Introducing Product Service System Architectures for realizing Circular Economy

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Procedia Manufacturing 33 (2019) 663–670 Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000 www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia

16th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing - Sustainable Manufacturing for Global Circular Economy 16th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing - Sustainable Manufacturing for Global Circular Economy

Introducing Product Service System Architectures for realizing Introducing Product Service System Architectures for realizing Circular Economy Manufacturing Engineering Society International Conference 2017, MESIC 2017, 28-30 June Circular Economy 2017, Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain Friedrich A. Halstenberga*, Rainer Starka Friedrich A. Halstenberga*, Rainer Starka

FraunhoferInstitute Production Systemsoptimization and Design Technology, Pascalstr. 8-9, 10587 Berlin, Germany Costing models forfor capacity in Industry 4.0: Trade-off FraunhoferInstitute for Production Systems and Design Technology, Pascalstr. 8-9, 10587 Berlin, Germany between used capacity and operational efficiency a a

Abstract Abstract

A. Santanaa, P. Afonsoa,*, A. Zaninb, R. Wernkeb

Product-Service Systems (PSS) as a well as modular products can act as an enabler for Circular Economy (CE). University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal Product-Service Systems as well as modular products act as an enabler for Circular Economy (CE). Products and services have to(PSS) be developed concurrently in order tocan beSC, attuned b Unochapecó, 89809-000 Chapecó, Brazil properly. In product design, developers Products and services to be developed in order be attuned properly. In product design, developers have to fulfil various have requirements such asconcurrently functional and cost to targets. Integrating requirements regarding CE and have to fulfil variousand requirements such as functional and costtask targets. requirements regarding CE and developing products services simultaneously makes their even Integrating more complex and challenging. In concept developing products services simultaneously theirIn task even complex and PSS challenging. In concept design, the outline or and rough concept of the productmakes is defined. order to more develop functional and to integrate CE Abstract design, rough concept of the product is defined. In order to develop and to integrate CE goals inthe theoutline stage oforconcept design, the authors propose Integrated Product Servicefunctional Systems PSS Architectures (IPSSAs), goals the stage of concept design, the authors Product Service Systems Architectures whichindepict physical product architectures andpropose servicesIntegrated architectures in one integrated model. This paper(IPSSAs), presents Under the concept "Industry 4.0", production processes be inpushed to be increasingly interconnected, which depict physical product architectures andAn services architectures one integrated model. paper presents first findings on howofIPSSAs can be realized. analysis of will different modelling notations wasThis conducted and an information based on aIPSSAs real time basis and, necessarily, much In thisnotations context, capacity first findings on how can be realized. An analysis of more different modelling was and an exemplary application on a use case was performed. The findings leadefficient. to further research steps on theconducted pathoptimization to a method goes beyondapplication the traditional aim of capacity maximization, contributing for organization’s value. exemplary on aCE. use case was performed. The findings lead toalso further research steps profitability on the path toand a method for modularizing PSS for Indeed, lean management and continuous improvement approaches suggest capacity optimization instead of for modularizing PSS for CE. maximization. The study of capacity optimization and costing models is an important research topic that deserves © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. contributions from theunder practical and theoretical perspectives. This paper presents and discusses a mathematical This is an open accessboth article the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) model foropen capacity management based on different costing models (ABC and TDABC). A generic model has been Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 16th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing This is an access article under CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 16th Global Conference on Sustainable (GCSM) developed and it was used to analyze idle capacity and to design strategies towards the maximization of organization’s Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 16th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing Manufacturing (GCSM). (GCSM) value. The trade-off capacity maximization vs operational efficiency is highlighted and it is shown that capacity Keywords: Product Service Systems, Circularinefficiency. Economy, Product Architectures, Modular Product Design, Modularization optimization might hide operational Keywords: Product Service Systems,by Circular Economy, © 2017 The Authors. Published Elsevier B.V. Product Architectures, Modular Product Design, Modularization Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Manufacturing Engineering Society International Conference 2017. Keywords: Cost Models; ABC; TDABC; Capacity Management; Idle Capacity; Operational Efficiency

1. Introduction

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 (0) 30 / 39006 - 274; fax: +49 (0) 30 / 3930246. E-mail address: [email protected] * The Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 30 / 39006 - 274; fax: +49 (0) 30 cost of idle capacity is (0) a fundamental information for/ 3930246. companies and their management of extreme importance E-mail address: [email protected] in modern production systems. In general, it is defined as unused capacity or production potential and can be measured 2351-9789 © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. in several ways: tons ofunder production, available hours of manufacturing, etc. The management of the idle capacity This is an open access the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) 2351-9789 © 2018 Thearticle Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. * Paulo Afonso. Tel.: +351 253 510 761; fax: +351 253 604 Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of741 the 16th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing (GCSM) This is an open access article under CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) E-mail address: [email protected] Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 16th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing (GCSM) 2351-9789 Published by Elsevier B.V. B.V. 2351-9789©©2017 2019The TheAuthors. Authors. Published by Elsevier Peer-review underaccess responsibility the scientific committee oflicense the Manufacturing Engineering Society International Conference 2017. This is an open article of under the CC BY-NC-ND (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 16th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing (GCSM). 10.1016/j.promfg.2019.04.083

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1. Introduction Due to the increasing awareness on climate change and resource scarcity, the notion of sustainability is gaining momentum [1]. The Circular Economy (CE) is expected to assist in realizing a sustainable development. Looking beyond the current extractive industrial model based on "take, make and dispose”, CE is restorative and regenerative by design [2]. Products play a crucial role for addressing this challenge, since they bind resources and fulfil function. For technical products, End-of-Life (EOL) strategies such as future proof design (creating longer lasting, functional products with higher desirability), and design for disassembly, maintenance, remake and recycling have to be chosen for each product [3]. In realizing CE, Product Service Systems (PSS) can act as an enabler. PSS are customer, lifecycle and foremost sustainability oriented systems, solutions, or offers that integrate products and services [4]. Since product development alone is a complex task, respective methods, tools and knowledge systems have been developed in order to assist design engineers within the product development process. In PSS, physical products and their respective services and business models are intertwined closely. Thus, services have to be considered in product design as well, which makes the task even more complex and challenging. In order to realize CE, EOL strategies for PSS have to be chosen early in product design, in order to have the biggest impact. The product architecture defines the way product components and functions are arranged into chunks or modules [5]. Its efficiency will depend on the objectives set on the product modularization [5], which organizes complex products efficiently by decomposing complex tasks into simpler ones [6]. 2. State of the art 2.1. The role of product architectures in the concept design phase of the product development process Product development processes are heterogeneous, and every organization is most likely to have very specific processes tailored to their respective products. Nevertheless, in many industries, a classical approach is followed, which is roughly structured in (1) clarification of the task, (2) conceptual design, (3) embodiment design and (4) detailed design [7]. In concept design, the outline or rough concept of the product is defined. Hedges describes concept design as the initial big picture or macro design of the product or system. “It shows us what problems the product (or system) will solve, how it will solve them, and what it will feel like as it is solving them. ” [8]. Within the classical engineering approach, the products functions are described as a first step of concept design, unrelated to their solutions or domains in order to see the system from an integrated point of view [7]. Müller describes concept design for PSS as follows: The main purpose of concept design is creating a basic structured system solution and partitioning the system into subsystems and components. Outcomes are work packages, (hybrid) system modules, and (PSS) interfaces (internally and externally) for the next step of requirements breakdown, i.e. the specification of sub-systems and components for detail engineering. These outcomes are traditionally described in the product architecture. It is a scheme, by which the functional elements are allocated to physical components [9]. It can be depicted as a solution principle, which represents the target function of the system and breaks it into subfunctions. The model acts as a guiding framework for the development of the product and determines which functions are to be fulfilled by which modules or components [10]. Within the product architecture, essential product functions are modelled and a basic layout for the product is created. Since the product architecture is a central document within product creation, it needs to be comprehensive and exhibit a clear graphical structure. Given the fact that product complexity increases dramatically due to the integration of electric and electronic (E/E) components as well as software and services (in the sense of PSS), conceptual design as a phase in product development increases in importance. Organizations will need to work more intensively with integrated product architectures in the future in order to tackle complexity challenges. The application of a suitable modelling notation can provide the necessary framework for creating product architectures, which meet these requirements. A modelling notation is a standardized language used to model structures, systems or processes, composed by a set of symbols, associated semantic definitions and syntactic rules [11]. Examples for modelling notations for different purposes include Business Process Model and Notation (BPMN) [12], Business Service Blueprint Modeling (BSBM) [13], Architecture of Integrated Information System (ARIS) [14], unified modelling language (UML) [15] and systems



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modelling language (SysML) [16]. SysML is an extension of UML, designed to support systems engineering in general for systems modelling. It can be classified has a graphical language for building models for large-scale, complex and multi-disciplinary systems [17]. 2.2. Product modularization Modularization is a one of the essential tasks in concept design and often realized via the product architecture. In broadest terms, modularization represents an approach for organizing complex products and processes (or systems) efficiently, by decomposing complex tasks into simpler ones [18]. This has different implications in different phases of the product life: for further product design e.g. working packages have to be assigned to respective teams; for production e.g., assembly lay-out and order have to be defined; for the use phase ee.g.,modular add-ons and spare parts have to be established; for product End-of-life e.g. disassembly strategies and sequences have to be determined. Modularization has been found to support a broad range of design goals. They range from economic targets like mass customization over breaking down complexity, facilitate design tasks, delayed differentiation to the reduction of interface complexity. The scientific community also agrees that sustainability and CE design goals may be addressed. Modularity has been described to have a positive impact on product maintenance, allowing separate diagnosis of product components and isolation of wear parts, upgrade, adaptation and modification of products or components for an extended service life that may result in a reduction of environmental load. As modular design influences the disassembility of a system, it indirectly influences the treatments potentially applicable at its end-of life and may help reducing its environmental impact [5]. These goals have different implications on the product architecture and modularization. An ideal modularization for the design goal “breaking down complexity” will most likely not be identical to the one for the design goal “ease product maintenance”. A challenge consists in converting design goals into specific measures, which assist design engineers in order to find the optimal set-up for their product architectures. Researchers have described metrics, which intend to measure to what degree components should be clustered in the same module. Gershenson et al. suggested that the affinity of components to be grouped together could be expressed through the generic properties of independence and similarity – two properties that can be measured for each pair of functional carriers within a product. Depending on the desired goal, the generic properties can be instantiated through more specific measures [6]. A number of methods, which assist design engineers in modularization, have been developed. An overview for product modularization has been provided by Halstenberg et al and Bonvoisin et al. [5,6]. The authors found, that the developed approaches showed a lack of validation and that they only addressed a limited number of design goals. Halstenberg et al introduced TOMM, a method that allows addressing various design goals, including several CE design goals [6]. 2.3. Circular product design and design for CE Circular product design and design for CE are design fields, which aim for the development of products which aid in creating CE. Several methods in this field have been developed so far. Den Hollander et al introduced a method, which aims for design for integrity and recycling. Integrity strives on keeping a product identical to its original state over time. It proposes three design approaches: resisting, postponing and reversing obsolescence [19]. Balkenende et al. developed a product design guideline, which establishes the material streams. It differentiates materials, connections and electronics. For instance, it suggests only using recyclable materials, avoiding fixed connections and getting printed circuit boards (PCB) in one piece. This guideline leans toward circular product design, with the downside that is only intended for electronic products and only covers the recycling objective of CE [20]. Cradle-tocradle design method is a five-step process. Starts with the elimination of undesirable substances, moves towards the positive definition of desirable substances and ends with product reinvention. Considering how it may optimally fulfill the needs [21]. The method is eco-effective by turning materials into nutrients enable their perpetual flow within one of the metabolisms: biological and technical.

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2.4. Circular modular product design A method proposed by Yang et al. is intended to maximize the reusability and recyclability of products. It consists of four steps: customer requirements analysis, modularization of technical solutions, eco-design and model of environmental performance. The method clusters components into eco-modules, which means that these have the same EOL scenario which improves their reusability and recyclability [22]. The downside is that this method is a redesign approach intended for already existing products and fulfills partially the CE design objectives. Ji et al. have developed a different methodology: the green modular design method for material efficiency. It is a total system approach that uses a leader-follower decision structure. The technical system modularity is the leader and material reuse modularity the follower. The optimization is achieved by applying a generic algorithm. The objective is to group related components into one module according to the similarity criteria’s of: function, structure and material reuse [23]. The method achieves modules with material reuse similarities, but it lacks future proof characteristics. 2.5. Design for product service systems (PSS) The research field of design for PSS focuses on supporting the integrated development of physical products and their respective services. A variety of approaches has been described within the academic literature. Aurich et al. developed a PSS method that synchronizes the product design process and technical service design process. Both processes are iterative and sequential [24]. Wang et al proposed method, which consists of three modules: functional, product and services. Each module is addressed separately but closely related with information to keep focus on customer value [25]. Müller introduced the layer-based development methodology. It is intended to support thinking in terms of system lifecycle, architecture, customer value and product-service interdependencies [4]. The layer-based development methodology proposes a shift from the standard product support services i.e. maintenance, repair, etc. to customer-centered services, which helps to collect, recognize and employ unconstrained customer feedback on the system over its lifecycle. Besides providing a stepwise structure, the layer method helps on orienting and tracing the value early on the design phase. It provides a visual and mental model for PSS and the layer approach helps to moderate and guide workshops. The layer-based method is applied in late clarification of the task and early concept design. The developed methods support the early phases of the PSS design process quite well. A support for the task of partitioning the overall function/task into sub functions and sub tasks (i.e. service modularization) has not been provided yet and represents a research gap. 3. Problem statement & approach The scientific community agrees that PSS and Modularization bear a large potential for addressing CE design goals. For each of the individual research fields: design for modularization, design for CE and PSS design, respective design methods have been described within the academic literature. Nevertheless, the following research gaps have been identified: I. II. III. IV. V.

Classical product architectures increase in importance for product development processes, but are currently not used to the extend, to which they need to be used Methodological approaches to product modularization exist, but a standardized method does not yet exist Methods of design for CE have been developed but have not yet been diffused into practice. A formalization and systematization of the procedure offers great potential, especially in the product architecture definition First methods for Circular modular product design (addressing CE goals in product modularization) have been developed, but they have not diffused into industry yet and lack a service perspective In design for PSS, methodical support was developed for the design steps in the upper phases of the Vmodel. A model-based support of the PSS development in the step "partitioning into realizable modules" is missing



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A method, which integrates the above-mentioned aspects, has not been developed yet and has the potential for addressing the challenge of CE. The authors decided to build on the existing TOMM method and further improve and adapt it for integrating PSS and CE aspects. One of the most challenging aspects of adapting the method from a pure product to a PSS focus is the integration of services in product architectures. Traditionally, product architectures, product structures or similar models are used to depict product functions and their relationships. These diagrams have to be expanded and services have to be modelled concurrently to product functions at this early stage. The authors propose the concept of Integrated Product Service System Architectures (IPSSAs) as opposed to pure physical product architectures. This paper presents first findings in how IPSSAs can be developed and modelled. For generating the results presented in this paper, a two-step approach was followed. At first, different modelling notations were analyzed regarding their abilities for integrated product and service modelling and the most suitable modelling notation was identified. Then, the notation was tested exemplarily on a case study. Shortcomings and improvement measures were identified. 4. Method development 4.1. Analysis of different modelling notations for IPSSAs The modeling notations SysML, BPMN, BSBM and ARIS were identified as possibly suitable for modelling IPSSAs. They were evaluated for their ability of integrated product and service modeling. The following criteria were considered: 1. Cost for modeling software (How much does the software/license cost?) 2. Models (Does the notation provide respective models (function structure, product structure, service structure?) 3. Modeling elements (Does the notation provide all mandatory modelling elements (e.g. object, role)?) 4. Hierarchies (Does the notation enable hierarchical relationships?) 5. Ergonomic quality (Is the notation clear and easily comprehensible for different groups of stakeholders?) The results determined that the most suitable notation for modeling IPSSAs is SysML. Advantages of SysML include: 1. diagrams make it possible to describe PSS structures and their relationships 2. it is able to model hierarchies and package structures 3. the requirements diagram helps to visualize and relate the requirements for the product and service components during the development phase therefore supports development decisions 4. SysML can be modeled with open source software 4.2. Exemplary application of the SysML for IPSSAs on a turbocharger case study 4.2.1. Product structure and architecture An exhaust gas turbocharger was used as an example for the integrated modeling of the product service system. The turbocharger has been decomposed into six basic physical elements (turbine casing, turbine, shaft, compressor, compressor casing and pressure can) in a product structure. The superordinate function of the turbocharger is to increase the supply of air to the engine, which leads to an increase in performance. The overall function was also decomposed into six sub-functions: accumulating exhaust air, driving compressors, transferring kinetic energy, increasing pressure, directing exhaust air and regulating boost pressure. By assigning the sub-functions to the elements of the product structure, the product architecture of the turbocharger was created. 4.2.2. Service architecture For modelling IPSSAs with SysML, an exemplary service accompanying the turbocharger was chosen. In order to test this approach on a simple case, a product-oriented service was chosen. The considered service architecture only contains the service module "Maintenance". The turbocharger is part of the engine system. Since errors and deviations affect all components of this system, the entire system is affected by the maintenance service. Nevertheless, it was attempted to relate the maintenance service exclusively to the turbocharger. The most common causes of a

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turbocharger failure result from a lack of maintenance. These errors can be prevented by comprehensive and regular maintenance. A turbocharger maintenance service consists of the oil control, cleaning and testing components. The oil control includes activities such as checking the oil lines, the oil level in the compressor and turbine housing and the tightness. When testing the turbocharger various aspects are considered. The general functionality of the turbocharger is tested, the exhaust gas temperatures, the pressure cell, the penetration of foreign bodies and the degree of contamination of the individual components. Starting from the test, the cleaning is carried out, which in principle can affect any component. Finally, to represent the entire PSS, the product architecture and service structure must be related. Since maintenance work is carried out to ensure functionalities, it is particularly interesting to look at the relationships between all three structural levels: the functional structure, the product structure and the service structure. Modeling the PSS with SysML To implement these models, the Systems Modeling Language and the software tool Modelio 3.7.0 were chosen. The design of the modular product structure formed the basis of the model. The implementation in SysML was done by means of a block definition diagram and is titled "logical system structure". For this purpose, the individual components are displayed as a block. The relationship between the individual parts and the overall product is visualized by means of compositions. Compositions, or in SysML "composition aggregation", are special cases of aggregations and indicate the relationship between a whole product and its parts. In contrast to aggregation, the whole product of a composition cannot exist without its parts. A composition in SysML is a directional arrow that originates from a black rhombus. The service and function structures were modeled using block definition diagrams and composition relations. Since no requirement structure is supported in the open source Modelio software, it had to be modeled and converted in a block definition diagram in order to be able to display the structure anyway. The overall requirement of the turbocharger is that it increases the power of the engine. This requirement is divided into two subrequirements within the model: the exhaust air must be compressed, and the compressed air must be delivered to the engine in a regulated manner. To be able to represent the complete product service system including the turbocharger relationships in Modelio, all individual diagrams were modeled in an overall diagram. The relationships between the diagrams have been visualized by means of dependencies, in SysML "dependency". These dependency relationships can be used and labeled across diagrams. Thus, a service component "affects" a particular physical device or module. Each physical component of the system structure "implements" a partial function of the function structure. Certain sub functions "fulfill" functional requirements of the requirement structure. Figure 1 shows the prototypical IPSSA of the turbocharger modelled in SysML, including product structure, service structure and their dependencies.

Figure 1: Prototypical IPSSA of a turbocharger

4.2.3. Analysis & Findings Within the scope of this study, the IPSSA of the turbocharger example could be modelled with SysML. Nevertheless, many shortcomings could be identified. First, no adequate diagram for modelling services currently exists in SysML. A block definition diagram had to be used for the modeling of a service structure. The representation of the modules was difficult to display within the structure, since the notation is not sequence based like e.g. BPMN. Modelling sequential processes as it is most suitable for services, is not originally intended within SysML. The modified block definition diagram, worked with a lack of clear visualization and comprehensibility compared to



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modelling notations intended for modelling pure processes. Another shortcoming was identified in terms of setting tracelinks in between functions, components and services. While SysML provides functionalities for setting tracelinks between e.g. requirements, functions and components, modelling relationships in between services and further objects has to be enabled for IPSSAs. Furthermore, SysML generally shows a lack of clarity in visualization and comprehensibility amongst different actors. Since business models and monetarization are still in development in concept design, organizational units such as marketing and logistics as well as middle and upper management should be able to understand IPSSAs. The notation is mostly comprehensible for engineers with experience in SysML. 5. Conclusion Within this paper, IPSSAs are proposed in order to support the development of PSS for CE in concept design. Different modelling notations, which could potentially be utilized for modelling IPSSAs, were analyzed and SysML was identified as the most suitable one. An IPSSA of a turbocharger was modelled with SysML in order to identify shortcomings of the method. Several drawbacks in using SysML for IPSSAs were identified. No suitable diagram for modelling services currently exists within SysML. Setting tracelinks in between service structure and product architecture proved to be difficult within the notation. Furthermore, the SysML is not easily comprehensible for stakeholders outside product design such as management. The authors conclude, that SysML provides a good basis for modelling IPSSAs, but suggest that the notation should be expanded or adapted for modelling services adequately. We propose the following steps: 1. Integrating a new diagram for modelling services 2. Using a lucid and intuitive modelling notation for modelling services, which is comprehensible for different stakeholders 3. Enabling the establishment of tracelinks between service structure and product architecture 4. The integration of respective methods for the integration of CE goals in the conception of IPSSAs 5. Development of a decision support methodology for PSS modularization within concept design Acknowledgements This research received no specific grant from any funding agency, commercial or not-for-profit sectors. We thank the Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft for their support. References [1] G.H. Brundtland, Our common future, 13th ed., Univ. Press, Oxford, 1991. [2] The Ellen MacArthur Foundation, Towards the Circular Economy: Economic and business rationale for an accelerated transition, available at https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/assets/downloads/publications/Ellen-MacArthur-Foundation-Towards-the-Circular-Economyvol.1.pdf. [3] M. van den Berg, C.A. Bakker, A product design framework for a circular economy (2015) 365–379. [4] P. Müller, R. Stark (Eds.), Integrated engineering of products and services: [layer-based development methodology for product-service systems]. Zugl.: Berlin, Techn. Univ., Diss., 2013, Fraunhofer Verl., Stuttgart, 2014. [5] J. Bonvoisin, F. Halstenberg, T. Buchert, R. Stark, A systematic literature review on modular product design, Journal of Engineering Design 27 (7) (2016) 488–514. [6] F. Halstenberg, T. Buchert, J. Bonvoisin, K. Lindow, R. Stark, Target-oriented Modularization – Addressing Sustainability Design Goals in Product Modularization, Procedia CIRP 29 (2015) 603–608. [7] G. Pahl, W. Beitz, L. Blessing, J. Feldhusen, K.-H. Grote, K. Wallace (Eds.), Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach, Springer-Verlag London Limited, London, 2007. [8] G. Hedges, What is concept design?: A product development perspective, available at https://www.ptc.com/en/cad-software-blog/what-isconcept-design (accessed on August 21, 2018). [9] K. Ulrich, The role of product architecture in the manufacturing firm, Research Policy 24 (3) (1995) 419–440. [10] J. Feldhusen, Konstruktionslehre II – V2 Produktarchitektur / Produktstruktur., Aachen, 2015.

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