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Introduction: Themes in research on the evolution of tourism
INTRODUCTION: THEMES IN RESEARCH ON THE EVOLUTION OF TOURISM
University
Richard Butler Ontario, Canada Geoffrey Wall of Waterloo, Canada
of Western
University
THEMES A number of themes can be found in many of the historical writings on tourism, including those in this volume, and they constitute clues concerning a variety of subjects which merit more detailed examination. The stereotypical tourism paper begins by indicating that there has been a rapid increase in participation in tourism and that this increase can be attributed to such factors as growth in population, greater discretionary income, more leisure, improved mobility, and urbanization. While there is considerable truth in such statements, they appear somewhat dated at a time of economic difficulty, with high unemployment, expensive gasoline, and rising numbers who are moonlighting. Such statements also tend to stress the volatile nature of tourism and place an undue emphasis on recent growth and change. When tourism is viewed over a considerable time period, evidence for continuity as well as change becomes apparent. Change and continuity, fashion and tradition can all receive due consideration when studies are placed in an historical context. The explanatory variables which have been identified in the preceding paragraph have not been the subject of much historical work in the specific context of tourism. It is true that some of these topics, such as urbanization, have attracted a great deal of research attention but seldom have the studies been undertaken primarily to explain changes in tourism. In the case of other factors, such as discretionary income, data are difficult to acquire. Refinement of the Annals Printed
of TourlsmResearch. Vol. 12. pp. 287-296. in the USA. All rights reserved.
1965 Copyright
287
0160.7383/85 $3.00 + .OO 0 1985 J. Jafari and Pergamon Press Ltd
THEMES IN RESEARCH
understanding of changes in tourism awaits the availability of more precise information on some of the explanatory variables, and the way they influence behavior. The influence of socioeconomic factors on tourism is a common theme which appears in a number of guises and which is a consideration of several of the papers in this volume. It is often stated that “mass follows class” as wealthy, high status individuals pioneer new areas and new activities only to move on when exclusivity is “tarnished” by the participation of individuals of lower income and status. However, it is possible that some activities have moved in the opposite direction. Furthermore, it appears that the more glamorous activities and locations have tended to attract the attention of researchers to the relative neglect of those with less prestige. This is an imbalance which should be redressed and it is particularly pleasing to be able to include a paper on tramping alongside those on “The Grand Tour” and elite automobile touring in this volume. Individuals have often played a prominent role in creating tourism fashions. This is well documented in Europe where patronage by royalty contributed to the popularity of many resorts (Cosgrove and Jackson 1972:32), masters of ceremonies prescribed the behavior at the spas (Sitwell 1932). and entrepreneurs such as Thomas Cook developed railway excursions and international tours (Swinglehurst 1982). Although the exploits of some prominent North Americans have been documented (Amory 1948). the contributions of tourism pioneers are not widely known. Could it be that tourism in North America grew in the absence of such people? This does not seem to be likely. Relationships between health and tourism deserve more explicit consideration than they have received. There are few tourist areas whose health-giving properties, both physical and mental, have not been the subject of comment. Of course, many such claims were little more than propaganda but they may also reflect changes in the status of medical knowledge. While it was once necessary to drink sea water and then to bathe in it, it is now sufficient to breathe the bracing air! There is an overlap between tourism and medical history which could be a fruitful area of investigation (see for example, Jones 1967; Pomeroy 1957). Religion, too, impinged upon tourism, as did education. The former has been discussed by Graburn (1983) in his tourism as pilgrimage perspective and does not receive much attention in this volume. The latter is an important theme in Towner’s paper on “The Grand Tour.” Technological change has been a major contributor to changes in tourism. Perhaps the most obvious of these changes has been the 288
1985 ANNALS
OF TOURISM
RESEARCH
RICHARD BUTLER AND GEOFFREY WALL
evolution of transportation types and networks and these are a consideration of almost all papers in this volume. However, it would be wrong to assume that improvements in accessibility necessarily result in an increase in tourism. There are many examples where resorts have been by-passed once more distant but more desirable locations could be reached with greater ease (Lundgren 1982). Technological changes have also influenced tourism more directly. For example, the invention of the ski-lift changed the tourism potential of many areas and the motorboat created new possibilities in coastal and lacustrine locations. Glass fibre has had an impact on boats, skis, and fishing rods, and camping has become a very different activity since motor homes and ultra-light equipment, including space blankets and freeze-dried food, have become available. The full implications of such technological changes have yet to be documented. Less directly, tourism may conflict with other uses of the scarce resources of land and water, and technological changes in other areas in turn have impinged on tourism. The history of water pollution, drainage of marshes, and the cutting of forests and their implications for tourism, for example, represent potentially fruitful fields of study (Carter 1974). Tourism, especially when concentrated in small areas, can have a marked impact upon the landscape. The examination of landscape history and landscape change has been a fruitful area of study, as can be seen in the papers by Meyer-Arendt and Marsh in this volume. The themes which have been identified are not exhaustive. Thus, one might be interested in cultural transfer like Marsh, and Wightman and Wall, or one could examine the evolution of policy and legislation. There is no shortage of themes which merit attention. However, the themes which have been described above permeate much historical research on tourism and, although the themes are not always mentioned explicitly by authors, they appear to be among those which are most common and prominent. Certainly, there are few studies of the evolution of tourism which could not benefit from a consideration of many of these themes. TOPICS Another way of evaluating progress in research on the evolution of tourism is by dividing the research into topical categories and examining the work which has been completed on each. A full analysis of this type is beyond the scope of this introduction. The categories which are presented here are selected and modified from among those examined by Wall and Marsh (1982). They are as 1985 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH
289
THEMES
IN RESEARCH
follows: changing evaluations of tourism resources, public provision of tourism opportunities in rural areas, private provision of tourism opportunities in rural areas, urban resorts, activity and facility histories, and history itself as a tourism resource. While these categories are not mutually exclusive, they do provide a means of simplifying the descriptive and evaluative tasks.
Changing
Evaluations
of Tourism
Resources
Many of the areas which are now favored by tourists, as Brown shows in his paper, were not always viewed from this perspective. In fact, such areas as the Canadian Shield, and the Swiss Alps, which are now popular areas for tourism, were once among the last places to which one would resort for fun (Wall 1982). It is important to recognize that attitudes towards the land and landscape are not static. Comprehensive reviews concerning the changing relationships of Americans with their land have been undertaken by Nash (1967) and Huth (1972); there is an extensive literature on the evolution of landscape aesthetics (e.g., Appleton 1975). and Moir (1964) has documented the changing tastes of English tourists.
Public Provision
of Tourism
Opportunities
in Rural Areas
National, state, and provincial park systems in North America constitute significant opportunities for tourism and yet in many cases they have the conflicting goals of preservation and use. The history of the national park systems in both the United States and Canada (Ise 196 1; Lothian 1976 and 1977; Nelson and Scace 1969; Runte 1979) is well documented but the emphasis of research has been on the western parks with comparatively little work having been undertaken on those in the east. Much less research has been undertaken on the evolution of state and provincial park systems or other forms of public provision for tourists (Nelson and Scace 1969; Nelson, Scace, Needham, and Nelson 1979).
Private Provision
of Tourism
Opportunities
in Rural Areas
It is more difficult to undertake research on private than public facilities for data are often even more fragmentary and there may be no generally available records as may exist in government documents. A considerable body of literature exists on cottaging (e.g., Coppock 1977; Wall 1977; Wolfe 1962) and some reference to resorts is also to be found in these papers. Perhaps what is needed 290
1985 ANNALS
OF TOURISM
RESEARCH
RICHARD BUTLER AND GEOFFREY WALL
now is an attempt to integrate all of the available information to provide a synthesis and assessment rather than a case by case perspective.
Urban Resorts A large quantity of research is available on the history of urban resorts, particularly spas and seaside resorts. The work was pioneered in English by Gilbert (1939, 1954) and since then an extensive body of literature has evolved [e.g., Alderson 1973; Havins 1976; Pimlott 1947; Walton 1978 and 1983; Walvin 1978). Although some important American contributions have been made, including the works of Funnel1 (1975), Pilat and Ranson (1941), Stansfield (1978), and Snow and Wright (1976), research in this area appears to be less developed in North America than in Europe. Activity
and Facility
Histories
All recreations and all forms of tourism have their histories but not all have been documented. It is less challenging to document the histories of some activities, such as sports, where records have been kept, than informal recreations where there may be few records and little legacy on the land. However, Belasco’s (1979) excellent study of autocamping is an example of what is possible and Jakle (1980) has provided an interesting perspective on the evolution of tourist accommodations. History as a Tourism
Resource
It is worth noting in passing that historical knowledge can also have considerable applied value as history is interpreted to tourists (Newcomb 1979). Certainly, historical buildings and other artifacts have long been recognised as major elements in the appeal of places and regions to tourists, from the time of the Grand Tour to the present.
ANALYSIS
OF CHANGE
Perhaps the most implicit theme in writings on the evolution and history of tourism, which transcends all topics is that of change itself. Thus almost all of the authors in this volume deal with change in one form or another, from changing perceptions of landscape and opportunity, such as Marsh and Brown, to changes in 1985 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH
291
THEMES
IN RESEARCH
reasons for travel (Turner] and the nature of change in tourist destinations (Meyer-Arendt). The analysis of change in the literature on tourism has tended to focus on two different aspects, which although clearly related, have only rarely been given simultaneous examination: changes in the tourists, and changes in the destination areas which they visit. Changes in tourists have tended to be the subject of market research, and have received much less attention in the academic press. Generalized models and typologies of tourists have been suggested (Cohen 1972, for example), while at least two observers have suggested links between changing types of tourists to destinations and changes in the destination areas themselves as a result (Christaller 1963; Plog 1972). More attention, particularly from a conceptual point of view, has been focused on the nature of change in destination areas and the way this change evolves over time. The concept of a resort cycle was discussed over 3 decades ago (Gilbert 1954), and perhaps best described in a literary style by Christaller (1963). More recently Stansfield ( 1978) has discussed the resort cycle concept of change in the context of a specific location (Atlantic City), while Miossec (1976) proposed a generic model of tourist development in underdeveloped areas. Butler (1980) suggested the application of the life cycle concept to the evolution of tourist areas, and this has been examined in the paper in this volume by Meyer-Arendt. Examination of the applicability of Butler’s model to other specific areas has also been undertaken by Hovinen (198 1) and Oglesby ( 1982). Keller ( 1985) examined changes not only in destination areas and tourists, but also in the control of the tourist infrastructure and market, while Wolfe ( 1982) self-critically examined his own earlier ideas on tourism-induced change in destination areas and suggested an alternative model of the tourist development process and resultant effects. It becomes apparent that analysis of change in tourism and its component elements (tourists, infrastructure, and places) and change brought about by tourism need to be examined not only together, but also in a much broader context of the other aspects of the global environment. Only in this way can the evolution of tourism and its consequences be more fully understood. CONCLUDING
COMMENTS
Studies of the history of tourism can be undertaken for their own sake to further the understanding of tourism, or for the light which
292
1985 ANNALS
OF TOURISM
RESEARCH
RICHARD BUTLER
AND GEOFFREY
WALL
knowledge of tourism can throw on other aspects of life. Most studies to date fall into the former category. There is nothing wrong with this type of research, which is a prerequisite for the second type, and there is a need for more knowledge of many aspects of tourism. However, there is also a need to place tourism in a broader context. This call to examine recreation as a component and indicator of societal trends is not new. Writing in 180 1, the British historian Strutt indicated that: In order to form a just estimation
of the character
people, it is absolutely
to investigate
times most generally
necessary prevalent
them into their retirements,
among
where
them
no disguise
of any particular
the sports and pas-
. . . when we follow is necessary,
we are
most likely to see them in their true state and judge of their natural dispositions.
More recently, Wadsworth (1975) has suggested that: As the
prevailing
do its leisure
culture
pursuits;
and attitudes
by studying
our understanding that society. increase
of a society change,
these pursuits
so also
it is possible
to
of the progress and development
of
If students of the evolution of tourism were to act on the tenets of Strutt and Wadsworth then they would make a more substantial contribution both to the understanding of tourism and of the evolution of society. It is hoped that the papers in this volume are a step in this direction. 0 0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The guest editors would like to express their thanks to Dr. C. Stansfield for his constructive and most helpful advice in reading and reviewing the papers contained in this volume. The editors also wish to thank J. Jafari, editor-in-chief of Annals of Tourism Research for his encouragement this volume.
and assistance
in the preparation
of
REFERENCES Alderson, F. 1973 The Inland Resorts and Spas of Britain. Newton Abbot: David and Charles. Amory, C. 1948 The Last Resorts. New York: Harper.
1985 ANNALS
OF TOURISM
RESEARCH
293
THEMES
IN RESEARCH
Appleton, J. 1975 The Experience of Landscape. New York: Wiley. Belasco. W. J. 1979 Americans on the Road. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Butler, R. W. 1980 The Concept of a Tourist Area Cycle of Evolution: Implications for the Management of Resources. Canadian Geographer 24:5- 12. Carter, L. J. 1974 The Florida Experience: Land and Water in a Growth State. Washington DC: Resources for the Future Inc. Christaller, W. 1963 Some Considerations of Tourism Location in Europe: The Peripheral Regions, Underdeveloped Countries, Recreation Areas. Regional Science Association, Papers 12:95- 105. Cohen, E. 1972 Towards a Sociology of Tourism. Social Research 39( 1): 104- 122. Coppock. J. T., ed. 1977 Second Homes: Blessing or Curse? Oxford: Pergamon. Cosgrove, I., and R. Jackson 1972 The Geography of Recreation and Leisure. London: Hutchinson University Library. Funnell, C. E. 1975 By the Beautiful Sea. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Gilbert, E. W. 1939 The Growth of Inland and Seaside Health Resorts in England. Scottish Geographical Magazine 55: 16 -35. 1954 Brighton: Old Ocean’s Bauble. London: Methuen. Graburn, N. H. H. 1983 The Anthropology of Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 10( 1):9 - 33. Havins. P. J. N. 1976 The Spas of England. London: Hale. Hovinen, G. 198 1 A Tourist Cycle in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. Canadian Geographer 25(3):283-285. Huth, H. 1972 Nature and the American: Three Centuries of Changing Attitudes. Berkeley: University of California Press. Ise. J. 1961 Our National Park Policy: A Critical History. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Jakle, J. 1980 Motel by the Roadside: America’s Room for the Night. Journal of Cultural Geography 1(1):34-49. Jones, B. M. 1967 Health-seekers in the Southwest. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. Keller, C. P. 1985 Centre-Periphery Tourism Development and Control. In Leisure Tourism and Social Change, J. Long and R. Hecock. eds. pp. 77-84. Edinburgh: Centre for Leisure Research.
294
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OF TOURISM
RESEARCH
RICHARD
BUTLER
AND GEOFFREY
WALL
Lothian, W. F. 1976 and 1977 A History of Canada’s National Parks. Ottawa: Parks Canada (2 vols.). Lundgren. J. 1982 The Development of Tourist Accommodation in the Montreal Laurentians. In Recreational Land Use: Perspectives on Its Evolution in Canada, G. Wall and J. Marsh, eds., pp. 175- 189. Ottawa: Carleton University Press. Miossec, J. M. 1977 Un Modele de 1’Espace Touristique. L’Espace Geographique 1:41-48. Moir. E. 1964 The Discovery of Britain: The English Tourists 1540- 1840. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Nash, R. 1967 Wilderness and the American Mind. New Haven: Yale University Press. Nelson, J. G., and R. C. Scace The Canadian National Parks: Today and Tomorrow. Studies in Land Use History and Landscape Change, National Park Series No. 3. Calgary: University of Calgary. Nelson, J. G., R. C. &ace, R. M. Needham, and S. G. Nelson 1979 Canadian National Parks-Today and Tomorrow Conference II: Ten Years Later. Waterloo: University of Waterloo. Newcomb, R. M. 1979 Planning the Past: Historical Landscape Resources and Recreation. Hamden, CT: Shoe String Press. Oglesby. M. K. 1982 Tourism in Malta. Leisure Studies 3(2): 147- 16 1. Pilat, O., and J. Ranson 194 1 Sodom by the Sea: An Affectionate History of Coney Island. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Duran and Co. Pimlott, J. A. R. 1947 The Englishman’s Holiday: A Social History. London: Faber and Faber. Plog. s. c. 1972 Why Destination Areas Rise and Fall in Popularity. Unpublished paper. Southern California Chapter, The Travel Research Association. Pomeroy, E. 1957 In Search of the Golden West: The Tourist in Western America. New York: Knopf. Runte, A. 1979 National Parks: The American Experience. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Sitwell. E. 1932 Bath. London: Faber and Faber. Snow, R., and D. Wright 1976 Coney Island: A Case Study in Popular Culture and Technological Change. Journal of Popular Culture 9(4):960-975. Stansfield, C. 1978 Atlantic City and the Resort Cycle: Background to the Legalization of Gambling. Annals of Tourism Research 5(2):238-251. Strutt, J. 180 1 The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England. London: William Tegg.
1985 ANNALS
OF TOURISM
RESEARCH
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THEMES
IN RESEARCH
Swinglehurst. E. 1982 Cook’s Tours: The Story of Popular Travel. Poole: Blandford Press. Wadsworth, P. M. 1975 Leisure Pursuits in Nineteenth Century Bath. Unpublished M. A. thesis. University of Kent. Wall, G. 1977 Recreational Land Use in Muskoka. Ontario Geography 11: 1 1 - 28. 1982 Changing Views of the Land as a Recreational Resource. In Recreational Land Use: Perspectives on its Evolution in Canada. G. Wall and J. Marsh, eds., pp. 15 - 25. Ottawa: Carleton University Press. Wall, G., and J. Marsh, eds. 1982 Recreational Land Use: Perspectives on its Evolution in Canada. Ottawa: Carleton University Press. Walton, J. K. 1978 The Blackpool Landlandy: A Social History. Manchester: Manchester University Press. 1983 The English Seaside Resort: A Social History 1750- 1914. Leicester: Leitester University Press. Walvin, J. 1978 Beside the Seaside. London: Allen Lane. Wolfe, R. I. 1962 The Summer Resorts of Ontario in the Nineteenth Century. Ontario History 54:149-161. 1966 Recreational Travel -The New Migration. Canadian Geographer lO( 1): l14. 1982 Recreational Travel-The New Migration Revisited. Ontario Geography 19:103-124.
296
1985 ANNALS
OF TOURISM
RESEARCH
University
Richard Butler Ontario, Canada Geoffrey Wall of Waterloo, Canada
of Western
University
THEMES A number of themes can be found in many of the historical writings on tourism, including those in this volume, and they constitute clues concerning a variety of subjects which merit more detailed examination. The stereotypical tourism paper begins by indicating that there has been a rapid increase in participation in tourism and that this increase can be attributed to such factors as growth in population, greater discretionary income, more leisure, improved mobility, and urbanization. While there is considerable truth in such statements, they appear somewhat dated at a time of economic difficulty, with high unemployment, expensive gasoline, and rising numbers who are moonlighting. Such statements also tend to stress the volatile nature of tourism and place an undue emphasis on recent growth and change. When tourism is viewed over a considerable time period, evidence for continuity as well as change becomes apparent. Change and continuity, fashion and tradition can all receive due consideration when studies are placed in an historical context. The explanatory variables which have been identified in the preceding paragraph have not been the subject of much historical work in the specific context of tourism. It is true that some of these topics, such as urbanization, have attracted a great deal of research attention but seldom have the studies been undertaken primarily to explain changes in tourism. In the case of other factors, such as discretionary income, data are difficult to acquire. Refinement of the Annals Printed
of TourlsmResearch. Vol. 12. pp. 287-296. in the USA. All rights reserved.
1965 Copyright
287
0160.7383/85 $3.00 + .OO 0 1985 J. Jafari and Pergamon Press Ltd
THEMES IN RESEARCH
understanding of changes in tourism awaits the availability of more precise information on some of the explanatory variables, and the way they influence behavior. The influence of socioeconomic factors on tourism is a common theme which appears in a number of guises and which is a consideration of several of the papers in this volume. It is often stated that “mass follows class” as wealthy, high status individuals pioneer new areas and new activities only to move on when exclusivity is “tarnished” by the participation of individuals of lower income and status. However, it is possible that some activities have moved in the opposite direction. Furthermore, it appears that the more glamorous activities and locations have tended to attract the attention of researchers to the relative neglect of those with less prestige. This is an imbalance which should be redressed and it is particularly pleasing to be able to include a paper on tramping alongside those on “The Grand Tour” and elite automobile touring in this volume. Individuals have often played a prominent role in creating tourism fashions. This is well documented in Europe where patronage by royalty contributed to the popularity of many resorts (Cosgrove and Jackson 1972:32), masters of ceremonies prescribed the behavior at the spas (Sitwell 1932). and entrepreneurs such as Thomas Cook developed railway excursions and international tours (Swinglehurst 1982). Although the exploits of some prominent North Americans have been documented (Amory 1948). the contributions of tourism pioneers are not widely known. Could it be that tourism in North America grew in the absence of such people? This does not seem to be likely. Relationships between health and tourism deserve more explicit consideration than they have received. There are few tourist areas whose health-giving properties, both physical and mental, have not been the subject of comment. Of course, many such claims were little more than propaganda but they may also reflect changes in the status of medical knowledge. While it was once necessary to drink sea water and then to bathe in it, it is now sufficient to breathe the bracing air! There is an overlap between tourism and medical history which could be a fruitful area of investigation (see for example, Jones 1967; Pomeroy 1957). Religion, too, impinged upon tourism, as did education. The former has been discussed by Graburn (1983) in his tourism as pilgrimage perspective and does not receive much attention in this volume. The latter is an important theme in Towner’s paper on “The Grand Tour.” Technological change has been a major contributor to changes in tourism. Perhaps the most obvious of these changes has been the 288
1985 ANNALS
OF TOURISM
RESEARCH
RICHARD BUTLER AND GEOFFREY WALL
evolution of transportation types and networks and these are a consideration of almost all papers in this volume. However, it would be wrong to assume that improvements in accessibility necessarily result in an increase in tourism. There are many examples where resorts have been by-passed once more distant but more desirable locations could be reached with greater ease (Lundgren 1982). Technological changes have also influenced tourism more directly. For example, the invention of the ski-lift changed the tourism potential of many areas and the motorboat created new possibilities in coastal and lacustrine locations. Glass fibre has had an impact on boats, skis, and fishing rods, and camping has become a very different activity since motor homes and ultra-light equipment, including space blankets and freeze-dried food, have become available. The full implications of such technological changes have yet to be documented. Less directly, tourism may conflict with other uses of the scarce resources of land and water, and technological changes in other areas in turn have impinged on tourism. The history of water pollution, drainage of marshes, and the cutting of forests and their implications for tourism, for example, represent potentially fruitful fields of study (Carter 1974). Tourism, especially when concentrated in small areas, can have a marked impact upon the landscape. The examination of landscape history and landscape change has been a fruitful area of study, as can be seen in the papers by Meyer-Arendt and Marsh in this volume. The themes which have been identified are not exhaustive. Thus, one might be interested in cultural transfer like Marsh, and Wightman and Wall, or one could examine the evolution of policy and legislation. There is no shortage of themes which merit attention. However, the themes which have been described above permeate much historical research on tourism and, although the themes are not always mentioned explicitly by authors, they appear to be among those which are most common and prominent. Certainly, there are few studies of the evolution of tourism which could not benefit from a consideration of many of these themes. TOPICS Another way of evaluating progress in research on the evolution of tourism is by dividing the research into topical categories and examining the work which has been completed on each. A full analysis of this type is beyond the scope of this introduction. The categories which are presented here are selected and modified from among those examined by Wall and Marsh (1982). They are as 1985 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH
289
THEMES
IN RESEARCH
follows: changing evaluations of tourism resources, public provision of tourism opportunities in rural areas, private provision of tourism opportunities in rural areas, urban resorts, activity and facility histories, and history itself as a tourism resource. While these categories are not mutually exclusive, they do provide a means of simplifying the descriptive and evaluative tasks.
Changing
Evaluations
of Tourism
Resources
Many of the areas which are now favored by tourists, as Brown shows in his paper, were not always viewed from this perspective. In fact, such areas as the Canadian Shield, and the Swiss Alps, which are now popular areas for tourism, were once among the last places to which one would resort for fun (Wall 1982). It is important to recognize that attitudes towards the land and landscape are not static. Comprehensive reviews concerning the changing relationships of Americans with their land have been undertaken by Nash (1967) and Huth (1972); there is an extensive literature on the evolution of landscape aesthetics (e.g., Appleton 1975). and Moir (1964) has documented the changing tastes of English tourists.
Public Provision
of Tourism
Opportunities
in Rural Areas
National, state, and provincial park systems in North America constitute significant opportunities for tourism and yet in many cases they have the conflicting goals of preservation and use. The history of the national park systems in both the United States and Canada (Ise 196 1; Lothian 1976 and 1977; Nelson and Scace 1969; Runte 1979) is well documented but the emphasis of research has been on the western parks with comparatively little work having been undertaken on those in the east. Much less research has been undertaken on the evolution of state and provincial park systems or other forms of public provision for tourists (Nelson and Scace 1969; Nelson, Scace, Needham, and Nelson 1979).
Private Provision
of Tourism
Opportunities
in Rural Areas
It is more difficult to undertake research on private than public facilities for data are often even more fragmentary and there may be no generally available records as may exist in government documents. A considerable body of literature exists on cottaging (e.g., Coppock 1977; Wall 1977; Wolfe 1962) and some reference to resorts is also to be found in these papers. Perhaps what is needed 290
1985 ANNALS
OF TOURISM
RESEARCH
RICHARD BUTLER AND GEOFFREY WALL
now is an attempt to integrate all of the available information to provide a synthesis and assessment rather than a case by case perspective.
Urban Resorts A large quantity of research is available on the history of urban resorts, particularly spas and seaside resorts. The work was pioneered in English by Gilbert (1939, 1954) and since then an extensive body of literature has evolved [e.g., Alderson 1973; Havins 1976; Pimlott 1947; Walton 1978 and 1983; Walvin 1978). Although some important American contributions have been made, including the works of Funnel1 (1975), Pilat and Ranson (1941), Stansfield (1978), and Snow and Wright (1976), research in this area appears to be less developed in North America than in Europe. Activity
and Facility
Histories
All recreations and all forms of tourism have their histories but not all have been documented. It is less challenging to document the histories of some activities, such as sports, where records have been kept, than informal recreations where there may be few records and little legacy on the land. However, Belasco’s (1979) excellent study of autocamping is an example of what is possible and Jakle (1980) has provided an interesting perspective on the evolution of tourist accommodations. History as a Tourism
Resource
It is worth noting in passing that historical knowledge can also have considerable applied value as history is interpreted to tourists (Newcomb 1979). Certainly, historical buildings and other artifacts have long been recognised as major elements in the appeal of places and regions to tourists, from the time of the Grand Tour to the present.
ANALYSIS
OF CHANGE
Perhaps the most implicit theme in writings on the evolution and history of tourism, which transcends all topics is that of change itself. Thus almost all of the authors in this volume deal with change in one form or another, from changing perceptions of landscape and opportunity, such as Marsh and Brown, to changes in 1985 ANNALS OF TOURISM RESEARCH
291
THEMES
IN RESEARCH
reasons for travel (Turner] and the nature of change in tourist destinations (Meyer-Arendt). The analysis of change in the literature on tourism has tended to focus on two different aspects, which although clearly related, have only rarely been given simultaneous examination: changes in the tourists, and changes in the destination areas which they visit. Changes in tourists have tended to be the subject of market research, and have received much less attention in the academic press. Generalized models and typologies of tourists have been suggested (Cohen 1972, for example), while at least two observers have suggested links between changing types of tourists to destinations and changes in the destination areas themselves as a result (Christaller 1963; Plog 1972). More attention, particularly from a conceptual point of view, has been focused on the nature of change in destination areas and the way this change evolves over time. The concept of a resort cycle was discussed over 3 decades ago (Gilbert 1954), and perhaps best described in a literary style by Christaller (1963). More recently Stansfield ( 1978) has discussed the resort cycle concept of change in the context of a specific location (Atlantic City), while Miossec (1976) proposed a generic model of tourist development in underdeveloped areas. Butler (1980) suggested the application of the life cycle concept to the evolution of tourist areas, and this has been examined in the paper in this volume by Meyer-Arendt. Examination of the applicability of Butler’s model to other specific areas has also been undertaken by Hovinen (198 1) and Oglesby ( 1982). Keller ( 1985) examined changes not only in destination areas and tourists, but also in the control of the tourist infrastructure and market, while Wolfe ( 1982) self-critically examined his own earlier ideas on tourism-induced change in destination areas and suggested an alternative model of the tourist development process and resultant effects. It becomes apparent that analysis of change in tourism and its component elements (tourists, infrastructure, and places) and change brought about by tourism need to be examined not only together, but also in a much broader context of the other aspects of the global environment. Only in this way can the evolution of tourism and its consequences be more fully understood. CONCLUDING
COMMENTS
Studies of the history of tourism can be undertaken for their own sake to further the understanding of tourism, or for the light which
292
1985 ANNALS
OF TOURISM
RESEARCH
RICHARD BUTLER
AND GEOFFREY
WALL
knowledge of tourism can throw on other aspects of life. Most studies to date fall into the former category. There is nothing wrong with this type of research, which is a prerequisite for the second type, and there is a need for more knowledge of many aspects of tourism. However, there is also a need to place tourism in a broader context. This call to examine recreation as a component and indicator of societal trends is not new. Writing in 180 1, the British historian Strutt indicated that: In order to form a just estimation
of the character
people, it is absolutely
to investigate
times most generally
necessary prevalent
them into their retirements,
among
where
them
no disguise
of any particular
the sports and pas-
. . . when we follow is necessary,
we are
most likely to see them in their true state and judge of their natural dispositions.
More recently, Wadsworth (1975) has suggested that: As the
prevailing
do its leisure
culture
pursuits;
and attitudes
by studying
our understanding that society. increase
of a society change,
these pursuits
so also
it is possible
to
of the progress and development
of
If students of the evolution of tourism were to act on the tenets of Strutt and Wadsworth then they would make a more substantial contribution both to the understanding of tourism and of the evolution of society. It is hoped that the papers in this volume are a step in this direction. 0 0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The guest editors would like to express their thanks to Dr. C. Stansfield for his constructive and most helpful advice in reading and reviewing the papers contained in this volume. The editors also wish to thank J. Jafari, editor-in-chief of Annals of Tourism Research for his encouragement this volume.
and assistance
in the preparation
of
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