. Analyzing the spatiotemporal patterns of the distribution of such rock types in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt have allowed us to identify the signature of mantle plumes at a number of stages in the evolution of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (Fig. 1). These stages were:  the Neoproterozoic stage, when the part of Rodinia which bordered Siberia broke up that resulted in the initiation of the Paleoasian Ocean and formation of a belt of ultramafic alkaline rocks along the southern margin of the Siberian craton;  the Neoproterozoic–Early Cambrian stage, when oceanic plateaus and oceanic islands formed within the Paleoasian ocean (Zonenshain et al., 1991);  the Late Cambrian–Early Ordovician stage, when an Early Paleozoic Large Silicic Igneous Province was produced in the Eastern Sayan within the Early Caledonian accretionary superterrane;  the Middle Paleozoic stage, which produced a LIP related to the Altai–Sayan rift system;  the Late Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic stage, which comprised a succession of intraplate magmatic pulses that gave rise to the Tarim trap province (also a LIP) and a number of rift zones and zonal magmatic areas with large batholith in the central part in the Central Asian Rift System;  the Late Mesozoic–Cenozoic stage, when a number of small volcanic areas were formed in the inner parts of Central Asia. It should be mentioned that the same time spans were marked by the origin of the intraplate magmatic areas in other parts of the Siberian continent, as can be exemplified by the Vilyui-Yakutsk (Devonian) and Siberian (Early Triassic) trap provinces (LIPs). This paper is focused on the pulses of intraplate magmatic activity that were involved in the evolution of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt.

2. Geologic setting, stages, and areas of intraplate magmatic activity 2.1. Neoproterozoic stage The breakup and dispersal of Rodinia in the Neoproterozoic gave rise to several independent continents (e.g., Li et al., 2008a, 2008b), after which a number of isolated continents were formed that remained separated from one another until all were again recombined in Pangea. The autonomous evolutionary history of Siberia began in the mid- to terminal Neoproterozoic, when the part of Rodinia which bordered Siberia broke up and the Paleoasian ocean formed (Yarmolyuk et al., 2005; Gladkochub et al., 2007; Kheraskova et al., 2010). Traces of break-up can be seen in the southern and southwestern marginal parts of the Siberia as massifs of biotite pyroxenites, ijolites, urtites, alkaline syenites and carbonatites. Such complexes accompanied by dykes of alkaline

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78

о

о

102о

90

о

114

126о

138о

60о

56

о

52о

48о

Early Paleozoic Intraplate

44о

Central Asian or ogenic b elt

40о

Early Mesozoic rift system

Igneous Province Middle Paleozoic Altai-Sayan rift system

Late Mesozoic grabens and rifts

Late Paleozoic rift system

Cenozoic volcanic field

Traps of Siberia and Tarim

Cratons

Fig. 1. Areas of the Phanerozoic intraplate magmatism in the Central Asia.

basaltoids and lamproites were widespread in the margins of the Siberian craton: the Aldan (Arbarastakh and Ingili massifs), Sayan (Bolshetagin, Belya Zima, Srednya Zima, Zhidoi massifs) (Yarmolyuk et al., 2005) and Enesey Range (Tatar massif) (Nozhkin et al., 2008; Vernikovskaya et al., 2007; Romanova et al., 2012) (Table 1). They form a belt extending for 2000 km (Yarmolyuk et al., 2005) and consisting of layered bodies of basic rocks with Cu–Ni mineralization (Barbitai group), flood basalts and bimodal basalt-rhyolite associations and gabbro-diabase intrusions (Olokit graben) and layered basic rocks (Dovyren massif) (Rytsk et al., 2002). Neoproterozoic mafic dyke swarms are widespread over the southeastern and southern parts of the Siberian craton. These mafic dyke swarms are known in the Sharizhalgay uplift, in the Tuva-Mongolian Massif and Central Aldan; (Rytsk et al., 2002; Kuzmichev et al., 2005; Sklyarov et al., 2003). Precise U–Pb ages of ca 725–710 Ma have been obtained for the Cu–Ni bearing Dovyren, Upper Kingash and Tartai intrusions (Ariskin et al., 2013; Polyakov et al., 2013). The age of these rocks suggests that Siberia separated from Rodinia at 720–650 Ma.

(506 Ma, Almukhamedov et al., 1996; Gordienko et al., 2007), Bayan-Khongor zone (Kovach et al., 2005; Terent’eva et al., 2010; Jian et al., 2010), Eastern Transbaikalia (Gusev and Peskov, 1996) (Table 1, Fig. 2). Those complexes are composed of pillow basalts (high-titanium mafic subalkaline lavas) and are geochemically similar to OIB and E-MORB. These hotspots related oceanic basalts are tectonically justaposed with basaltic rock types showing geochemical IAB and BABB affinities (Khain et al., 2002, 2003; Kovach et al., 2011; Safonova et al., 2009; Mongush et al., 2011). This suggests that island arcs, backarc basins, oceanic islands, and oceanic plateaus all occurred in the Paleoasian ocean during the Neoproterozoic–Cambrian. The Paleo-Asian Ocean was thus likely similar to the western part of the modern Pacific, which hosts widespread oceanic islands and island arcs. The collision (accretion) of these structures began in the Paleo-Asian Ocean in the Late Cambrian and terminated with the formation of the Early Paleozoic superterrane (Kravchinsky et al., 2001).

2.2. Neoproterozoic–Early Cambrian stage

The Late Cambrian–Ordovician processes of accretion were accompanied by folding, intense tectonic deformation, thrusting and regional high geothermal gradient metamorphism. Those events are considered to have produced the Early Paleozoic Folded Area (Dergunov et al., 2001; Kozakov et al., 2003; Jian et al., 2008). This deformation took place during the brief time span between 500 and 485 Ma and involved both juvenile crustal zones and the Precambrian crustal terranes between them (Kozakov et al., 2003, 2012; Yarmolyuk et al., 2006). The events of accretion were accompanied by intense magmatic activity, which continued even

At about that time, the Siberian continent was drifting to the part of the paleocean in which a number of oceanic islands were formed at ca 500–700 Ma. Fragments of such paleooceanic islands are found in accretionary complexes in the Gorny Altai (Kurai, 598 Ma Katun, 550–530 Ma), (Safonova et al., 2009, 2011; Utsunomiya et al., 2009), Kuznetsky Ala-Tau (544 Ma, Plotnikov et al., 2000), Eastern Tuva (Mongush et al., 2011), Ozerny zone (530 Ma, Yarmolyuk et al., 2011; Kovach et al., 2011), Dzhida zone

2.3. Late Cambrian–Ordovician stage

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V.V. Yarmolyuk et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 93 (2014) 158–179 Table 1 Neoproterozoic–Early Paleozoic intraplate magmatic complexes south of the Siberian craton and its folded surrounding. Structure zones

Neoproterozoic–Cambrian Breakup of Rhodinia (Laurasian part), origin of the CentralAsian paleocean

Late Cambrian–Ordovician Accretion and postaccretion episodes in the -Middle Paleozoic structures of the CAOB

Southern margin of the Siberian Craton Olokit graben, North Layered massifs Baikal Area 1. Dovyren (727–711) Yenisei Range Alkaline-mafic complexes with carbonatites

South-western margin of the platform

Sharyzhalgai block Aldan

Fold zones in the CAOB Kuzntesky Ala-Tau

Rytsk et al. (2002, 2011)

Vernikovskaya et al. (2007), Vrublevskii et al. (2011), Nozhkin et al. (2008)

Sredne-Tatarskii – (711) Penchenginskii – (638) 2.Tatarskii– (629) Alkaline- mafic complexes with carbonatites

Yarmolyuk et al. (2005)

3. Belaya Zima – (643) 4.Tagna 5.Zhido – (632) Dyke belts of mafic rocks (780–740) Alkaline- mafic complexes with carbonatites Ingili – (654) Arbarastakh – (640)

Sklyarov et al. (2003) Yarmolyuk et al. (2005)

6. OIB affinities – (694) E-MORB affinities– (550)

Plotnikov et al. (2000) 14. Verkhnepetropavlovskii (Alkaline gabbroids and nepheline syenites) – (509)

Altai

7. Kurai, OIB – (600) Katun, E-MORB – (550–530)

Tannuola

8. OIB affinities – (578) 16. Khayalygsky (high-Ti gabbro) – (447) 17. Mazhaliksky (pyroxenite-gabbronorite) – (478) 18. Saibarsky (Ne-syenite) – 457 9. OIB affinities – (550) 19. Uregnursky (picrite-basalt) – (512) 20. Khan-Khukhei (peralkaline granite) (510)

Bayan-Khongor Dzhida

Vrublevskii et al. (2003) Safonova et al. (2008, 2009)

15. Edel’veis (Pyroxenite-carbonatite) – (507)

Ozernaya

References

10. Lava plateau basalts – (667) 11. OIB and E-MORB affinities (570) 12. Dhidoi, OIB affinities – (Ediacarian–Early Cambrian)

Vrublevskii et al. (2012) Mongush et al. (2011) Sal’nikova et al. (2013) Perfilova et al. (2004) Kovach et al. (2011) Izokh et al. (2011) Yarmolyuk et al. (2011) Kovach et al. (2005) Terent’eva et al. (2010) Gordienko et al. (2007) Almukhamedov et al. (1996)

21. 22. 23. 24.

Ol’khon Precambrian terranes Dzabkhan Sarkhoi (Tuva-Mongolian microcontinent)

Sangilen (Tuva-Mongolian microcontinent)

Barguzin terrane

Malobistrinsky (alkaline syenite – (460) Beltesgolsky (Ne-syenite) – (480) Birkhinsky (Gabbro-monzodiorite) – (500) Tajeran (Ne-syenite) – (471-464)

13. Alkaline granites – (755) Ognit alkaline gabbroids, alkaline syenites and granites 25. Sar’dag, Shulutinskii (494–460) 26. Botogol (521) 26. Khushagol (495) High-Ti ua,,po, alkaline gabbroids, monzonites, alkaline syenites and granites 27. Aryskan (455) 28. Katun (455) 29. Dzhargalantskii (490) 30. Khoromnutskii (495) 31. Bashkymugurskii, etc. (465) 31. camptonites (447) 32. Tastyg – (494) Alkaline gabbroids, nepheline syenites 33. Saizhen (486) 34. Snezhinskii (487) 34. Nizhne Burul’zaiskii (520)

Kotov et al. (1997) Izokh et al. (2008) Sklyarov et al. (2009)

Yarmolyuk et al. (2008c) Kuz’michev (2000)

Yarmolyuk et al. (2005)

Kostitsyn and Altukhov (2004) Kozakov et al. (2003)

Izokh et al. (2008) Yarmolyuk et al. (2006) Doroshkevich et al. (2012)

The numbers of massifs are the same as in Fig. 2. Parenthetical numerals printed in bold face indicate the age of the massifs in Ma.

when accretion terminated. This magmatic activity included numerous plutons, which have mainly a tonalite–granodiorite– plagiogranite composition (Fig. 2) and whose aggregate size

exceeds 200,000 km2 (Vladimirov et al., 1999). This magmatic area is distinguished as an Early Paleozoic Large Igneous Province of the Central Asia (Izokh et al., 2008).

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V.V. Yarmolyuk et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 93 (2014) 158–179 90о

102о

114 о

2

1

14 6 18

3

28 27 17

7

4

24 23

о

52

5.

34 33

25 26 21

15 22 30 19 16 8 20

29

32

12

о

48

31

9 13

10 11 о

44 Basites OIB type in ophiolites, > 520 Ma

Ordovician granites

Basites OIB type, agpaitic granites, nepheline syenites, 500 - 465 Ma

Caledonian fold belt

Cratons

Precambrian terranes

Early Paleozoic Large Igneous Province Fig. 2. Locations of the Neoproterozoic–Ordovician intraplate-related igneous rocks (OIB type basites in ophiolites, layered ultramafic-mafic intrusions, alkaline gabbro, syenite, granite and carbonatite massifs) in the Early Paleozoic structures (Caledonides) in Central Asia (numbers are explained in Table 1).

In addition to rocks typical of convergent settings, this Early Paleozoic large magmatic province hosts abundant intraplate igneous rocks (Table 1): picrites, high-Ti subalkaline and alkaline gabbroids, alkali-ultramafic complexes with carbonatites, nepheline syenites, peralkaline granite and syenites and Li–F granites (Kostitsyn and Altukhov, 2004; Kotov et al., 1997; Yarmolyuk et al., 2006; Izokh et al., 2008; Dobretsov, 2011). These intraplate rocks occur mainly in the marginal portions of the province (Fig. 2) but also form a linear group of alkaline rocks in its central part. The intraplate magmatic rocks were produced in the same time span as that of the granites, as demonstrated, for example, by mingling structures between the basites and granites (Rudnev et al., 2009). It is thus reasonable to believe that the newly formed continental lithosphere overlie the hot spot which had existed previously in the Paleoasian ocean (Yarmolyuk et al., 2006; Izokh et al., 2008). The influence of the hot mantle induced the anatectic melting of large volumes of the old crust and was the main reason for batholith-scale granitoid magmatism (see also model of Bryan and Ferrari, 2013). 2.4. Middle Paleozoic stage The Viluyi-Yakutsk (Ernst and Buchan, 1997, 2001, 2003; Yarmolyuk and Kovalenko, 2003a; Kiselev et al., 2006, 2007, 2012) and Altai–Sayan (Kuzmin et al., 2010; Vorontsov et al., 2010) LIPs were generated within the Siberian Continent in the Middle Paleozoic. The latter was generated in the earliest Devonian (Zonenshain et al., 1991; Kuzmin et al., 2010; Kröner et al., 2007; Helo et al., 2006) in a setting of active continental margin within the south-western fold belt surrounding the Siberian craton (Fig. 3). The convergence processes involved adjacent oceanic basins, in which island arcs and oceanic islands were generated (Dergunov et al., 2001; Helo et al., 2006; Khashgerel et al., 2006; Yarmolyuk et al., 2008a). The evolution of the Altai–Sayan Rift System (ASRS) was related to the rear part of the active continental margin. At that time the

convergent boundary existed along the western margin of the Altai–Sayan Area. Taking into account the distribution of intrusive magmatic rocks in the Kuznetsky Ala-Tau, Altai and Kalba (Vladimirov et al., 2001) it coincided with the present-day boundary between Rudnyi and Gornyi Altai. Continental intrusions were produced in the Chinese Altai starting from 440 Ma (Wong et al., 2010), in the Rudnyi and Gornyi Altai from Early–Middle (Kruk and Sennikov, 2012) and Late Devonian (Saraev et al., 2012). The magmatic processes covered vast areas in the marginal part of the Siberian continent and produced volcanic-plutonic belt of 800 km wide (Vorontsov et al., 2013). ASRS is located in the interior of the belt and is characterized by the triple junction of grabens (Fig. 3). The two branches of the system (at an angle of 100°) are the Tuva Depression, which strikes northeastward for 500 km and was formed as a volcanic rift with an extensive basaltic dyke system, and the Delyuno–Yustyd Depression, which has a similar rift structure and extends for 600 km northwestward. It contains Early Devonian basic lavas at the base of a stratigraphic sequence and also basaltic dykes (Gashunnur complex) (Kozakov et al., 2011). The third arm of the triple rift/graben system most likely opened toward the west-northwest and faced the paleocean. The triple graben system was produced simultaneously with numerous shallower depressions and grabens (Vorontsov et al., 2010). Rifting was associated with eruption of basic lava composition (basalts, andesite-basalts, tephrites, and trachybasalts) and also phonolites, trachytes, and comendites (Vorontsov et al., 1997; Yarmolyuk and Kovalenko, 2003a). Simultaneously there was intrusion of teschenites, alkali granites, and syenites. The magmatic activity dramatically diminished in the Middle Devonian. 2.5. Late Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic stage Late Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic was the final stage in the history of the Paleo-Asian Ocean. At about that time, the ocean started to close as Siberia collided with the North China and Kazakhstan cratonic blocks. The convergence processes started in the latest

163

V.V. Yarmolyuk et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 93 (2014) 158–179 Table 2 The average compositions of the basic rocks of different intraplate association CAOB. Component

Late Mesozoic–Cenozoic South Khangai volcanic area

Late Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic rift system in Central Asia Early Mesozoic rift zones

Complexes of different stages, age at Ma

SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 V Cr Co Ni Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Ba La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta Th U

SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 V Cr Co Ni Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Ba La Ce Pr Nd

<25

60–25

90–60

105–90

120–105

140–120

North Gobi

Khara–Khorin

West Trans baikalia

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

50.17 2.37 14.95 10.73 0.13 6.70 7.38 4.20 2.64 0.73 132 136 35 91 31 822 18 199 49.6 494 28.62 60.89 7.74 33.59 7.13 2.21 5.93 0.83 4.04 0.69 1.62 0.21 1.19 0.16 4.61 2.76 2.95 0.77

50.66 2.36 15.01 10.79 0.13 5.66 8.05 4.14 2.56 0.64 143 128 35 81 37 829 20 193 46.6 548 25.51 54.68 7.16 31.60 7.25 2.13 5.87 0.81 4.13 0.74 1.74 0.23 1.28 0.18 4.59 2.56 2.48 0.83

48.50 2.17 15.14 11.43 0.16 6.53 9.00 4.39 2.03 0.65 177 150 40 86 37 889 26 261 63.3 553 43.36 87.11 10.35 41.27 8.45 2.61 7.33 1.07 5.41 0.94 2.24 0.30 1.72 0.23 6.17 3.90 5.13 1.49

52.07 1.67 17.15 9.58 0.15 5.29 7.55 4.17 1.79 0.58 135 107 27 66 28 724 25 178 29.9 769 24.33 50.62 6.42 27.86 6.13 1.74 4.90 0.72 4.12 0.80 2.14 0.31 1.90 0.31 4.06 1.55 2.56 0.89

52.94 1.65 16.61 10.13 0.14 5.03 7.35 4.02 1.56 0.57 154 98 30 70 25 675 22 200 20.1 609 31.10 65.02 8.04 33.63 6.73 1.84 5.71 0.81 4.29 0.82 2.18 0.30 1.84 0.28 4.35 1.12 2.42 1.20

51.69 2.19 15.75 10.65 0.16 4.53 7.19 4.02 2.67 1.14 161 73 27 47 60 1924 40 408 34.9 1650 94.08 197.03 23.58 90.29 15.60 3.84 11.95 1.57 7.77 1.40 3.67 0.49 3.11 0.49 8.45 1.72 7.50 1.84

50.20 2.10 16.25 9.90 0.16 2.69 7.60 3.87 2.07 0.78 174 73 26 37 39 715 36 255 16.3 870 37.94 86.73 11.09 44.43 8.89 2.28 8.33 1.23 6.88 1.38 3.68 0.55 3.24 0.51 6.40 0.79 3.38 1.19

51.76 1.84 15.82 8.93 0.10 3.13 5.98 4.44 3.82 1.21 183 23 24 31 67 1139 29 398 28.0 1766 93.35 187.69 20.76 83.23 13.34 3.33 10.45 0.68 2.82 4.62 1.60 2.09 2.29 0.33 9.30 1.36 4.40 1.41

49.39 2.10 16.84 10.51 0.15 5.03 7.18 3.97 1.81 0.80 293 101 43 81 29 1063 30 271 12.8 942 41.07 86.89 11.66 47.42 8.87 2.72 8.09 1.12 5.22 1.11 2.80 0.41 2.56 0.37 5.67 1.52 3.43 0.74

Late Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic rift system in Central Asia

Volcanic regions of the Altai–Sayan rift system

Late Paleozoic rift zones

NW Mongolia

Kropotkin graben

Minusa basin

Tuva basin

Gobi Tianshan 10

Gobi–Altai 11

North Mongolia 12

High–Ti 13

Moderate–Ti 14

High–Ti 15

Moderate–Ti 16

17

18

50.49 1.73 16.89 9.27 0.16 4.91 8.32 3.55 1.47 0.61 166 108 27 66 19 658 21 177 10.3 511 21.67 49.19 4.95 28.92

49.71 1.89 16.48 9.68 0.16 5.01 8.00 3.59 1.59 0.61 196 100 31 51 28 747 29 216 12.0 668 30.19 66.66 8.66 34.90

48.82 1.96 16.32 10.43 0.17 4.98 7.95 3.45 1.97 0.78 193 99 32 48 37 872 29 212 12.7 980 31.24 71.45 9.23 39.10

48.55 2.69 16.51 11.46 0.21 5.35 7.08 3.91 1.67 0.65 172 63 40 74 20 613 30 244 29.6 584 33.36 69.13 12.21 38.02

51.63 1.87 15.78 10.93 0.34 5.34 6.88 4.14 1.13 0.41 206 51 42 73 14 443 29 174 9.6 458 17.46 39.12 6.69 25.13

45.43 3.84 14.84 14.84 0.20 6.36 8.46 3.00 1.13 0.44 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 33 737 30 223 43.0 468 38.68 82.93 n.d. 42.26

49.57 1.70 16.20 11.73 0.17 5.55 8.68 3.63 1.17 0.53 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 32 637 32 170 8.7 717 32.92 76.81 n.d. 37.64

49.09 1.39 17.18 9.76 0.20 4.93 7.39 4.97 1.36 0.52 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 17 1025 32 286 17.4 1078 38.73 85.55 n.d. 42.71

49.39 2.29 14.91 14.26 0.32 5.26 8.16 3.62 0.64 0.40 370 36 43 33 10 318 53 282 7.5 208 12.89 35.41 5.32 26.11 (continued on next page)

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Table 2 (continued)

Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta Th U

Late Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic rift system in Central Asia

Volcanic regions of the Altai–Sayan rift system

Late Paleozoic rift zones

NW Mongolia

Kropotkin graben

Minusa basin

Tuva basin

Gobi Tianshan 10

Gobi–Altai 11

North Mongolia 12

High–Ti 13

Moderate–Ti 14

High–Ti 15

Moderate–Ti 16

17

18

6.28 1.83 4.44 0.74 3.73 0.74 2.06 0.29 2.49 0.34 4.16 0.53 1.50 0.54

7.28 2.16 6.79 1.01 5.53 1.14 3.01 0.42 2.64 0.40 4.59 0.64 2.64 0.76

8.00 2.33 6.84 1.08 5.71 1.14 3.03 0.42 2.65 0.38 4.50 0.60 1.69 0.65

9.69 2.78 7.72 1.17 8.38 1.59 4.14 0.62 2.60 0.35 6.11 2.52 3.08 1.15

7.24 2.18 7.07 1.17 5.42 1.08 2.88 0.42 3.30 0.47 4.84 0.67 2.15 0.84

9.35 2.98 9.37 1.42 7.68 1.39 3.36 0.45 2.49 0.34 7.67 2.44 4.01 0.53

7.99 2.54 7.31 1.05 6.30 1.24 3.31 0.45 2.68 0.38 6.28 0.68 2.47 0.68

8.36 2.41 8.10 1.12 6.81 1.36 4.02 0.56 3.71 0.57 5.32 1.02 4.05 2.19

7.25 2.40 8.96 1.57 9.12 2.10 5.75 0.89 5.15 0.79 6.02 0.48 1.26 0.56

Vend-Cambrian complexes oceanic islands and lava plateau in ophiolites Transbaikalia

SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 V Cr Co Ni Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Ba La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta Th U

Altai–Sayan region

Kulinda 19

Jidoi 20

Kurai 21

Katun 22

Lake basin 23

Shatski 24

Kaa-hem 25

45.72 2.39 15.04 13.31 0.21 6.01 9.74 2.89 0.84 0.28 287 149 39 44 17 258 40 165 12.3 81 10.88 23.58 n.d. 17.91 6.06 1.83 7.40 1.27

48.79 2.71 15.50 13.15 0.39 3.57 7.48 4.38 0.87 0.72 242 123 42 61 12 585 30 220 45.1 463 42.23 84.17 9.85 23.92 9.39 2.83 7.85 1.22 6.17 1.10 2.69 0.37 2.32 0.33 n.d. 2.69 3.33 0.83

49.10 1.78 14.40 11.96 0.22 6.22 7.85 4.16 0.57 0.32 310 82 45 36 7 299 44 133 5.1 181 7.17 18.76 n.d. 11.36 7.31 1.71 5.98 1.02 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 3.93 0.60 3.15 0.28 0.48 0.21

46.50 2.44 14.57 13.09 0.19 6.59 8.34 3.19 1.13 0.38 617 191 47 45 14 380 27 176 35.2 407 22.83 45.36 n.d. 25.68 6.76 2.07 6.61 1.04 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 2.34 0.32 4.08 1.51 1.70 0.78

47.88 2.26 15.94 11.82 0.17 3.84 8.51 4.56 0.78 0.41 267 34 30 17 8 450 30 148 7.9 166 12.52 32.64 4.51 21.29 5.46 1.86 5.91 0.98 5.69 1.15 3.10 0.46 3.05 0.40 3.69 0.54 1.15 0.46

52.07 0.44 17.06 8.85 0.12 7.45 10.29 3.47 0.21 0.04 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 93 7 13 0.2 219 0.67 1.88 0.27 1.64 0.64 0.32 1.08 0.19 1.38 0.30 0.95 0.14 0.93 0.15 0.40 0.01 0.08 0.07

48.18 3.06 14.70 14.00 0.21 5.12 9.49 3.88 1.00 0.36 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 453 29 219 25.7 427 21.97 51.52 6.69 31.53 7.40 2.49 8.45 1.21 7.39 1.43 3.93 0.52 3.28 0.49 5.16 1.62 2.07 0.65

1.89 0.66 4.20 0.63 4.38 0.70 1.45 1.57

n.d. – no data. References: 1–6 – (Savatenkov et al., 2010; Kudryashova et al., 2010; Yarmolyuk et al., 2011); 7–12 (Yarmolyuk et al., 2013, 2000; Yarmolyuk and Kovalenko, 2003a; Kovalenko et al., 2003b; Vorontsov et al., 2007); 13–18 n.d. (Vorontsov et al., 1997, 2010); 19 – (Gusev and Peskov, 1996); 20 – (Almukhamedov et al., 1996; Gordienko et al., 2007); 21–22 – (Safonova et al., 2009); 23 – (Kovach et al., 2011); 24–25 – (Mongush et al., 2011).

Devonian–earliest Carboniferous, when the Early–Middle Paleozoic (Hercynian) island arc complexes of South Mongolia were docked to the Siberian continent (Dergunov et al., 2001; Tomurtogoo et al., 2006; Khashgerel et al., 2006). The newly formed continental margin was almost immediately reworked in an active continental margin (ACM) setting between 350 and

320 Ma (Yarmolyuk et al., 2008a, 2013; Kozlovsky et al., 2012). At that time (Late Carboniferous and Early Permian), the Solonkersky oceanic island arc was generated (Dergunov et al., 2001) in the Paleoasian Ocean. It is composed of basalts and andesites. Their isotope compositions suggest that the oceanic arc was produced by melting of depleted mantle that had been earlier modified in

V.V. Yarmolyuk et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 93 (2014) 158–179

Siberia

Paleoasian ocean

Early Paleozoic accretionary terrane

Oceanic volcanics

Continental volcanics

Subduction zones

Fault and rift basins

Hot spots

60o

o

132

Siberia Minusa basin

o

l.B aik al

56

o

126

52o

ASR

S Tuva basin

o

48

Kropotkin graben

Grabens NW Mongolia Delyuno-Yustyd basin

44o South M

ongolia

o

40

84

o

90

o

n zone

96o

102

o

o

108

114 o

Fig. 3. Structure of the Middle Paleozoic Altai–Sayan Rift Region.

a subduction zone. The Late Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic stage of magmatism corresponds to another period of intense magmatic activity in Siberia. The magmatic activity persisted throughout the Early Carboniferous between 350 and 330 Ma in an ACM setting that changed by 330–325 Ma (Yarmolyuk et al., 2008a, 2013; Kozlovsky et al., 2012). Magmatic activity (of intraplate nature) resumed in the latest Carboniferous and was related to the Central Asian Rift System (Dergunov et al., 2001; Yarmolyuk et al., 2000, 2013; Yarmolyuk and Kovalenko, 2003a; Kuzmin et al., 2003, 2010; Kozlovsky et al., 2005, 2006). This system comprises several parallel rifts of different ages, that are filled with bimodal basalt-comendite and basalt-pantellerite volcanic complexes, and control the distribution of alkaline granite and syenite intrusions (Litvinovsky et al., 1999, 2002, 2011; Dergunov et al., 2001; Yarmolyuk et al., 2000, 2013; Jahn et al., 2009; Kovalenko et al., 2010; Reichow et al., 2010). This Central Asian Rift System can be traced for more than 3000 km within a E–W strip up to 600 km wide. (Fig. 4). It joins the ca. 280 Ma Tarim traps in the west and includes the world’s largest batholiths (Barguzin, Hangayn, Hentyi) in the east. These batholiths and their surrounding rift zones represent large zonal magmatic areas. The rift system was formed between 310 and 190 Ma in a number of stages. It is worth mentioning that the Siberian trap province (251–240 Ma) and the West-Siberian rift system (250 Ma) were generated roughly simultaneously during that time range (Almukhamedov et al., 2004; Kravchinsky et al., 2002; Kuzmin et al., 2003, 2010; Reichow et al., 2009). In the Late Carboniferous–Early Permian rifting occurred in two CAOB territories: in southern Mongolia in northwestern China, with the Tarim-South Mongolian Province and in Transbaikalia with the Barguzin magmatic area: The Tarim-South-Mongolian Province comprises the Tarim traps LIP in the west (Fig. 5, inset) and rift zones in the Gobi-Tien Shan and along the Main Mongolian Lineament in the east. The traps occur over an area of approximately 2.5  105 km, and their volume is estimated at 100,000 km3. The eruptions are believed to have occurred between 275 and 287 Ma (Zhong et al., 2008; Li et al., 2008a, 2008b). In the east the trap area is bounded by Ni–Cu mineralized mafic–ultramafic intrusions (mainly of picrite

165

and picrite-dolerite composition) (Pirajno et al., 2008; Mao et al., 2008). The rocks are dated at a narrow time span of 292–275 Ma (Han et al., 2004; Mao et al., 2006). These intrusive bodies are associated with alkaline granites and granites of normal alkalinity and with their volcanic analogues (Yu et al., 2011; Kozlovsky et al., 2012; Li et al., 2008a, 2008b; Yang et al., 2006, 2007). Farther eastward, the province include magmatism along the Gobi-Tien-Shan Rift Zone and the rifts along Main Mongolian Lineament (Kozlovsky et al., 2006, 2012; Yarmolyuk et al., 2008a, 2013; Kovalenko et al., 2010), which grade to mafic-ultramafic complexes in the west (Fig. 5). All these rifts are filled with bimodal basalt-trachyrhyolite-comendite associations and are also associated with multiple alkali granitic intrusions. The U–Pb ages range from 302 to 284 Ma (Kozlovsky et al., 2005; Yarmolyuk et al., 2008a, 2013). The Barguzin Magmatic area has a concentric zonal structure and covers an area of over 150,000 sq. km (Fig. 5). The central part of the area is occupied by the largest batholith, which is labelled, Angara–Vitim or Barguzin, and it is composed of granitoids of variable composition (from monzodiorite to granites, granosyenites, and leucogranites) (Litvinovsky et al., 1992). According to various geochronologic data (U–Pb, Ar–Ar, and Rb–Sr), the age of the batholith ranges from 330 to 280 Ma (Tsygankov et al., 2007, 2010; Yarmolyuk et al., 1997). At the same time, U–Pb ages (determined using individual zircon grains or small number of grains indicates that all the magmatic phases of the batholith were produced between 303 ± 7 and 281 ± 1 Ma (Kovach et al., 2012). This suggests that the Angara-Vitim batholith was generated within a time span no longer than 22 Ma. The compositional differences between the complexes result both from difference in the composition of the source crust and also from variation in the erosion depth of the complexes (Yarmolyuk et al., 2013). The boundaries of the Barguzin area are defined by zones of alkaline rocks: Uda–Vitim (in the south), Synnyr (in the north), and Eastern Sayan (in the west). The Uda–Vitim zone hosts of alkaline granite intrusions, dykes and bimodal volcanic complexes with an age of 298–275 Ma (Litvinovsky et al., 2002, 2011; Jahn et al., 2009; Reichow et al., 2010). The Synnyr zone includes complexes of both miaskitic (nepheline and pseudoleucite syenites) and peralkaline rocks (pulaskites and alkaline granites), including shonkinites and subalkaline rocks (syenites, quartz syenites and granosyenites) with an age of 295–288 Ma (Sotnikova and Vladykin, 2009; Pokrovsky and Zhidkov, 1993). The Eastern Sayan zone hosts alkaline granites, syenites and nepheline syenites with age varying from 305 to 292 Ma (Sugorakova et al., 2011; Yarmolyuk et al., 2013). Another zone (Saizhen) located along the axial part of the batholith hosts ultramafic and alkaline rocks (granites and syenites) with an age of 294–298 Ma (Doroshkevich et al., 2012). Numerous syn-plutonic intrusions of gabbro with mingling structures are found in the central part of the area, and this suggests that acid and basic melts were emplaced simultaneously (Litvinovsky et al., 1992). All geological and geochronological data presented above indicate that all rocks of the Barguzin zonal area, including its granite core and rift-related magmatism along its peripheries, were produced simultaneously, with a role for mantle derived magmatism (gabbroids and alkaline granitoids) throughout the area. In the Middle Permian-Early Triassic the zonal-symmetric Hangayn magmatic area with Hangayn granitoid batholith and the Gobi–Altai and North Mongolian rift zones surrounding it in the south and north, respectively, were formed (see Fig. 4). The Hangayn batholith is composed of granodiorite associations (normal and subalkaline series), whose rocks are exposed over an area of 150,000 sq. km (Dergunov et al., 2001; Jahn et al., 2004a, 2004b; Orolmaa et al., 2008; Yarmolyuk et al., 2013). The batholith

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V.V. Yarmolyuk et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 93 (2014) 158–179 о

78

90

о

о

102

о

114

о

126

138

о

о

60

56о

о

52

44

40

Hangayn batholith

Late Paleosoic

Angaro-Vitim batholith

Early Mezosoic

Hentyi batholith

Craton

о

о

Traps

a

b

rift zones, alkaline granites and volcanics

48о

Magmatic area: a) Hangayn, b) Hentyi

Fig. 4. Late-Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic large igneous provinces (LIPs) in Northern Asia.

mainly contains hornblende-biotite and biotite granodiorites and granites, subalkaline leucocratic and biotite granites and granosyenites. The granites are associated with mafic dyke swarms and gabbro–gabbro–diorite intrusions of the same age as the granites. The composition of the rocks and the accompanying Cu–Ni (with PGEs) mineralization in some intrusions of the area are similar to those of layered intrusions in the Tarim-South-Mongolian province (Polyakov et al., 2008). The age of the batholith reportedly ranges from 269 to 242 Ma (Orolmaa et al., 2008; Yarmolyuk et al., 2008b; Takahashi et al., 2000; Jahn et al., 2004a, 2004b), suggesting that the batholith was formed within about 27 Ma. The rift zones consist of several parallel grabens filled with bimodal basalt-comendite and basalt-pantellerite volcanic complexes and control the distribution of alkaline granite intrusions. The Early-Late Permian age of igneous rocks in the Gobi–Altai rift zone was constrained using flora and fauna imprints found in sedimentary rocks interbedded with the volcanics (Yarmolyuk and Kovalenko, 2003a). Our only Rb–Sr date of 274 Ma is consistent with this biostratigraphic age. The age of igneous rocks from the North Mongolian Rift Zone is also defined by flora and fauna imprints as the Late Permian, while the geochronological U–Pb, Rb–Sr and Ar–Ar data yield ages ranging between 249 and 269 Ma, thus suggesting that the rift zones and batholith were generated within the same span of time. In the Late Triassic-Early Jurassic (about 230 Ma), Siberia collided with the North China craton (Dergunov et al., 2001; Didenko et al., 2010; Jahn et al., 2004a, 2004b; Metcalfe, 2006; Orolmaa et al., 2008; Yarmolyuk et al., 2013; Kröner et al., 2007; Tomurtogoo et al., 2006). As a result of that collision, the Solonkersky part of the Paleo-Asian ocean and the Mongol-Okhotsk basin closed and the western margin of the basin shifted close to the Bureya Massif. That time was marked by the initial evolution of the Mongol-Transbaikal zonal-

symmetric magmatic area. The Hentyi batholith, which comprises a number of large plutons composed of granodorite-leucogranite associations and exposed over 120,000 km2, was formed in the inner part of the Mongol–Trans-Baikalian area and was bounded by the West Transbaikal, Kharkhorin and North Gobi rifts on the north, west, and south sides, respectively (See Fig. 4). The plutons are made up of granitoids of broadly varying composition from granodiorite to leucogranite (Kovalenko et al., 2003a, 2003b), and the batholith contains relatively small massifs of Li–F granites in its margins and subordinate amounts of gabbro and diorites, which often form mingling zones with the granites. The geochronological data (Kovalenko et al., 2003a; Yarmolyuk et al., 2013) suggest that the batholith was generated between 225 and 195 Ma. The rift zones consist of grabens arrays filled with bimodal volcanic and alkaline-granitoid associations. The grabens control the distribution of Li–F granites and mafic-silicic dykes (Litvinovsky et al., 2001; Jahn et al., 2009; Yarmolyuk et al., 2013). The largest Western Transbaikalian Rift Zone (northern margin of the Hentyi batholith) is composed of bimodal basalt-comendite and basaltpantellerite volcanic complexes (Tsagan-Khurtei Formation) and alkaline granite intrusions (Malokunalei Complex). The U–Pb and Rb–Sr age of these rocks is estimated at 230–210 Ma (Litvinovsky et al., 2001; Vorontsov et al., 2007; Jahn et al., 2009; Yarmolyuk et al., 2013). The Kharkhorin and North Mongolian Rift Zones contain Li–F and alkaline granites and bimodal volcanic complexes (Yarmolyuk et al., 2000, 2013). The Li–F granite occurs mainly in the peripheral portions of the Hentyi batholith. The alkaline granites and their volcanic analogues (trachyrhyolite and pantellerite) occur closer to the periphery of the zonal area far away from the center of batholith. The age of these rocks is estimated at 196–221 Ma (Yarmolyuk et al., 2000, 2013; Kovalenko et al., 2003a).

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V.V. Yarmolyuk et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 93 (2014) 158–179

100

Picrodolerites, peralkaline granitoids and volcanics Granitoids of Angaro–Vitim batholith Magmatic complexes of active continental margin

110 Ле на

ea

ic

at

ar

m

ag

m

in uz

rg

Ир ты

50

Craton

ш

Main

Mon

Faults, rift zones

golia

n Lin

chan Gobi-Tien-S

eame

nt

outh

-S Tarim 80о

mati n mag

о

40

olia

Mong

Age of the rocks in Ma

293

ince

c prov

Tarim traps

Margin of magmatic area

Paleo-Asian ocean

90о

yr

293 287

56

nn

Siberia

o

o

ara

Ang

La ke Ba ika l

Sa

izh

en

Sy

56

о

Ba

96 o

o

52

8

298

102o

Sele nga Rive r

ste

rn

Sa

ya 294

itim a-V Ud

287-27

Ea

300

275

284

n

304

er

300

Riv

52 o

305-

Irkutsk

294

0 108o

200 km

100 114 o

Fig. 5. Schematic map of the Early Permian Barguzin zonal magmatic area. The inset shows the location of the area in the system of magmatic areas generated in the Late Carboniferous–Early Permian (at 305–275 Ma).

2.6. Late Mesozoic–Cenozoic stage This stage was the time when small independent area of volcanic rocks, gabbro–monzonite intrusions and Li–F granites were emplaced. Some of them (South Hangayn and Western Transbaikalia volcanic areas) were formed throughout the whole Late Mesozoic-Cenozoic in a number of stages, which differed in the intensity of their magmatic activity. The East-Mongolian, Western Transbaikalian, South-Hangayn, and Central Aldan rifting regions were formed in the Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous phase (160–100 Ma) (Fig. 6). The formation of continental rifts in the regions was accompanied by intense magmatic activity. Along with the predominant flood basalts, there are also volcanic associations with trachytes, alkaline rhyolites, pantellerites, phonolites, tephrites, and minor massifs of nepheline and leucite syenites, peralkaline syenites, granites, Li–F granites, ongonites, shonkinites, and carbonatites (Yarmolyuk et al., 1995, 1998, 2011; Savatenkov et al., 2010). The peak of magmatic activity corresponded to the beginning of the Cretaceous (140–130 Ma), when a system of grabens was formed in the area and eruptions (more than 15,000 km3) of flood basalts occurred during a relatively brief time period (Yarmolyuk et al., 1995, 2011). Only feeble magmatic activity took place during the Late Cretaceous–Early Cenozoic phase (100–25 Ma). Small lava fields and shield volcanoes were formed in Western Transbaikalia, SouthHangayn, and Eastern Mongolia. The volcanic structures and lava fields were composed of mafic alkali rocks (tephrites, basanites,

nephelinites, and rare subalkaline basalts) (Yarmolyuk et al., 1995, 2011). A new phase of intraplate volcanic activity occurred in the Late Cenozoic (<25 Ma) throughout the whole territory of Central and East Asia (Fig. 7). In particular, the volcanic activity became more intense in the Transbaikalia, South Hangayn, and Central Aldan volcanic regions, where it produced large volcanic plateaus (Vitim, Central Hangayn, and Udokan) and South Baikal and Dariganga volcanic regions (Kudryashova et al., 2010; Yarmolyuk et al., 1995, 2011; Barry et al., 2003; Han et al., 1999; Hunt et al., 2012). All of this Late Cenozoic intraplate magmatic activity scattered over Central and East Asia is inferred to be of hotspot origin. 3. Geochemical and isotopic characteristics of the sources of intraplate magmatism in the CAOB The composition and sources of intraplate magmatism in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt have been discussed in numerous publications (Almukhamedov et al.,1996; Barry et al., 2003; Dobretsov, 2011; Dobretsov et al., 2005; Gordienko et al., 2007; Hunt et al., 2012; Jahn et al., 2009; Kovalenko et al., 2003b, 2010; Kozlovsky et al., 2012, 2005, 2006; Kuzmin et al., 2010; Izokh et al., 2008; Savatenkov et al., 2010; Vorontsov et al., 2007; Vrublevskii et al., 2003, 2009; etc). Our paper summarizes these data with reference to various geodynamic settings: (1) oceanic island and oceanic plateaus, (2) convergent boundaries, and (3) continental hot spots.

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V.V. Yarmolyuk et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 93 (2014) 158–179 78° E

84° E

90° E

96° E

102° E

114° E

108° E

120° E

126° E

132° E

138° E

64° N 52° N

Siberia

60° N

dan l Al

tra

Cen

48° N 56° N

n

lia

ka

i Ba

-

rn te es W

ral

52° N

a Tuv

g

on

n er

M

st

Ea

Mongolia

48° N

44° N

ia ol

Great Xinga n

nt Ce

ns

a Tr

40° N

South Hangayn 44° N

Magmatic association of rift zone

36° N

Magmatic association of the volcanic belt of the Great Xing'an 84° E

90° E

96° E

102° E

108° E

114° E

120° E

126° E

Fig. 6. Locations of Late Mesozoic volcanic areas in the continental part of Central and Eastern Asia.

3.1. Setting of oceanic islands and oceanic plateaus The products of this magmatism are basalts of tectonic slabs in ophiolite zones which widely occur in the Neoproterozoic–Cambrian structures of CAOB (Gordienko et al., 2007; Safonova and Santosh, 2014; Plotnikov et al., 2000; Kovach et al., 2011; etc.). They are also found in the Middle–Late Paleozoic Orogenic Belts (Hercynides) in South Mongolia (Gobi Tien Shan) (Helo et al., 2006; Ruzhentsev et al., 1989). These basalts display elevated Ti content (TiO2 > 2 wt.%) and are enriched in incompatible trace elements. The incompatible element diagrams (Fig. 8) demonstrate that high-Ti basalts from CAOB Neoproterozoic and Cambrian ophiolites are enriched in LREE relative to HREE (La/Yb > 3), have differentiated HREE patterns (Gd/Yb)n > 1.7), show no Eu anomaly, and are depleted in highly incompatible elements (e.g., Th). The incompatible element patterns of these rocks are intermediate between those of OIB and MORB, but the rocks in question are more similar to OIB in certain trace-element characteristics, for example, in the absence of a negative Ta–Nb anomaly. The Th/Nb ratio varies from 0.02 to 0.12, which suggests that the melts had only insignificant input from crustal sources (Th/Nb in DM is 0.05 (Hofmann, 1997)). Note that compared to low-Ti basaltic andesites and andesites belonging to island arc complexes, the high-Ti varieties display higher contents of all incompatible elements, and, the highly to moderately incompatible ones, have strongly fractionated REE patterns (Fig. 8). Although the OIB and IAB varieties are now tectonically juxtaposed, they were generated in different parts of the paleocean, which suggests that their sources were different. It can be exemplified by accretionary complexes in the Ozernaya zone in CAOB. The rocks have relatively low eNd(T) values ranging from +7.5 to +4.8, which provide evidence of their derivation from an enriched plume-related source (Fig. 9). In contrast to these intraplate rocks, the basaltic andesites and andesites belonging to island arc complexes have significantly higher eNd(T) P +7.3 (up to 9.9) similar to that of the depleted mantle (DM) (eNd(0.57) = +8.8), a negative Nb–Ta anomaly and

low overall concentrations of incompatible elements, suggesting that the IAB parental melts were derived from a mantle source of N-MORB affinity in a subduction zone. 3.2. Intraplate magmatism at convergent boundaries Intraplate magmatism of this tectonic setting occurred in the CAOB starting in the Ordovician through the Early Mesozoic. This type of magmatism was developed in two stages: Early–Middle Paleozoic and Late Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic. The post-accretion Early–Middle Paleozoic stage in the evolution of the Caledonian superterrane left imprints in the composition of abundant igneous complexes consisting of alkaline granites, nepheline syenites, carbonatites, trachyrhyolites, trachytes (Yarmolyuk et al., 2006; Vrublevskii et al., 2003, 2009), and high-Ti and alkaline basalts (Izokh et al., 2008). This intraplate magmatic activity also produced a vast (>200,000 km2) Early Paleozoic SLIP (silicic LIP) consisting mainly of granitoids. The intraplate magmatism continued after the Caledonian superterrane was docked to the Siberian platform. In the latest Ordovician-Early Silurian, intraplate magmatism became predominant (Vorontsov et al., 2010). The Altai–Sayan Rift System (ASRS) was formed in the latest Silurian in the western part of the superterrane. Magmatic events of various age gave rise to a polychronous intraplate magmatic area dominated by mafic rocks of elevated alkalinity (Vorontsov et al., 1997, 2010). These rocks have high TiO2 concentrations (>2 wt.%) and variable MgO contents (from 3 to 12 wt.%). The basalts of the discrete complexes differ in both TiO2 and incompatible element contents. In grabens in north-west Mongolia and the Kropotkin Range, medium- (<2.5 wt.%) and hightitanium (>2.5 wt.% on average) varieties occur separately from each other. Fig. 10 displays trace and minor element data for the various basic rocks normalized to primitive mantle. The high-Ti varieties exhibit OIB-like incompatible element patterns, while the medium-Ti ones (including basalts in the Tuva trough) demonstrate different incompatible trace element patterns. Specifically,

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V.V. Yarmolyuk et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 93 (2014) 158–179 78° E

84° E

96° E

90° E

102° E

114° E

108° E

120° E

126° E

138° E

132° E

64° N 52° N

60° N

48° N

Udokan 56° N

South Baikalian

Vitim

Dariganga

South Hangayn

48° N

44° N

Wudalianchi

52° N

40° N

Changbaishan 44° N 36° N

84° E

90° E

96° E

102° E

108° E

120° E

114° E

126° E

Fig. 7. Late Cenozoic volcanic province in Central and Eastern Asia. Only major magmatic areas are shown.

Rock/primitive mantle

100

OIB

7 5

4 3

2

10

IAB Ozernaya OIB Ozernaya

10

6 8 6

1

4 2

8 1

E-MORB

Th Nb Ta

La Ce Nd Zr

1 - Kurai 2 - Ozernaya

3 - Kulinda 4 - Katun

TiO 2

Hf Sm Eu Gd Tb

5 - Tanuola-1 6 - Tanuola-2

Y

Yb Lu

7 - Dzhida 8 - IAB Ozernaya

Fig. 8. Multi-element primitive mantle-normalized diagrams for the basalts of the paleoseamounts. For the sake of comparison, also shown are the compositions of OIB and E-MORB (Sun and McDonough, 1989) and basalts of arc-type association (IAB Ozernaya) (Kovach et al., 2011) The data are taken for Kurai (Utsunomiya et al., 2009), Katun (Safonova et al., 2011), Dzhida (Gordienko et al., 2007), Kulinda (Plotnikov et al., 2000), Tanuola (Mongush et al., 2011), Ozernaya (Kovach et al., 2011).

the high-Ti basalts of the Kropotkin Range display a distinct Nb–Ta negative anomaly, which makes them similar to varieties derived via suprasubduction melting. At the same time, they have OIB-like REE patterns. The medium-Ti basalts of the north-west Mongolia and Tuva also display a Nb–Ta negative anomaly but differ in having less fractionated REE patterns. Two sources of intraplate magmatism in the Altai–Sayan Rift System (ASRS) are obvious in the Nb/Th–Zr/Nb and La/Yb–Th/Ta diagrams (Fig. 11), in which the basalts define a compositional

0

0

1

2

3

Fig. 9. High-TiO2 (OIB Ozernaya) and low-TiO2 (IAB Ozernaya) basalts on TiO2– eNd(t) diagram.

trend passing from the IAB to OIB. Such a mixed geochemical composition is thought to result from the origin of the basalts in relation to a plume that acted in a convergent boundary setting, with the mantle previously modified by subduction processes (Vorontsov et al., 1997; Yarmolyuk et al., 2000; Kuzmin et al., 2010: Neumann et al., 2011; Ernst, 2014). The isotopic composition of rocks in the Altai–Sayan Rift System widely varies, which suggests a combination of two sources (Fig. 12). Their common component is moderately depleted mantle, probably PREMA. The isotopic composition of basalts from the Tuva Trough and high-Ti basalts of the north-west Mongolia display a broad scatter of strontium isotopic ratios at more or less constant positive eNd values (eNd from approximately +6 to +8). These variations may result from a contribution to the magma source of subducted carbonate material enriched in radiogenic

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Rock/primitive mantle

100

100

OIB

10

10

N-MORB 1

1

RbBaThNbTa LaCe Pr Sr NdZr HfSmEuTi GdTb Y HoErTmYb Lu

La

Ce

Nd

Sm

Eu

Gd

Tb

Yb

Lu

high-Ti basalts of the grabens of the NW Mongolia

high-Ti basalts of the Kropotkin graben

moderate-Ti basalts of the grabens of the NW Mongolia

moderate-Ti basalts of the Kropotkin graben

basalts of the Tuva trough

basalts of the Minusa basin

Fig. 10. Multi-element primitive mantle-normalized diagrams for mafic rocks in ASRS. The average compositions of rocks from discrete troughs are given in Table 2.

(a)

(b) I. Basic rocks of the Altai-Sayan Rift System

100

Zr/Nb

Th/Ta

ARC

CFB

UC

10

NMORB DM

OPB

PM

EN

OPB

UC

EM-II EM-I

PM

10 EMII

1 DM

EMI

OIB

MORB

Nb/Th

10

0

20

Minusa basin Tuva basin

OIB

La/Yb

10

1

30

Kropotkin basin, high-Ti basalt Kropotkin basin, medium-Ti basalt

100

NW Mongolia, high-Ti basalt NW Mongolia, medium-Ti basalt

II. Basic rocks of the Late Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic Central Asian rift system 100

Zr/Nb

Th/Ta

ARC

CFB

UC

10

NMORB DM

EN

EN

PM

PM

UC

EMII

1 DM

EMI

OIB Nb/Th

0

EM-II EM-I

PM

10

10 20 Gobi-Altai rift zone

MORB

1 30 North Mongolia rift zone

OIB 10 Western Trans-Baikalian rift

La/Yb

100

Fig. 11. (a) Zr/Nb vs. Nb/Th and (b) Th/Ta vs. La/Yb plots for basic rocks of (I) the Altai–Sayan Rift System and (II) the Late Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic Central Asian rift system. The classification of (a) is referred to (Tomlinson, Condie, 2001), and (b) referred to (Condie, 2005). Compositions of different types of basalts: OIB – Oceanic Island Basalt, NMORB – ‘Normal’ Mid-Oceanic Ridge Basalt, IAB – island-arc basalts, LIP – oceanic plateaus, CFB – traps. Typical magma sources: PM – primitive mantle, UC –upper crust, EMI b EMII – enriched mantle.

strontium but depleted in rare earth elements (Yarmolyuk and Kovalenko, 2003b; Vorontsov et al., 2010). The Kropotkin Range lavas found far away from the convergent boundary show isotopic characteristics that suggest a lithospheric (EM-II) mantle source enriched in both 87Sr, and Nd (Fig. 12). Such isotope signatures indicate that the mantle was reworked in a subduction zone. The rocks in the Minusa Trough and medium-Ti basalts of north-west Mongolia have a composition intermediate between them, which reflects the input of both PREMA and subducted carbonate material. Intraplate magmatic activity in the Late Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic led to rifting and the formation of the Central Asian Rift System. As

shown above, these are large zonal magmatic areas, with giant batholiths in the central part of the system surrounded by rift zones. The rifts are filled with alkaline rocks (alkaline granites, nepheline syenites, carbonatites, comendites, pantellerites, and phonolites) and high-Ti alkaline basalts (Yarmolyuk et al., 2013; Litvinovsky et al., 2001; Jahn et al., 2009; Vorontsov et al., 2007). Basalts in rift zones have different ages (within the range Late Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic) but are similar in composition. They are all strongly differentiated (Mg# varies from 30 to 65), demonstrate a wide scatter in TiO2 (from 1.2 to 3 wt.% with 1.7 wt.% as an average) and exhibit elevation in K2O (>1/5 wt.%) and P2O5 (>0.6 wt.%). On trace element diagrams (Fig. 13), the rift-related

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10

I

8

DM

6

ma

ntl

-30

ε Nd(T)

-20

ea

4

rra

y

2

ε Sr(T)

-10

10

20

30

40

-2

Altai-Sayan Rift System Minusa basin Tuva basin Kropotkin basin, high-Ti basalt Kropotkin basin, medium-Ti basalt NW Mongolia, high-Ti basalt NW Mongolia, medium-Ti basalt

-4 -6

10

DM

ε Nd(T)

II

8 6 4

common component -20

-15

-10

Late Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic Central Asian rift system North-Gobi West-Transbaikalia Gobi-Altai North Mongolia Gobi-Tyanshan

2

-5

5 -2

10

15

20

25

30

ε Sr(T)

-4 -6

Fig. 12. Isotopic composition of mafic rocks (I) the Altai–Sayan Rift System and (II) the Late Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic Central Asian rift system. Variations in the isotopic composition are due to two trends suggesting a common source of DM type, perhaps PREMA. One of the additional sources controlling the horizontal trend of variations exhibits enrichment in radiogenic Sr and depletion in REE. Another source, concordant with the mantle, array is most likely lithospheric mantle (EM-II). Isotopic composition of mafic rocks from the Late Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic Central Asian rift system has the common component, which corresponds to a common source of magmatism for these zones.

basalts are transitional between Siberian and Tarim traps LIPs, showing OIB affinity mainly in REE patterns but differing from OIB in having lower Zr, Hf and Ti contents and a pronounced negative Nb–Ta anomaly, which is evidence of an IAB geochemical signature (or a signature inherited from previously subductionmodified lithsosphere traversed by OIB melts). In the Zr/Nb vs. Nb/Th and Th/Ta vs. La/Yb diagrams, rift-related basalts show both OIB and IAB geochemical affinities (Fig. 11). Evaluations of the isotopic compositions of basalts from various rifts shows that the basalts were derived from more or less similar sources. On the diagram eSr(T) eNd(T) (Fig. 12), they define a trend from DM toward EM, concordant with the mantle array. The isotopic compositions of these lavas is independent of the age of both rift magmatism and the basement complexes hosting this magmatism. However, the isotopic compositions of Early Mesozoic lavas in the North Gobi zone suggest more significant contribution of a moderately enriched mantle source. The compositional parameters of the Late Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic rift basalts suggest a contribution of a common source with characteristics of mildly enriched mantle (Fig. 15). This component most likely interacted with DM of the mantle wedge, and this explains the shift of the compositions toward DM. In the inner parts of the continent (North Gobi zone), this component was mixed with the enriched lithospheric (?) mantle (EM-II). 3.3. Magmatism related to intracontinental hot spots Hotspot-induced continental magmatic activity is widely distributed in Central and Eastern Asia in the Late Mesozoic-Cenozoic and concentrated in a number of distinct areas. Although these

areas are isolated from one another, they each are very similar in origin and structure. All of them were generated within a relatively long span of time (as long as 150 Ma) (Yarmolyuk et al., 1995), and this duration may reflect both plume head generated magmatism, and associated plume tail magmatism. The hotspot-related rocks include basic rocks (basalts, trachybasalts, trachyandesibasalts, and alkaline basaltoids) with 44–54 wt.% SiO2 (Han et al., 1999; Barry et al., 2003; Kudryashova et al., 2010; Savatenkov et al., 2010; Hunt et al., 2012). They have high contents of alkalis (Na2O + K2O from 3.5 to 10 wt.%), Ti (TiO2 > 1.7 wt.%) and P (P2O5 from 0.4 to 1.6 wt.%) and low Al2O3 (<17 wt.%). High-potassic varieties are predominant (Fig. 14), and hence, most of the rocks can be classed as potassic trachybasalts and potassic trachyandesibasalts. These petrochemical characteristics suggest that all Late Mesozoic–Cenozoic volcanic complexes in the Central Asia can be regarded as a high-potassium volcanic province (Yarmolyuk et al., 2011). Fig. 15 presents incompatible element patterns for basalts of different age groups from the South-Hangayn volcanic area (Kudryashova et al., 2010; Savatenkov et al., 2010; Barry et al., 2003). They are similar to those in OIB, although the composition of the basalts was modified: their younger varieties are richer in high field strength elements (HFSE), such as Ti, Nb, and Ta and lack a negative Nb–Ta anomaly. Starting in the latest Early Cretaceous, the (Nb/La)N ratio is higher than 1 and further increases in younger units (inset in Fig. 15). Other geochemical characteristics were unchanged throughout. Late Mesozoic– Cenozoic magmatism in Central Asia is largely comparable with Cenozoic magmatism in Italy, which is thought to be related to plume activity (Bell et al., 2013).

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1000

1000

Rock/primitive mantle

OIB 100

100

10

10

N-MORB 1

Rb Ba Th U Nb Ta La Ce Pr Sr Nd Zr Hf Sm Eu Ti Gd Tb Dy Y Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

1

La

Ce

Nd

Sm

Eu

Gd

Tb

Yb

Lu

Field compositions of basic rocks of the Late Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic rift system of the Central Asia Average compositions of basic rocks: Early Mesozoic Western Trans-Baikalia Late Permian–Early Triassic traps of the Siberia Rift zone Early Permian traps of the Tarim Late Paleozoic North Mongolian Rift zone Late Paleozoic Gobi–Altay Rift zone Fig. 13. Multi-element primitive mantle-normalized diagrams for the mafic rocks in the Late Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic rift system in Central Asia. The average compositions of various rocks from discrete rift zones are given in Table 2.

5

source first occurred in the terminal Cretaceous and continued through the Early Cenozoic, when the PREMA input increased moderately, while a combination of EM-I and PREMA materials became predominant in the source starting in the Late Cenozoic. The variations in the Pb isotopic composition are concordant with the change in the sources, although the isotopic variations show that a combination of PREMA and EM-I sources remain predominant during all stages of magmatic activity. Note that isotopic signatures of volcanism in the South Hangayn Area are similar to OIB (e.g. Pitcairn and Kerguelen Islands) (Fig. 16) (Stracke et al., 2003).

K2O

salt

yba

4

c

assi

Pot

3

h trac

2 1

iite Hawa

Na2O

0 2 5

3

4

5

6

4.1. The nature of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt and the role of intraplate magmatic activity in the evolution of CAOB

K2O

4

3

High-K 2

m-K

Mediu 1

SiO2 0 44

4. Discussion

47

50

South Baikal volcanic area

53

56

59

South Hangayn volcanic area

Fig. 14. Compositions (wt.%) of rocks from the Late Mesozoic- Late Cenozoic Central Asian volcanic province in K2O–Na2O and K2O–SiO2 plots.

Isotopic characteristics and thus magma sources changed through time (Fig. 18). The EM-II source dominated during the early stages (Early Cretaceous). Changes in the composition of the mantle

Available geological data indicate that Central Asian Orogenic Belt developed starting in the Neoproterozoic through the Early Mesozoic via the continuous accretion of oceanic components of the Paleoasian oceanic basin (oceanic islands, island arcs, and back-arc basins) to the Siberian continent. As a result, accretionary terranes were generated along the southern (in the present frame of reference) continental margin. The general history of these accretionary terranes in the southern margin of the Siberian paleocontinent is recorded from the Vendian–Early Paleozoic (Caledonides), through Early–Middle Paleozoic (Hercynides) to the Late Paleozoic (Indosinides). Thus, the predominant crustal growth mechanism in the CAOB was accretion. In addition to accretion, the activity of mantle hot spots (plumes) played a certain role in generation and the reworking of continental crust. During early stages, the activity of mantle hot spots produced magmatic complexes showing geochemical affinities to oceanic islands and oceanic plateaus. Activity related to hot spots later took place in the convergence zone, and after this, when the Paleo-Asian Ocean had closed, this activity propagated farther inward the continent, as the Siberian continent moved over the hot spots (Yarmolyuk et al., 2000; Kuzmin et al., 2010; Kuzmin and Yarmolyuk, 2011).

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Rock/Primitive mantle

Basalts of different age groups

1000

1000

135-120 Ma 115-105 Ma 105-90 Ma 75-70 Ma 65-50 Ma <40 Ma OIB

100

100 Nb

La

10

10

1

1

La

Rb Ba Th U Nb Ta K La Ce Pb Pr Sr P Nd Zr HfSmEu Ti Gd Tb Dy Y Ho ErTmYb Lu

Ce

Pr

Nd Sm Eu Gd

Tb

Dy

Ho

Er

Tm Yb

Lu

Fig. 15. Multi-element primitive mantle-normalized diagrams for mafic rocks in the Late Mesozoic–Cenozoic South Hangayn volcanic area. The average compositions of rocks of discrete stages of intraplate magmatic activity are given in Table 2. The inset shows the Nb/La variations in rocks of successive stages.

Basalts of different age groups

8

εNd(T)

(A)

15.7

K1-K2

PREMA

(B)

207

Pb/204Pbi

135-120 Ma

μ=8.5

115-105 Ma 105-90 Ma

EMII

75-70 Ma K2-KZ1

65-50 Ma 40-30 Ma

KZ2

<30 Ma

μ=8.4

15.6

UС 4.55

Ga

4

0

EMII

μ=8.3

Pitcairn PREMA

15.5

EMI

-4

μ=8.1

DM

15.4 -8

μ=8.0

EMI

εSr(T)

LС

206

204

Pb/ Pbi

15.3

-12 -15

-10

5

0

5

10

15

20

25

16

17

18

19

Fig. 16. (A) eNd–eSr and (B) 206Pb/204Pb–207Pb/204Pb diagrams. UC, LC and DM – modeled trends for the upper crust, lower crust, and mantle following the plume-tectonics model suggested by Zartman and Doe (1981). A line with solid squares is a geochrone corresponding to 4.56 Ga. Values given near the squares correspond to 238U/204Pb(l) values for one-stage model of the Pb isotopic evolution. The pale gray field corresponds to OIB according to (Willbold and Stracke, 2006). PREMA, EM-I and EM-II are mantle sources.

4.2. Zonal intraplate magmatic areas and sources of their magmatism Intraplate magmatic activity produced several magmatic areas in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt: Early Paleozoic large magmatic province in the Ordovician, the Barguzin area in the Early Permian, the Hangayn area in the Late Permian–Early Triassic, and the Mongolian–Transbaikal area in the Late Triassic–Early Jurassic. These areas are composed mainly of granitoid batholiths and associated intraplate mafic igneous rocks contrasting with the batholiths. The distribution of the intraplate mafic igneous complexes is controlled by rift systems and these complexes can be hosted in large granitoid batholith as syn-plutonic mafic intrusions. The above data (Figs. 11 and 12) show that Late Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic basalts in the rift system possess similar geochemical and isotope characteristics, suggesting that intraplate magmatism was controlled by hot spot sources whose compositions only insignificantly changed during a time span at least 110 Ma long; the rocks preserve nearly constant isotopic parameters over a vast territory and over this time range. The inner structure of the zonal areas suggests that these areas were generated above mantle sources, and this implies that such sources should have been

involved in the processes that produced the batholiths (Yarmolyuk et al., 2000; Izokh et al., 2008; Kuzmin et al., 2010; Dobretsov, 2011; Yarmolyuk and Kuzmin, 2011). Thus, batholiths in the zonal magmatic areas provide impressive examples of intraplate granite formation. These rocks exhibit features pointing to an important role of remelting of continental crust (anatexis), and this is confirmed by migmatization zones, nebulitic textures inherited from the host rocks, strongly altered xenoliths, etc. (Kovalenko et al., 2003a; see also discussion in Bryan and Ferrari, 2013). Moreover, the relation of the zonal areas to mantle sources suggests that the latter were responsible for the formation of the batholiths, because heat from the underplating mantle magmas initiated the melting of vast volumes of crustal material, as is evident from the similar compositions of the granitoids and the average crust (Kovalenko et al., 1996, 2004; Yarmolyuk et al., 2013). However, the mantle sources could participate in the processes that generated the batholiths via providing not only heat but also material. It is interesting to evaluate how much the compositional parameters of the granitoids reflect the different nature of their parental magmas. To evaluate this aspect, we compared the Nd

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96°E

102°

ift

lian r

ongo

M North

Tarbagatai block

48° N

Songin block

k

loc

b yn

a

ng

Ha

Dzabkhan block Gobi Alt ay rift Paleoproterozoic crust εNd (260) < -15 Neoproterozoic crust εNd (260) = -5 - -15

Hangayn batholith rift zone

Caledonian crust εNd (260) = 0 - -5

locations for isotope studies

Fig. 17. Schematic map showing the zoning of the Hangayn magmatic area crust according to the age of its formation and Nd isotopic composition. Points show the sites of sampling for isotope studies.

ε (t) 10 Nd 5

0

-5

-10

-15

-20

200

ope isot ft f the f the ri o d fiel ns o The positio com gmatism ma 400

600

800

depleted m antle

1000

1200

1400

1600

t crus ope oic isot oteroz ks) e h t oc pr d of s Neo ayn bl rust fiel n g ic c The positio d Han ozo r e t n ro com gin a leop n (So e Pa f th o s n sitio mpo e co locks) p o t b so atai g he i of t arba ield and T f e Th abhan (Dz

1800

Ma

basalts comendites, trachirhyolites Hangayn batholith granitoids rocks of the metamorphic complexes

Fig. 18. Isotopic composition of rocks from the Hangayn zonal magmatic area and the hosting crust on an eNd t diagram. The gray arrow indicates the evolution trend for the isotopic composition of the average crust (147Sm/144Nd = 0.12) assumed for the reconstructions of changes in the crust with time.

range of 3 to +1. This isotopic composition of the granites is remarkably different from the composition of the host crust, which has eNd(260)< 17 in blocks of Paleoproterozoic crust and eNd(260) from 7 to 17 in blocks of Neoproterozoic crust. Those variations are inconsistent with the hypothesis that the granitoids were derived from a crustal source alone but suggest a contribution of a mantle source, as is the case with the basalts of the North Mongolian and Gobi Altai rifts and basalts of synplutonic intrusions (eNd(260) from 3 to +3) in the batholith. Isotopic data suggest that the sources of the granites were anatectic melts mixed with mantle magmas. Similar Nd characteristics were obtained for other batholiths (Kovalenko et al., 1996, 2004; Yarmolyuk et al., 2013; Rytsk et al., 2011). The isotope data thus suggest that the zonal areas were generated from two sources (crustal and mantle). The mantle source was responsible for the origin of intraplate-mafic magmatic complexes mainly associated with of rift zones, while a combination of crustal and mantle sources produced the granitoid batholiths. The sources for the granitoid melts were both the host rocks with Neoproterozoic isotopic characteristics and the juvenile mantle material that resulted in wide variations of granitoid isotope compositions.

4.3. Geodynamics of intraplate magmatism in the CAOB (Evolutionary geodynamics in the CAOB) isotopic composition of the granitoids from the Hangayn batholith with that of their host terranes which included Early Precambrian (Dzabkhan and Tarbagatai), Neoproterozoic (Songin, Hangayn) and Caledonian crust (Fig. 17). These host terranes represent exhibit Nd isotope characteristics with eNd(260) values ranging from 15 for the Proterozoic rocks to +1 to +2 for the Caledonides (our unpublished data). The composition of the granites of the batholith is generally only insignificantly dependent on the composition of the host crustal rocks. As follows from Fig. 18, this composition broadly varies: eNd(260) from 12 to + 2. However, the rocks are dominated by granitoids whose isotopic parameters cluster within the eNd(260)

The most conspicuously pronounced feature in the CAOB evolution was the gradual propagating of the intraplate magmatism inward the continent. After the break-up of Rodinia, Siberia moved in the Paleoasian ocean from the Southern Hemisphere (Didenko et al., 1994 Scotese, 2004) to the Northern Hemisphere, more specifically, to the region of clustering hot spots, associated with the African superplume (or African LLSVP – Large Low Shear Velocity Province) (Kuzmin et al., 2010; Torsvik et al., 2010). The frontal zone of the moving plate was a convergent boundary. Its zone of influence successively encompassed not only the structures of the oceanic lithosphere (island arcs, backarc basins, and oceanic

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islands and plateaus), which form the accretionary folded CAOB complexes in the marginal portion of the continent but also oceanic hot spots, which were overridden by the continent. As a result, intraplate magmatic activity progressively propagated from the continent margin inward. We believe that the Siberian continent moved above a superplume from the Neoproterozoic until Early Mesozoic (i.e. during 400 Ma) and that intraplate magmatism was a result of interactions between hot spots and Siberian continent in the African LLSVP. Between 195 Ma and 160 Ma, the intraplate magmatic activity was interrupted. We believe that time was marked by the departure of Siberia from the African LLSVP because of the initial opening of the Atlantic Ocean and oceanic basins between Africa and Europe (Marzoli et al., 1999; Labails et al., 2010; Gaina et al., 2013). A new peak of intraplate magmatic activity occurred in the Late Mesozoic and produced the intraplate magmatic province in Central and Eastern Asia. We think that these intraplate events were related to the activity of hot spots, because they are believed to remained relatively stable in relation to the mantle and lithosphere for a longer time (over 100 Ma) (Kovalenko, 2009). These hot spots occur within the northeastern part of a cluster of plumes (Maruyama et al., 2007) traceable within the Pacific margin in eastern and south-eastern Asia and can be regarded as a branch of the Pacific superplume. Thus, we suggest that Siberia moved outside the African superplume in the Late Mesozoic and was shifted toward the east (Kuzmin et al., 2010), where it got under the influence of the Pacific superplume which then became responsible for the intraplate activity in the Late Mesozoic and Cenozoic. 4.4. The evolution of intraplate magmatism The composition of the intraplate magmatism in the geologic history of CAOB is related to a change in the hot spot locations relative to the convergent boundaries. The intraplate activity was initially concentrated mainly in the ocean surrounding of the Siberian craton, then propagated to the convergence zones at the margin of the craton, and finally came far inward into the interior of the craton. Following the change in the hot spot locations relative to the convergent boundaries, the composition of the related rocks changed. Basalts of OIB and E-MORB affinities were generated in the ocean. Those intraplate basalts emplaced in a convergent setting had composition with signatures of the mantle modified in a subduction zone: they show a negative anomaly Nb, and OIB-like patterns of other incompatible elements. The melting of this mantle led to a high oxygen potential in the mantle source and the preservation of titanium-containing mineral phases in the residuals. The similar composition of all Late Paleozoic–Mesozoic basalts indicates that they were derived from the same mantle source: predominantly the PREMA and EM-II mantle sources. In the Late Mesozoic–Cenozoic, the source of intraplate magmatism changed as Siberia moved into the influence zone of Pacific superplume. In addition to PREMA and EM-II, materials EM-I source became predominant in magma-generating regions, and this left an imprint on the isotopic and geochemical characteristics of the rocks. By the Early Cretaceous, the mantle had lost the signature of its modification in a subduction zone, and hence, the Early Cretaceous lavas show a positive Nb–Ta anomaly. 5. Conclusion The Central Asian Orogenic Belt is a good example of an accretionary folded structure. It was produced in response to the convergence between the Siberian continent and paleoocean complexes and records the history of the successive closing of the Paleoasian Ocean that was formed after the previous Rodinia

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break-up. The oceanic components (island arcs, back arc basins, oceanic islands and oceanic plateaus) were docked to the Siberian continent and formed the accretionary zones produced during the Caledonian (Early Paleozoic), Hercynian (Middle–Late Paleozoic) and Indo-China (Late Paleozoic–Early Mesozoic) orogenic phases. It is widely accepted that plate tectonics was the leading mechanism in the origin and evolution of the CAOB. However, activity related to the hotspot was also significant for crust production in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt. Moreover, the hotspots participated not only in the crust formation but also in its further intracontinental reworking. We think that the drift of the Siberian continent) above the cluster of hot spots that was related to the African superplume and a corresponding LLSVP with multiple pulses of plume-related intraplate magmatic activity persisting from the Neoproterozoic to the Mesozoic. In the terminal Early Mesozoic, the initial breakup Pangea likely forced the Siberian continent to move to the east and eventually brought it in the influence of the Pacific superplume. We believe that this movement induced the intraplate magmatic activity within both the foldbelt and its surrounding starting in the Late Jurassic. Acknowledgment The work was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (Grants No. 14-05-00154, 14-05-00887, 13-05-12043, 13-05-12026 ofi_m, 13-05-12043 ofi_m), Presidium of Russian Academy of Sciences (Project No. 4.3), the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (integration projects no. 87, 11), Scientific School 5348.2014.5 and 1087.2014.5. References Almukhamedov, A.I., Gordienko, I.V., Kuzmin, M.I., Tomurtogoo, O., Tomurhuu, O., 1996. Dzhida zone – fragment of Paleoasian ocean. Geotectonics 30 (4), 25–42 (in Russian). Almukhamedov, A.I., Medvedev, A.Ya., Zolotukhin, V.V., 2004. Compositional evolution of the Permian–Triassic basalts of the Siberian Platform in time and space. Petrology 2 (4), 339–353 (in Russian). Ariskin, A.A., Kostitsyn, Yu.A., Konnikov, E.G., Danyshevsky, L.V., Meffre, S., Nikolaev, G.S., McNeill, A., Kislov, E.V., Orsoev, D.A., 2013. Geochronology of the Dovyren Intrusive Complex, Northwestern Baikal Area, Russia, in the Neoproterozoic. Geochem. Int. 51 (11), 859–875. Barry, T.L., Saunders, A.D., Kempton, P.D., Windley, B.F., Pringle, M.S., Saandar, S., 2003. Petrogenesis of Cenozoic basalts from Mongolia: Evidence for the role of asthenospheric versus metasomatised lithospheric mantle sources. J. Petrol. 44, 55–91. Bell, K., Lavecchia, G., Rosatelli, G., 2013. Cenozoic Italian magmatism-isotope constraints for possible plume-related activity. J. S. Am. Earth Sci. 41, 22–40. Bryan, S.E., Ferrari, L., 2013. Large igneous provinces and silicic large igneous provinces: Progress in our understanding over the last 25 years. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/B30820. Condie, K.C., 2001. Mantle Plumes and their Record in Earth History. Cambridge University Press, 305 p. Condie, K.C., 2005. High field strength element ratios in Archean basalts: a window to evolving sources of mantle plumes?. Lithos 79, 491–504. Dergunov, A.B., Kovalenko, V.I., Ruzhentsev, S.V., Yarmolyuk, V.V., 2001. Tectonics, Magmatism, and Metallogeny of Mongolia. Routledge. Taylor and Francis Group, London and New York, 288 p. Didenko, A.N., Mossakovsky, A.A., Pechersky, D.M., Ruzhentsev, S.V., Samigin, S.G., Kheraskova, T.N., 1994. Geodynamics of Paleozoic oceans of Central Asia. Geology Geophys. 35 (7-8), 59–75 (in Russian). Didenko, A.N., Kaplun, V.B., Malyshev, Yu.F., Shevchenko, B.F., 2010. Lithospheric structure and Mesozoic geodynamics of the Eastern Central Asian orogen. Russ. Geol. Geophys. 51 (5), 495–506. Dobretsov, N.L., 2005. Large Igneous Provinces of Asia (250 Ma): Siberian and Emeishan traps (plateau basalts) and associated granitoids. Russ. Geol. Geophys. 46, 870–890. Dobretsov, N.L., Vladimirov, A.G., Kruk, N.N., 2005. Permian–Triassic magmatism in the Altai–Sayan Fold System as a reflection of the Siberian superplume. Dokl. Earth Sci. 400 (1), 40–43. Dobretsov, N.L., 2011. Early Paleozoic tectonics and geodynamics of Central Asia: role of mantle plumes. Russ. Geol. Geophys. 52 (12), 1539–1552. Doroshkevich, A.G., Ripp, G.S., Sergeev, S.A., Konopel’ko, D.L., 2012. The U–Pb geochronology of the Mukhal alkaline massif (Western Transbaikalia). Russ. Geol. Geophys. 53 (2), 169–174.

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