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Introduction to tea
5 Introduction to tea
5.1 Introduction Tea is continuing to expand in all of its forms – in grocery stores, convenience stores and on the favourite restaurant menu. Consumers are embracing Camellia sinensis for its health benefits as well as its delicious taste. In addition to increased availability of wide varieties of tea, improved brewing methods and equipments have changed the way people perceive tea [1].
5.2 Origin and history Teas have been cultivated for thousands of years in Asia. Based on the differences in morphology between Camellia sinensis (var. assamica) and Camellia sinensis (var. sinensis), botanists have long asserted a dual botanical origin for tea. Camellia sinensis (var. assamica) is native to the area from Yunnan province in China to the northern region of Myanmar and the state of Assam in India. Camellia sinensis (var. sinensis) is native to eastern and south-eastern China [2]. However, recent research questions this. The same chromosome number (2n=30) for the two varieties, easy hybridization, and various types of intermediate hybrids and spontaneous polyploids all appear to demonstrate a single place of origin for Camellia sinensis – the area including the northern part of Myanmar, Yunnan and Sichuan provinces of China [2]. Story of tea began in ancient China over 5,000 years ago (some time around 2737 BC). According to legend, the Shen Nong, an early emperor was a skilled ruler, creative scientist, and patron of the arts. His far-sighted edicts required among other things, that all drinking water be boiled as a hygienic precaution. One summer day while visiting a distant region of his realm, he and the court stopped to rest. In accordance to his ruling, the servants began to boil water for the court to drink. Dried leaves from the nearby bush fell into the boiling water, and a brown liquid was infused into the water [3]. The ever inquisitive
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and curious monarch took a sip of the brew and was pleasantly surprised by its flavour and its restorative properties. A variant of the legend tells that the emperor tested the medical properties of various herbs on him. Some were poisonous, but found tea to work as an antidote. Shen Nong is also mentioned in Lu Yu’s ‘Cha Jing’, a famous early work on the subject [4]. As a scientist, the emperor was interested in the new liquid, drank some and found it very refreshing. Therefore, according to the legend, tea was created. (This myth maintains such a practical narrative, that many mythologists believe it may relate closely to the actual events now lost in ancient history). According to a Tang dynasty legend which spread along with Buddhism, Bodhidharma and the founder of Zen school of Buddhism is based on a meditation known as “Chan”. After meditating in front of a wall for nine years, he accidentally fell asleep. He woke up in such disgust at his weakness that he cut off his eyelids and they fell to the ground and took root, growing into tea bushes. Sometimes, the second story is retold with Gautama Buddha in place of Bodhidharma. In another variant of the first mentioned myth, Gautama Buddha discovered tea when some leaves had fallen into boiling water. Whether or not these legends have any basis, tea has played a significant role in the Asian culture for centuries as a staple beverage, a curative, and as a symbol of status. It is not surprising that its discovery is ascribed to the religious or royal origins. Whether tea originated in India or China is still a matter of debate. One thing that is certain is that tea drinking was first initiated in China for medicinal purposes and later gained popularity as a nourishing beverage [4]. Tea cultivation flourished in India under the British and today India is the largest producer of tea in the world. After Europe adopted tea as its main hot beverage, China imposed restrictions on its export to the outside world The British established tea cultivation in the north-eastern parts of India. Organized cultivation spread to South India during the First World War years and later to Sri Lanka. Many features of tea cultivation and processing were standardized during this period and mechanization was undertaken to handle the ever-increasing crop to meet the global supplies. Green tea, which was normally made in China, was improved upon and Black tea manufacturing was set up which enhanced the shelf-life of tea and allowed it to be transported for longer duration to reach far flung areas. Darjeeling tea is grown in the foothills of the Himalayas and is a prized Indian black tea. This tea was marketed with vigorous campaigning by the royal family and it is still accepted among the best teas of the world [5]. Assam teas are known for their malty liquors and are promoted as the milk teas, and a
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newer process called CTC (Crush, tear and curl) was established to handle the huge bulk of the crop harvested during the rainy season. Indian teas came to be known world-wide as milk teas in many markets dominating over the lighter green teas coming out of China till then. The East India Company also had interests along the routes to India from Great Britain. The company cultivated the production of tea in India. Its products were the basis of the Boston Tea Party in Colonial America [5]. The Indian Tea Board took various programmes to protect the interests of the Indian tea industry. Genetic Inheritance (GI) registration process for establishing Darjeeling CTM (certification trade mark) was also initiated. In the 1600s, tea became popular throughout Europe and the American colonies. Since colonial days, tea has played a role in the American culture and customs. Today American school children learn about the famous Boston tea party protesting the British tea tax – one of the acts leading to the revolutionary war. During the 20th century, two major American contributions to the tea industry occurred. In 1904, iced tea was created at the World’s Fair in St. Louis, and in 1908, Thomas Sullivan of New York developed the concept of tea in a bag. Tea breaks down into three basic types: Black, Green, and Oolong. In U.S.A., over 90 percent of the tea consumed is black tea which has been fully oxidized or fermented and yields a hearty flavoured amber brew. Some of the popular black teas include English breakfast (good breakfast choice since its hearty flavour mixes well with milk), Darjeeling (a blend of Himalayan teas with a flowery bouquet suited for lunch) and Orange Pekoe (a blend of Ceylon teas that is the most widely used of the tea blends). Green tea skips the oxidizing step. It has a more delicate taste and is light green/golden in colour. Green tea, a staple in the Orient, is gaining popularity in the USA, due to recent scientific studies linking its consumption with reduced cancer risk. Oolong tea, popular in China, is partly oxidised and is a cross between black and green tea in colour and taste. While flavoured teas evolve from these three basic teas, herbal teas contain no true tea leaves. Herbal and medicinal teas are created from the flowers, berries, peels, seeds, leaves, and the roots of many different plants [3].
5.2.1 China Tea consumption spread throughout the Chinese culture, reaching into every aspect of the society. In 800 A.D., Lu Yu wrote the first definitive book on tea, the Cha Ching. This amazing man was orphaned as a child and raised by scholarly Buddhist monks in one of China’s finest monasteries. However, as a young man he rebelled against the discipline of priestly training which had made him a skilled observer. His fame as a performer increased with each year but he felt his life lacked meaning. Finally, in mid-life, he retired for 5
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years into seclusion. Drawing from his vast memory of observed events and places, he codified the various methods of tea cultivation and preparation in ancient China. The vast definitive nature of his work projected him into near sainthood within his own lifetime. Patronized by the emperor himself, his work clearly showed the Zen Buddhist philosophy to which he was exposed as a child. It was this form of tea service that Zen Buddhist missionaries would later introduce to imperial Japan [3].
5.2.2 Japan The returning Buddhist priest viz., Yeisei, who had seen the value of tea in China in enhancing religious meditation, brought the first tea seeds to Japan, and as a result he is known as the “Father of Tea” in Japan. Because of this early association, tea in Japan has always been associated with Zen Buddhism. Tea received almost instant imperial sponsorship and spread rapidly from the royal court and monasteries to the other sections of the Japanese society. Japanese tea ceremony – Tea was elevated to an art form resulting in the creation of the Japanese Tea Ceremony (“Cha-no-yu” or “the hot water for tea”). The best description of this – the Irish-Greek journalist-historian who probably wrote the complex art form ‘Lafcadio Hearn’, one of the few foreigners ever to be granted Japanese citizenship during this era. He wrote from personal observation, “The Tea ceremony requires years of training and practice to graduate in the art, yet the whole of this art, to its detail, signifies no more than the making and serving of a cup of tea. The supremely important matter is that the act be performed in the most perfect, polite, graceful and charming manner possible”. Such purity of a form of expression prompted the creation of supportive arts and services. A special form of architecture (chaseki) developed for “tea houses”, based on the duplication of the simplicity of a forest cottage. The cultural/artistic hostesses of Japan, the Geishi, began to specialize in the presentation of the tea ceremony. As more and more people became involved in the excitement surrounding the tea, the purity of the original Zen concept was lost. The tea ceremony became corrupted, boisterous, and highly embellished. “Tea Tournaments” were held among the wealthy where nobles competed among each other for rich prizes in naming various tea blends. Rewarding winners with gifts of silk, armour and jewellery was totally alien to the original Zen attitude of the ceremony. Three great Zen priests restored tea to its original place in Japanese society. Ikkyu (1394–1481), a prince who became a priest, was successful in guiding the nobles away from their corruption of the tea ceremony. Murata Shuko (1422–1502), the student of Ikkyu was very competent in re-introducing ‘The Tea ceremony’ into the Japanese society. Sen-no Rikkyu (1521–1591), a priest, set the rigid standards for the ceremony, which are intact even today
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and largely used. Rikkyu was successful in influencing the Shogun Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who became Japan’s greatest patron of the art of tea. A brilliant general, strategist, poet, artist and a unique leader facilitated the final and complete integration of tea into the pattern of Japanese life. There was complete acceptance to view tea as the ultimate gift, and warlords paused for tea before battles [3].
5.2.3 Europe While tea was at this high level of development in both Japan and China, information concerning this unknown beverage began to filter back to Europe. Earlier, caravan leaders had mentioned it but were unclear as to its service, format or appearance. One reference suggests that the leaves be boiled, salted, buttered and eaten. The first European to personally encounter tea and write about it was the Portuguese Jesuit Father Jasper de Cruz in 1560. Portugal, with her technologically advanced navy, had been successful in gaining the first right of trade with China. It was on the first commercial mission that Father de Cruz had tasted tea four years before. The Portuguese developed a trade route by which they shipped their tea to Lisbon, and then Dutch ships transported it to France, Holland, and the Baltic countries. At that time Holland was politically affiliated with Portugal. When this alliance was altered in 1602, Holland with her excellent navy, entered into full Pacific trade in her own right. When tea finally arrived in Europe, Elizabeth I had more years to live and Rembrandt was only six years old. Because of the success of the Dutch navy in the Pacific, tea became very fashionable in the Dutch capital – The Hague. This was due in part to the high cost of the tea (over $100 per pound) which immediately made it the domain of the wealthy. Slowly, as the amount of tea imported increased, the price fell as the volume of sale expanded. Initially available to the public in apothecaries along with such rare and new spices as ginger and sugar, it was available in common food shops throughout Holland by 1675. As the consumption of tea increased dramatically in the Dutch society, doctors and university authorities argued on the negative and/or positive benefits of tea known as “Tea Heretics”. The public largely ignored the scholarly debate and continued to enjoy their new beverage, though the controversy roughly lasted from 1635 to 1657. Throughout this period France and Holland led Europe in the use of tea. As the craze for oriental things swept Europe, tea became a part of the way of life. The social critic Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, the Marquise de Sevigne, makes the first mention in 1680 of adding milk to tea. During the same period, Dutch inns provided the first restaurant service of tea. Tavern owners would furnish guests with a portable tea set complete with a heating unit. The independent Dutchman would then prepare tea for himself and his friends outside in the tavern’s garden. Tea remained popular in France
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for only about fifty years, being replaced by a stronger preference for wine, chocolate and exotic coffees [3].
5.2.4 England Great Britain was the last of the three great sea-faring nations to break into the Chinese and East Indian trade routes. This was in part due to the unsteady ascension to the throne of the Stuarts and the Cromwell Ian civil war. The first samples of tea reached England between 1652 and 1654. Tea quickly proved popular enough to replace ‘Ale’ as the national drink of England whereas in Holland, it was the nobility that provided the necessary stamp of approval and so insured its acceptance. King Charles II married the Portuguese Infanta Catherine de Braganza during exile in 1662. Charles himself had grown up in the Dutch capital. As a result, both he and his Portuguese bride were confirmed tea drinkers. When the monarchy was re-established, the two rulers brought this foreign tea tradition to England with them. As early as 1600, Elizabeth I had founded the John Company for the purpose of promoting Asian trade. When Catherine de Braganza married Charles, she brought as part of her dowry the territories of Tangier and Bombay. Suddenly, the John Company had a base of operations. The John Company was granted the unbelievably wide monopoly of all the trade in east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of Cape Horn. Its powers were almost without limit and included among others the right to legally acquire territory and govern it; coin money, raise arms and build forts; form foreign alliances, declare war, conclude peace, pass laws; and try and punish lawbreakers. It was the single largest, most powerful, monopoly to ever exist in the world. In addition, its power was based on the import of tea. At the same time, the newer East India Company floundered against such competition. Appealing to Parliament for relief, the decision was made to merge the John Company and the East India Company (1773). Their re-drafted charts gave the new East India Company a complete and a total trade monopoly on all commerce in China and India. As a result, the price of tea was kept artificially high, leading to later global difficulties for the British crown. Tea mania swept across England as it had earlier spread throughout France and Holland. Tea imports rose from 40,000 pounds in 1699 to an annual average of 240,000 pounds by 1708 [3]. Prior to the introduction of tea into Britain, the English had two main meals, i.e. breakfast and dinner. Breakfast was Ale, bread, and beef. Dinner was a long, massive meal at the end of the day. It was no wonder that Anna, the Duchess of Bedford (1788–861), experienced a ‘sinking feeling’ in the late afternoon. Adopting the European tea service format, she invited friends to join her for an additional afternoon meal at five o’clock in her rooms at Belvoir Castle. The menu is centred on small cakes, bread and butter sandwiches,
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assorted sweets, and of course tea. This summer practice proved so popular that the Duchess continued it when she returned to London, sending cards to her friends asking them to join her for ‘Tea and walking in the fields’. London at that time still contained large open meadows within the city. A common pattern of service soon merged. The first pot of tea was made in the kitchen and carried to the lady of the house who waited with her invited guests, surrounded by fine porcelain from China. The hostess warmed the first pot from a second pot (usually silver) that was kept heated over a small flame. Food and tea was then passed among the guests with the main purpose of the visit being conversation [3]. Tea cuisine expanded quickly into a range of products such as wafer thin crustless sandwiches, toasted breads with jams, and regional British pastries such as scones (Scottish) and crumpets (English). At this time two distinct forms of tea services evolved, namely as high and low. ‘Low tea’ (served in the low part of the afternoon) was served in aristocratic homes of the wealthy and featured gourmet titbits rather than solid meals. The emphasis was on the presentation and conversation. ‘High tea’ or ‘Meat tea’ was the main or ‘High’ meal of the day. It was the major meal of the middle and the lower classes and consisted of mostly full dinner items such as roast beef, mashed potatoes, peas, and of course, tea [3]. Tea was the major beverage served in coffee houses, but they were so because coffee arrived in England some years before tea. These were called ‘penny universities’ exclusively for men because for a penny any man could obtain a pot of tea, a copy of the newspaper, and engage in conversation with the sharpest wits of the day. The various houses specialized in selected areas of interest—some serving attorneys, some authors and others the military. They were the forerunners of the ‘English Gentlemen’s Private Club’. One such beverage house was owned by Edward Lloyd and was favoured by ship owners, merchants, and marine insurers. That simple shop was the origin of the Lloyd’s, the worldwide insurance firm. It attempted to close the coffee houses which were made throughout the eighteenth century because of the free speeches encouraged, but such measures proved so unpopular and were always quickly revoked. Experiencing the Dutch tavern garden teas, the English developed the idea of tea gardens. Here ladies and gentlemen took their tea outdoors surrounded by entertainment such as orchestras, hidden arbours, flowered walks, bowling greens, concerts, gambling or fireworks at night. It was at such a tea garden that Lord Nelson, who defeated Napoleon by sea, met the great love of his life, Emma, known as Lady Hamilton later. Women were permitted to enter a mixed, public gathering for the first time without social criticism. British society (public) mixed here freely for the first time at these gardens, cutting across lines of class and birth [3].
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Tipping as a response to proper service developed in the tea gardens of England. Small locked wooden boxes were placed on the tables throughout the garden. Inscribed on each were the letters T.I.P.S, which stood for the sentence ‘To Insure Prompt Service’. If a guest wished the waiter to hurry (and so insure the tea arrived hot from the often-distant kitchen) he dropped a coin into the box on being seated ‘To Insure Prompt Service’. Hence, the custom of tipping servers was created.
5.2.5 Russia Imperial Russia was attempting to engage China and Japan in trade at the same time as the East Indian Company. The Russian interest in tea began as early as 1618 when the Chinese embassy in Moscow presented several chests of tea to the Czar Alexis. By 1689, the Trade Treaty of Newchinsk established a common border between Russia and China, allowing caravans to cross back and forth freely. Still, the journey was not easy. The trip was 11,000 miles long and took over sixteen months to complete. The average caravan consisted of 200– 300 camels. As a result of such factors, the cost of tea was initially prohibitive and available only to the wealthy. By the time Catherine the Great died (1796), the price had dropped to some extent, and tea was spreading throughout the Russian society. Tea was ideally suited to the Russian life – hearty, warm, and sustaining. The Samovar, adopted from the Tibetan hot pot, is a combination of bubbling hot water heater and teapot. Placed in the centre of a Russian home, it could run all day and serve up to forty cups of tea at a time. Again showing the Asian influence in the Russian culture, guests sipped their tea from glasses in silver holders, very similar to the Turkish coffee cups. The Russian have always favoured strong tea which is highly sweetened with sugar, honey, or jam. With the completion of the TransSiberian railroad in 1900, the overland caravans were abandoned. Although the revolution intervened in the flow of the Russian society, tea remained a staple throughout. Tea (along with vodka) is the national drink of the Russians today [3].
5.2.6 America By 1650, the Dutch were actively involved in trade throughout the Western world. Peter Stuyvesant brought the first tea to America and to the colonists in the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam (later re-named New York by the English). Settlers here were confirmed tea drinkers. In addition, on acquiring the colony, the English found that the small settlement consumed more tea at that time than all of England put together [3].
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It was not until 1670 that English colonists in Boston became aware of tea, and it was not publicly available for sale until twenty years later. Tea Gardens were first opened in the New York City, already aware of tea as a former Dutch colony. The new gardens were centred on the natural springs, which the city fathers now equipped with pumps to facilitate the tea craze. The most famous of these were the tea springs at Roosevelt and Chatham (later Park Row Street). By 1720 tea was a generally accepted as a staple of trade between the colony and the mother country. It was especially a favourite of colonial women, a factor England was to base a major political decision on later. Tea trade was centred in Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, future centres of American rebellion. As tea was heavily taxed, even at this early date, contraband tea was smuggled into the colonies by the independent minded American merchants from ports far away, and adopted herbal teas from the Indians. The directors of the ‘then’ John Company (to merge with the East India Company later) fumed as they saw their profits diminish and so they pressured the Parliament to take action [3].
Tea and the American Revolution England had recently completed the French and the Indian war fought, from England’s point of view, to free the colony from French influence and stabilize trade. It was the feeling of Parliament that as a result, it was not unreasonable that the colonists shoulder the majority of the cost. After all the war had been fought for their benefit, Charles Townshend presented the first tax measures, which today are known by his name. They imposed a higher tax on newspapers (which they considered far too outspoken in America), tavern licenses (too much free speech there), legal documents, marriage licenses, and docking papers. The colonists rebelled against taxes imposed upon them without their consent and which were so repressive. New and heavier taxes were levelled by the Parliament for such rebellion. Among these was the tea tax in June 1767 that was to become the watershed of America’s desire for freedom. Townshend died three months later due to fever and he never knew that his tax measures helped create a free nation. The colonists rebelled and openly purchased imported tea, largely Dutch in origin. The John Company, already in deep financial trouble saw its profits fall even further. By 1773, the John Company merged with the East India Company for structural stability and pleaded with the Crown for assistance. The new Lord of the Treasury, Lord North, as a response to this pressure, granted to the new Company permission to sell directly to the colonists, bypassing the colonial merchants and pocketing the difference. In plotting this strategy, England was counting on the well-known passion among American women for tea to force consumption and it was a major miscalculation. Throughout
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the colonies, women pledged publicly at meeting and in newspapers not to drink English sold tea until their free rights, and those of their merchant husbands, were restored [3].
The Boston Tea Party By December 16, events had deteriorated enough that the men of Boston, dressed as Indians (remember the original justification for taxation had been the expense of the French and Indian war) threw hundreds of pounds of tea into the harbour. Such leading citizens as Samuel Adams and John Hancock took part. England had had enough. In retaliation, the port of Boston was closed and the city occupied by royal troops. The colonial leaders met and revolution declared. The trade continued in the Orient, though concerned over developments in America, English tea interests still centred on the product’s source—the Orient. There the trading of tea had become a way of life, developing its own language known as Pidgin English. Created solely to facilitate commerce, the language was composed of English, Portuguese, and Indian words all pronounced in Chinese. Indeed, the word pidgin is a corrupted form of the Chinese word for ‘does business’. So dominant was the tea culture within the English speaking cultures that many of these words came to hold a permanent place in our language. Mandarin (from the Portuguese ‘mandar’ meaning ‘to order’) – the court official empowered by the emperor to trade tea. Cash (from the Portuguese ‘caixa’ meaning ‘case or money box’) – the currency of tea transactions; Caddy (from the Chinese word ‘one pound weight’) – the standard tea trade container; Chow (from the Indian word ‘food cargo’) – slang for food.
The Opium Wars Not only was language a problem, but also was the currency. Vast sums of money were spent on tea. Transportation of large amounts of currency out of England would have been impossible to transport safely half way around the world and the country would have collapsed financially. With plantations in newly occupied India, the John Company saw a solution. In India, they could grow the inexpensive crop of opium and use it as a means of exchange. Because of its addictive nature, the demand for the drug would be long, insuring an unending market. Chinese emperors tried to maintain the forced distance between the Chinese people and the devils. However, disorder in the Chinese culture and foreign military might have prevented it. The Opium Wars broke out with the English ready to go to war for free trade (their right to sell opium). By 1842 England had gained enough military advantages to enable her to sell opium in China undisturbed until 1908 [3].
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America began direct trade with China soon after the revolution was over in 1789. America’s newer, faster, clipper ships out-sailed the slower, heavier English tea wagons that had dominated the trade until then. This forced the English navy to update their fleet, a fact America would have to address in the War of 1812. The new American ships established sailing records that still stand for speed and distance. John Jacob Astor began his tea trading in 1800. He required a minimum profit of 50% on each venture and often made 100%. Stephen Girard of Philadelphia was known as the gentle tea merchant. His critical loans to the young and weak American government enabled the nation to re-arm for the war of 1812. The orphanage founded by him still perpetuates his good name. Thomas Perkins was from one of Boston’s oldest sailing families. The trust of the Chinese in him as a gentleman of his word enabled him to conduct enormous transactions half way around the world without a single written contract. His word and his handshake was enough – so great was his honour in the eyes of the Chinese. It is to their everlasting credit that none of these men ever paid for tea with opium. America was able to break the English tea monopoly because its ships were faster and it paid in gold. By the mid-1800 the world was involved in a global clipper race as nations competed with each other to claim the fastest ships. England and America were the leading rivals. Each year the tall ships would race from China to the tea exchange in London to bring in the first tea for auction. Though beginning half way around the world, the mastery of the crews was such that the great ships often raced up the Thames separated by only by minutes. However, by 1871 the newer steamships began to replace these great ships [3].
5.2.7 Global tea plantations The Scottish botanist Robert Fortune, who spoke fluent Chinese, was able to sneak into mainland China the first year after the opium war. He obtained some of the closely guarded tea seeds and made notes on tea cultivation. With the support from the Crown, various experiments in growing tea in India were attempted. Many of these failed due to bad soil selection and incorrect planting techniques. However, through each failure, the technology was perfected. Finally, after years of trial and error, fortunes made and lost the English tea plantations in India and other parts of Asia flourished. The great English tea marketing companies were founded and production mechanized as the world industrialized in the late 1880s.
5.2.8 Iced tea and teabags America stabilized her government, strengthened her economy, and expanded her borders and interests. By 1904, the United States was ready for the world
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to see her development at the St. Louis world’s fair. Trade exhibitors from around the world brought their products to America’s first world’s fair. One such merchant Richard Blechynden, a tea plantation owner, had planned to give away free samples of hot tea to fair visitors. However, when a heat wave hit no one was interested. To save his investment of time and travel, he dumped a load of ice into the brewed tea and served the first iced tea. It was the hit of the fair. Four years later, Thomas Sullivan of New York developed the concept of bagged tea. As a tea merchant, he carefully wrapped each sample delivered to restaurants for their consideration. He recognized a natural marketing opportunity when he realized the restaurants were brewing the samples in the bags to avoid the mess of tea leaves in the kitchens.
5.2.9 Tea rooms, tea courts and tea dances Beginning in the late 1880s in both America and England, fine hotels began to offer tea service in tea rooms and tea courts. In the late afternoon, Victorian ladies (and their gentlemen friends) could meet for tea and conversation. Many of these tea services became the hallmark of the elegance of the hotel, such as the tea services at the Ritz (Boston) and the Plaza (New York). By 1910, hotels began to host afternoon tea dances. These swept the United States and England [3].
5.2.10 Vari (Tea) – English breakfast The prototype of this most popular of all teas was developed over a hundred years ago by the Scottish tea master Drysdale in Edinburgh. It was marketed simply as breakfast tea. It became popular in England, as Queen Victoria created the craze for Scottish (the summer home of Victoria) things. Teashops in London, however, changed the name and marketed it as English breakfast tea. It is a blend of fine black teas, often including some Keemun tea. Many tea authorities suggest that the Keemun tea blended with milk creates a bouquet that reminds people of toast hot from the oven and maybe the original source for the name. It should be offered with milk or lemon. (One never serves lemon to a guest if they request milk as it would curdle the milk.) It may also be used to brew iced tea.
5.2.11 Irish breakfast The Irish have always been great tea drinkers, and they drink their tea brewed very strong. In fact, there is a common tea saying among the Irish is that “a proper cup of tea should be strong enough for a mouse to trot on”. Along the same line, the Irish believed there were only three types of tea fit to drink. The first and best of quality was in China. The second best was sent directly
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to Ireland. The third and lowest in quality was sent to the English. Irish tea is usually drunk only in the morning because of its robust flavour, except for the Irish who drink it all day. Usually it is blended with an Assam tea base. Due to its taste, it is served with lots of sugar and milk.
5.2.12 Tea – Commercial varieties Caravan, this excellent tea was created in imperial Russia from the teas brought overland by camel from Asia. Because the trade route was dangerous and supplies unsteady, Russian tea merchants blended the varying incoming tea cargoes, selling a blend rather than a single tea form. It was usually a combination of black teas from China and India. Like the Irish, the Russian favoured this tea all day long. Earl Grey (1764–1845), though he was prime minister of England under William IV, is better remembered for the tea named after him. Tea legends say a Chinese mandarin gave the blend to him seeking to influence trade relations. A smoky tea with a hint of sweetness to it and served plain is the second most popular tea in the world today. It is generally a blend of black teas and bergamot oil. Black teas and Oolong Darjeeling refers to the tea grown in the mountain area of India. The mountain altitude and gentle misty rains of the region produce a unique full-bodied but a light flavoured, with a subtly lingering, aroma reminiscent of muscatel and highest grade. Reserved for afternoon use, it is traditionally offered to guests with lemon and without milk. Oolong, the elegant tea is sometimes known as the champagne of teas. Originally grown in the Fukien province of China, it was first imported to England in 1869 by John Dodd. Today, the highest grade Oolongs (Formosa Oolongs) are grown in Taiwan. A cross between green and black teas, it is fermented to achieve a delicious fruity taste. It is perfect for afternoon use with cucumber sandwiches and madeleine. Green tea makes up only ten percent of the world’s produced tea. The Japanese tea service (in which green tea is used) is an art. The serving of a full Japanese tea service would be beyond the ability of most properties and as a result, should not be attempted. Green tea is generally not a part of the afternoon tea tradition as appropriate to the hotel use. Keemun China Teas is the most famous of China’s black teas. Because of its subtle and complex nature, it is considered the burgundy of teas. It is a mellow tea that will stand alone as well as support sugar and /or milk, because of its wine-like quality [3] Today the bush tea is known as Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze of which there are two varieties: var. sinensis and var. assamica. In 1690, Kaempfer, a German medical doctor cum botanist who came to Japan from Holland and
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observed the habit of tea drinking among the people, named the bush Thea. In 1753, the famed botanist Linne gave the name of Camellia sinensis, changing its original naming of Thea sinensis. Since, the nomenclature of tea bush has been confused between these two names, in 1958 a British botanist Sealy classified all plants in Genus Camellia and tea was given the name it has today [6]. Tea is cultivated successfully in many different countries of the world and consumed in almost every part of the world, but the association of tea with China remains strong. Today the birthplace of tea is assumed to be southwestern China, centred in Yunnan district [7]. There are two approaches in tracing the history of tea usage, viz., anthropological or archival. Chinese legend claimed that the tea consumption goes back as far as 2737 BC. The first credible documentary reference on tea was made in 59 BC in a servant’s contract which stated that his duties included the making of tea and going to the city to buy it. Lu Yu, who described the botany, cultivation and processing of tea, as well as the utensils and proper way of drinking tea, etc., in his writings in detail, Tea classics or tea sutra has been the bible for people involved with tea ever since [8].
5.3 Tea production 5.3.1 World scenario of production and trade
Figure 5.1 Major tea producing countries [9]
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China and India are the two largest producers as well as consumers of tea. In global production, China’s contribution is 31% while that of India is 25% (Figure 5.1). The contribution of both in global tea business is 18% and 11% respectively. Other countries like Kenya, Sri Lanka, Vietnam and Indonesia contribute 25% of the world tea and control 50% of the world trade [9]. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reports that the market for tea industry is expected to grow at 3% per annum. With the removal of quantitative restrictions (QRs) following World Trade Organization (WTO) regulations coming into force, the consumption is going to increase in developing countries. During the last four decades, Kenya has increased tea production by 25 times. Chinese tea production has witnessed a cumulative growth rate of 4.6%. The production growth rates have been slower in India and Sri Lanka at 2.3% and 0.9% respectively, during the same period. The area under cultivation has gone up by 33% in India and ten times in Kenya during the last 40 years [10].
5.3.2 Indian scenario Indian is one of the largest producer and consumer of tea in the world. In India, tea is grown in 15 states. Among these states, the major share is by Assam (50%), followed by West Bengal (24%), Tamil Nadu (17%) and Kerala (7%), others account for remaining 2%. India accounts for 20% of the total area under tea cultivation in the world, 25% of global tea production, 22% of world tea consumption and 11% of total tea exports [9]. India also leads in global research and development in tea industry. India is the largest manufacturer and exporter of tea machinery. The annual per capita consumption in India is low at 800 g compared to other countries like Pakistan (950 g), Sri Lanka (1.2 kg), UK (2.3 kg) and Bangladesh (1.2 kg). The annual tea production has been above 900 million kg for the last four years (Table 5.1). The tea production grew at an average annual rate of 2.3% during last 4 decades and 1.4% in the last decade. But over last few years the consumption growth has slowed down, this coupled with falling exports (Table 5.2) has led to surplus supply, and so the prices are declining in the market. It has reflected in the statistics of auction centres [10]. Table 5.1 Production of tea in India from 2001 to 2008 (in million kg) [11]
State
Assam West Bengal Tamil Nadu
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
132
143
167
163
159
164
161
171
454 187
433 188
435 201
436 215
487 218
502 237
512 236
487 233
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Kerala India*
65 854
58 838
58 878
62 893
63 946
59 982
560 987
70 981
*Includes other states also Table 5.2 Tea exports from India during 2006–2008 [12]
Year Quantity (in million kg) Value (in crores) Unit price (Rs/kg)
2006 218.73
2007 178.75
2008 203.12
2006.53 91.73
1810.11 101.26
2392.91 117.81
5.4 Botanical and taxonomical characteristics Tea as a commercial crop includes several species within the Genus Camellia in the family Theaceae. The Genus Camellia includes 82
species, which are mostly indigenous to the highlands of South-East Asia [6]. The systematic position of the tea plant is given in Table 5.3. Table 5.3 Systematic taxonomical position of tea
Division
Angiospermae
Class
Dicotyledones
Order
Parietales
Family
Theaceae
Genus
Camellia
Species
sinensis
Tea is commonly accepted as Camellia sinensis (L) O. Kuntze, irrespective of any variation in the characteristics. This is normally a diploid (2n=30 chromosomes) but polyploids occur. Taxonomically, four basic varieties of the tea plant are recognized commercially – China type (Camellia sinensis var. sinensis), Assam type (Camellia sinensis var. assamica), Cambodia type (Camellia sinensis var. lasiocalyx), and the hybrid of China and Assam types [13]. Based on leaf pose and growth habitat, two intra specific forms of C. sinensis (L.) are China variety, Camellia sinensis var. sinensis (L.) and Assam variety, Camellia sinensis var. assamica (Kitamura). The characteristic features that separate these two varieties are presented in Table 5.4 [6, 14]. Table 5.4 Characteristics of two tea varieties
Variety
Sub-variety
Growth habitat
Leaf features
Leaf pose
Leaf angle
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China Camellia sinensis var. sinensis (L.)
Camellia sinensis var. sinensis f. paviflora (Miq) Sealy Camellia sinensis var. sinensis f. macrophylla Sieb (Kitamura)
Assam Camellia sinensis var. assamica (Kitamura)
_
Dwarf, slow growing, shrub like
Small, erect narrow, dark green
Erectophile
<50 degree
Tall, quick growing tree
Large, horizontal, broad, mostly non-serrated, light green
Planophile
>70 degree
5.4.1 General characteristics Tea plant is an evergreen perennial shrub most often reaching a height of 30 ft. The leaves are of small length 5.5–6.1 cm, by width 2.2–2.4 cm, alternate, evergreen, elliptical, acuminate, serrated margins, glabrous sheet with pubescent below surface and become dark green and leathery on maturity. The flower buds originate either singly or in clusters from the side buds, flowers are white with 5 to 7 leathery sepals and petals. Fruits are glabrous, brownish green in colour, and trilobate with 1–3 seeds.
5.5 Cultivation practices 5.5.1 Climatic requirements The temperature in the range of 18–30°C is optimal for shoot growth. The minimum air temperature for shoot growth appears to be 13–14°C. Soil temperature is also important and optimum growth occurs between 20°C and 25°C [15].
5.5.2 Soil type Tea is grown in a wide variety of soil types, ranging from alluvial soils, drained soils and peat in the soil derived from volcanic ash. Growth of tea is favoured by acidic conditions, a pH value of 5.0–5.6 being considered optimum. Tea will not grow in soils with a pH value as low as 4.0 but soils with a pH value
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only marginally above 5.6 are considered unsuitable. Soils with pH values above 6.5 are not amenable to treatment and cannot be used for tea cultivation [15].
5.5.3 Land preparation Land clearance is required for tea cultivation as per the rules of different countries. The accumulation of large quantities of decaying vegetation can lead to significant rise in pH values and cleared material should be removed from the site. Burning is not recommended, as ash will also raise the soil’s pH value. Soil should be mixed well and proper drainage should be provided [15].
5.5.4 Seed Tea propagation is done by sowing seeds directly into the field and also by vegetative propagated clones. The quality of seeds within a single batch can vary considerably and a simple grading by floatation is applied immediately before planting. Seeds that remain floating after 72 h are unsuitable for use. Seeds require cracking before use to permit water entry and ensure a high and even rate of germination. Nursery beds require good quality of top soil. Shade is necessary for young plants, the shade density being progressively reduced until the plant is exposed to full sunlight and fertilizer is generally applied as foliar spray. In the field, bushes should be planted as closely as possible, to give complete ground coverage without over-crowding. Optimum spacing is dictated by the branching patterns of clones. Tea plants are most commonly planted as hedges, plant with the hedges are usually planted 0.6–0.8 m apart, with a space of about 1.2 m between the hedges [15].
5.5.5 Hoeing Hoeing is an operation in which soil around young plants is frequently loosened to a depth of 3 inches for a distance of 12 inches around. The hoeing helps to cut down the weeds and also helps in better aeration [8].
5.5.6 Irrigation Irrigation is an absolute necessity in countries such as Zimbabwe, where annual rainfall may be less than 700 mm. Irrigation should be considered where regular dry seasons of three to six months may be expected, where potential soil water deficits 300 mm annually. Evaporative loss of water in a whole year from many tea areas exceeds 1270 mm, which is believed to be a minimum annual requirement of water by tea plant [16].
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5.5.7 Fertilizer requirements The requirements of major nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium for the tea plant are as follows, nitrogen at the rate of 200–300 kg, phosphorus ranges from 75 to 100 kg and potassium application ranges from 100 to150 kg per hectare [16].
5.5.8 Shade trees and windbreaks The role of shade trees and shelter in tea husbandry has been the subject of discussion for many years. The finding that yields were often higher without shade led to the removal of shade trees. Shade trees were, however, valuable in some low altitude tree growing areas, particularly Assam, due to the maintenance of the air temperature with in the optimum range. Leaf fall from shade trees can also improve the nutrient status and physical conditions of soil. Trees grown under shade will be blacker due to more chlorophyll but has lower polyphenol content, more of amino acids and caffeine content. The major types of tree grown for shade in tea plantations include: Albizzia stipulate, A. procera; Dalbergia assamica and Derris Robusta in north India, and Eryrhrina lithosperma, Dalbergia sisso, Albizzia lebbeck and Grevillea Robusta in south India. High winds have an adverse effect on tree through physical damage, reduction of leaf temperature and increased transpiration rate. Belts of shelter can transfer these effects. The shelter trees can reduce yield through competition for nutrients and water and through shading. Belts of shelter trees are usually justified only where very high wind is common. Apart from all these, mulching and top dressing are done at regular intervals.
5.5.9 Pest and diseases Major pests of tea includes tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis theavora), red spider mite, pink mite, green fly, thrips, aphides, crickets, tea mealy bugs, Leafy feeding caterpillar (Homona coffearia), etc. Major diseases of leaves, shoot and root are mentioned in Table 5.5. Table 5.5 Diseases of tea plant
Plant part Leaves
Disease
Blister blight Grey blight Brown blight Anthacnose Eye spot Brown spot
Causative organism
Exobasidium vexans Pestalotia theae Colletotrichum camilleae Colletotrichum thea-sinensis Pseudocercospora ocellata Calonectria spp.
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Bacterial blight Stem canker Armillaria rot Charcoal rot Red rot Brown root Violet root
Pseudomonas syringe pv. theae Phomopsis theae Armillaria mellea Ustulina deusta Poria hypolateritia Fomes noxius Sphaerostillbe repens
5.5.10 Harvesting The harvesting is done manually by employing labourers. This is expensive compared to mechanical harvesting. Irrespective whether manual and/ or mechanical plucking is used, it is usual to maintain a flat plucking table parallel to ground. Manual labourers are able to maintain the correct level by the use of a light pole, while wheeled harvesting equipment maintains a preset level. Maintaining a flat plucking table is, however, difficult where held mechanical sheers hand is used. It is important to stress that freshly harvested tea shoots are perishable. These can be bruised or broken easily, there by premature triggering the fermentation process and causing deterioration in quality. To avoid these problems, it is necessary to begin the manufacture process as quickly as possible after harvest. The most popular factor is coarseness of harvest (leaf number per shoot). The polyphenol and caffeine content is highest on dry weight basis in the youngest leaf of a given shoot. The content drops with each older leaf moving down the stem. It is very important that the harvested shoots are uniform. Without uniformity at the front end, it is very difficult to manage all the later steps. In north India the method of plucking involves two leaves and a bud (Figure 5.2). In south India however tea is plucked year round and the practice is to pluck two leaves and a bud, leaving the fully developed leaves on the bush exclusive of sheath leaf, which is called as Jannum or fish leaf. From the second flush until the end of July one fully matured leaf is left beside the fish leaf. From the first of August, close plucking is practiced. The interval between each pluck is 7–9 days. Plucking may be coarse or fine. Fine plucking involves plucking two leaves and a bud. Coarse plucking involves plucking 3 or 4 leaves [15].
5.5.11 Pruning Pruning is a necessary evil for tea plants. Shaping of new bushes is to develop new surface with new shoots and it is achieved by pruning and bending branches down and pegging into position, is commonly referred as bringing into bearing. After the bush is brought into bearing but before regular plucking has commenced, a procedure commonly known as tipping is applied. This is
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intended to level the plucking surface and to increase the number of plucking points. Pruning is required to remove all stems above the basic frame of the bush [16]. The frequency of pruning i.e., the pruning cycle, varies from 1 to 4 years. For economic reasons, it is desirable to prune during the dry seasons when yield is low. Usually, pruning is done at a height of 8 to 15 inches from ground level. A very light pruning is sometimes possible as an alternative to full maintenance pruning. Only the over crowded upper layer is removed and bushes are out of production for only a short period. On the other hand, light pruning cannot maintain a bush in a satisfactory condition indefinitely, so it is necessary to prune very heavily below the lowest normal prune. This is variously referred as collar pruning. Heavy pruning is done once in ten years. Pruning helps to get good growth in subsequent season [16].
Figure 5.2 Tea garden; two leaves and a bud
5.5.12 Adulterants Most common adulterants are the leaves of other plants. Commonly used leaves are beech (Fagus sylvatica), hawthorn (Crataegus oxycantha), sloe (Prunus spinosa), oak, poplar, maple and other trees. Another formerly wide spread adulteration was the addition of spent tea leaves. These spent teas were impregnated with catechins, caramel, campeachy wood, indigo, berlin blue, curcuma, humus, graphite etc. Adulteration can be detected by microscopic examinations and can often be discovered by chemical means, particularly by the estimation of hot water extract, tannin and total water-soluble ash [8].
5.1 Introduction Tea is continuing to expand in all of its forms – in grocery stores, convenience stores and on the favourite restaurant menu. Consumers are embracing Camellia sinensis for its health benefits as well as its delicious taste. In addition to increased availability of wide varieties of tea, improved brewing methods and equipments have changed the way people perceive tea [1].
5.2 Origin and history Teas have been cultivated for thousands of years in Asia. Based on the differences in morphology between Camellia sinensis (var. assamica) and Camellia sinensis (var. sinensis), botanists have long asserted a dual botanical origin for tea. Camellia sinensis (var. assamica) is native to the area from Yunnan province in China to the northern region of Myanmar and the state of Assam in India. Camellia sinensis (var. sinensis) is native to eastern and south-eastern China [2]. However, recent research questions this. The same chromosome number (2n=30) for the two varieties, easy hybridization, and various types of intermediate hybrids and spontaneous polyploids all appear to demonstrate a single place of origin for Camellia sinensis – the area including the northern part of Myanmar, Yunnan and Sichuan provinces of China [2]. Story of tea began in ancient China over 5,000 years ago (some time around 2737 BC). According to legend, the Shen Nong, an early emperor was a skilled ruler, creative scientist, and patron of the arts. His far-sighted edicts required among other things, that all drinking water be boiled as a hygienic precaution. One summer day while visiting a distant region of his realm, he and the court stopped to rest. In accordance to his ruling, the servants began to boil water for the court to drink. Dried leaves from the nearby bush fell into the boiling water, and a brown liquid was infused into the water [3]. The ever inquisitive
65
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and curious monarch took a sip of the brew and was pleasantly surprised by its flavour and its restorative properties. A variant of the legend tells that the emperor tested the medical properties of various herbs on him. Some were poisonous, but found tea to work as an antidote. Shen Nong is also mentioned in Lu Yu’s ‘Cha Jing’, a famous early work on the subject [4]. As a scientist, the emperor was interested in the new liquid, drank some and found it very refreshing. Therefore, according to the legend, tea was created. (This myth maintains such a practical narrative, that many mythologists believe it may relate closely to the actual events now lost in ancient history). According to a Tang dynasty legend which spread along with Buddhism, Bodhidharma and the founder of Zen school of Buddhism is based on a meditation known as “Chan”. After meditating in front of a wall for nine years, he accidentally fell asleep. He woke up in such disgust at his weakness that he cut off his eyelids and they fell to the ground and took root, growing into tea bushes. Sometimes, the second story is retold with Gautama Buddha in place of Bodhidharma. In another variant of the first mentioned myth, Gautama Buddha discovered tea when some leaves had fallen into boiling water. Whether or not these legends have any basis, tea has played a significant role in the Asian culture for centuries as a staple beverage, a curative, and as a symbol of status. It is not surprising that its discovery is ascribed to the religious or royal origins. Whether tea originated in India or China is still a matter of debate. One thing that is certain is that tea drinking was first initiated in China for medicinal purposes and later gained popularity as a nourishing beverage [4]. Tea cultivation flourished in India under the British and today India is the largest producer of tea in the world. After Europe adopted tea as its main hot beverage, China imposed restrictions on its export to the outside world The British established tea cultivation in the north-eastern parts of India. Organized cultivation spread to South India during the First World War years and later to Sri Lanka. Many features of tea cultivation and processing were standardized during this period and mechanization was undertaken to handle the ever-increasing crop to meet the global supplies. Green tea, which was normally made in China, was improved upon and Black tea manufacturing was set up which enhanced the shelf-life of tea and allowed it to be transported for longer duration to reach far flung areas. Darjeeling tea is grown in the foothills of the Himalayas and is a prized Indian black tea. This tea was marketed with vigorous campaigning by the royal family and it is still accepted among the best teas of the world [5]. Assam teas are known for their malty liquors and are promoted as the milk teas, and a
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newer process called CTC (Crush, tear and curl) was established to handle the huge bulk of the crop harvested during the rainy season. Indian teas came to be known world-wide as milk teas in many markets dominating over the lighter green teas coming out of China till then. The East India Company also had interests along the routes to India from Great Britain. The company cultivated the production of tea in India. Its products were the basis of the Boston Tea Party in Colonial America [5]. The Indian Tea Board took various programmes to protect the interests of the Indian tea industry. Genetic Inheritance (GI) registration process for establishing Darjeeling CTM (certification trade mark) was also initiated. In the 1600s, tea became popular throughout Europe and the American colonies. Since colonial days, tea has played a role in the American culture and customs. Today American school children learn about the famous Boston tea party protesting the British tea tax – one of the acts leading to the revolutionary war. During the 20th century, two major American contributions to the tea industry occurred. In 1904, iced tea was created at the World’s Fair in St. Louis, and in 1908, Thomas Sullivan of New York developed the concept of tea in a bag. Tea breaks down into three basic types: Black, Green, and Oolong. In U.S.A., over 90 percent of the tea consumed is black tea which has been fully oxidized or fermented and yields a hearty flavoured amber brew. Some of the popular black teas include English breakfast (good breakfast choice since its hearty flavour mixes well with milk), Darjeeling (a blend of Himalayan teas with a flowery bouquet suited for lunch) and Orange Pekoe (a blend of Ceylon teas that is the most widely used of the tea blends). Green tea skips the oxidizing step. It has a more delicate taste and is light green/golden in colour. Green tea, a staple in the Orient, is gaining popularity in the USA, due to recent scientific studies linking its consumption with reduced cancer risk. Oolong tea, popular in China, is partly oxidised and is a cross between black and green tea in colour and taste. While flavoured teas evolve from these three basic teas, herbal teas contain no true tea leaves. Herbal and medicinal teas are created from the flowers, berries, peels, seeds, leaves, and the roots of many different plants [3].
5.2.1 China Tea consumption spread throughout the Chinese culture, reaching into every aspect of the society. In 800 A.D., Lu Yu wrote the first definitive book on tea, the Cha Ching. This amazing man was orphaned as a child and raised by scholarly Buddhist monks in one of China’s finest monasteries. However, as a young man he rebelled against the discipline of priestly training which had made him a skilled observer. His fame as a performer increased with each year but he felt his life lacked meaning. Finally, in mid-life, he retired for 5
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years into seclusion. Drawing from his vast memory of observed events and places, he codified the various methods of tea cultivation and preparation in ancient China. The vast definitive nature of his work projected him into near sainthood within his own lifetime. Patronized by the emperor himself, his work clearly showed the Zen Buddhist philosophy to which he was exposed as a child. It was this form of tea service that Zen Buddhist missionaries would later introduce to imperial Japan [3].
5.2.2 Japan The returning Buddhist priest viz., Yeisei, who had seen the value of tea in China in enhancing religious meditation, brought the first tea seeds to Japan, and as a result he is known as the “Father of Tea” in Japan. Because of this early association, tea in Japan has always been associated with Zen Buddhism. Tea received almost instant imperial sponsorship and spread rapidly from the royal court and monasteries to the other sections of the Japanese society. Japanese tea ceremony – Tea was elevated to an art form resulting in the creation of the Japanese Tea Ceremony (“Cha-no-yu” or “the hot water for tea”). The best description of this – the Irish-Greek journalist-historian who probably wrote the complex art form ‘Lafcadio Hearn’, one of the few foreigners ever to be granted Japanese citizenship during this era. He wrote from personal observation, “The Tea ceremony requires years of training and practice to graduate in the art, yet the whole of this art, to its detail, signifies no more than the making and serving of a cup of tea. The supremely important matter is that the act be performed in the most perfect, polite, graceful and charming manner possible”. Such purity of a form of expression prompted the creation of supportive arts and services. A special form of architecture (chaseki) developed for “tea houses”, based on the duplication of the simplicity of a forest cottage. The cultural/artistic hostesses of Japan, the Geishi, began to specialize in the presentation of the tea ceremony. As more and more people became involved in the excitement surrounding the tea, the purity of the original Zen concept was lost. The tea ceremony became corrupted, boisterous, and highly embellished. “Tea Tournaments” were held among the wealthy where nobles competed among each other for rich prizes in naming various tea blends. Rewarding winners with gifts of silk, armour and jewellery was totally alien to the original Zen attitude of the ceremony. Three great Zen priests restored tea to its original place in Japanese society. Ikkyu (1394–1481), a prince who became a priest, was successful in guiding the nobles away from their corruption of the tea ceremony. Murata Shuko (1422–1502), the student of Ikkyu was very competent in re-introducing ‘The Tea ceremony’ into the Japanese society. Sen-no Rikkyu (1521–1591), a priest, set the rigid standards for the ceremony, which are intact even today
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and largely used. Rikkyu was successful in influencing the Shogun Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who became Japan’s greatest patron of the art of tea. A brilliant general, strategist, poet, artist and a unique leader facilitated the final and complete integration of tea into the pattern of Japanese life. There was complete acceptance to view tea as the ultimate gift, and warlords paused for tea before battles [3].
5.2.3 Europe While tea was at this high level of development in both Japan and China, information concerning this unknown beverage began to filter back to Europe. Earlier, caravan leaders had mentioned it but were unclear as to its service, format or appearance. One reference suggests that the leaves be boiled, salted, buttered and eaten. The first European to personally encounter tea and write about it was the Portuguese Jesuit Father Jasper de Cruz in 1560. Portugal, with her technologically advanced navy, had been successful in gaining the first right of trade with China. It was on the first commercial mission that Father de Cruz had tasted tea four years before. The Portuguese developed a trade route by which they shipped their tea to Lisbon, and then Dutch ships transported it to France, Holland, and the Baltic countries. At that time Holland was politically affiliated with Portugal. When this alliance was altered in 1602, Holland with her excellent navy, entered into full Pacific trade in her own right. When tea finally arrived in Europe, Elizabeth I had more years to live and Rembrandt was only six years old. Because of the success of the Dutch navy in the Pacific, tea became very fashionable in the Dutch capital – The Hague. This was due in part to the high cost of the tea (over $100 per pound) which immediately made it the domain of the wealthy. Slowly, as the amount of tea imported increased, the price fell as the volume of sale expanded. Initially available to the public in apothecaries along with such rare and new spices as ginger and sugar, it was available in common food shops throughout Holland by 1675. As the consumption of tea increased dramatically in the Dutch society, doctors and university authorities argued on the negative and/or positive benefits of tea known as “Tea Heretics”. The public largely ignored the scholarly debate and continued to enjoy their new beverage, though the controversy roughly lasted from 1635 to 1657. Throughout this period France and Holland led Europe in the use of tea. As the craze for oriental things swept Europe, tea became a part of the way of life. The social critic Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, the Marquise de Sevigne, makes the first mention in 1680 of adding milk to tea. During the same period, Dutch inns provided the first restaurant service of tea. Tavern owners would furnish guests with a portable tea set complete with a heating unit. The independent Dutchman would then prepare tea for himself and his friends outside in the tavern’s garden. Tea remained popular in France
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for only about fifty years, being replaced by a stronger preference for wine, chocolate and exotic coffees [3].
5.2.4 England Great Britain was the last of the three great sea-faring nations to break into the Chinese and East Indian trade routes. This was in part due to the unsteady ascension to the throne of the Stuarts and the Cromwell Ian civil war. The first samples of tea reached England between 1652 and 1654. Tea quickly proved popular enough to replace ‘Ale’ as the national drink of England whereas in Holland, it was the nobility that provided the necessary stamp of approval and so insured its acceptance. King Charles II married the Portuguese Infanta Catherine de Braganza during exile in 1662. Charles himself had grown up in the Dutch capital. As a result, both he and his Portuguese bride were confirmed tea drinkers. When the monarchy was re-established, the two rulers brought this foreign tea tradition to England with them. As early as 1600, Elizabeth I had founded the John Company for the purpose of promoting Asian trade. When Catherine de Braganza married Charles, she brought as part of her dowry the territories of Tangier and Bombay. Suddenly, the John Company had a base of operations. The John Company was granted the unbelievably wide monopoly of all the trade in east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of Cape Horn. Its powers were almost without limit and included among others the right to legally acquire territory and govern it; coin money, raise arms and build forts; form foreign alliances, declare war, conclude peace, pass laws; and try and punish lawbreakers. It was the single largest, most powerful, monopoly to ever exist in the world. In addition, its power was based on the import of tea. At the same time, the newer East India Company floundered against such competition. Appealing to Parliament for relief, the decision was made to merge the John Company and the East India Company (1773). Their re-drafted charts gave the new East India Company a complete and a total trade monopoly on all commerce in China and India. As a result, the price of tea was kept artificially high, leading to later global difficulties for the British crown. Tea mania swept across England as it had earlier spread throughout France and Holland. Tea imports rose from 40,000 pounds in 1699 to an annual average of 240,000 pounds by 1708 [3]. Prior to the introduction of tea into Britain, the English had two main meals, i.e. breakfast and dinner. Breakfast was Ale, bread, and beef. Dinner was a long, massive meal at the end of the day. It was no wonder that Anna, the Duchess of Bedford (1788–861), experienced a ‘sinking feeling’ in the late afternoon. Adopting the European tea service format, she invited friends to join her for an additional afternoon meal at five o’clock in her rooms at Belvoir Castle. The menu is centred on small cakes, bread and butter sandwiches,
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assorted sweets, and of course tea. This summer practice proved so popular that the Duchess continued it when she returned to London, sending cards to her friends asking them to join her for ‘Tea and walking in the fields’. London at that time still contained large open meadows within the city. A common pattern of service soon merged. The first pot of tea was made in the kitchen and carried to the lady of the house who waited with her invited guests, surrounded by fine porcelain from China. The hostess warmed the first pot from a second pot (usually silver) that was kept heated over a small flame. Food and tea was then passed among the guests with the main purpose of the visit being conversation [3]. Tea cuisine expanded quickly into a range of products such as wafer thin crustless sandwiches, toasted breads with jams, and regional British pastries such as scones (Scottish) and crumpets (English). At this time two distinct forms of tea services evolved, namely as high and low. ‘Low tea’ (served in the low part of the afternoon) was served in aristocratic homes of the wealthy and featured gourmet titbits rather than solid meals. The emphasis was on the presentation and conversation. ‘High tea’ or ‘Meat tea’ was the main or ‘High’ meal of the day. It was the major meal of the middle and the lower classes and consisted of mostly full dinner items such as roast beef, mashed potatoes, peas, and of course, tea [3]. Tea was the major beverage served in coffee houses, but they were so because coffee arrived in England some years before tea. These were called ‘penny universities’ exclusively for men because for a penny any man could obtain a pot of tea, a copy of the newspaper, and engage in conversation with the sharpest wits of the day. The various houses specialized in selected areas of interest—some serving attorneys, some authors and others the military. They were the forerunners of the ‘English Gentlemen’s Private Club’. One such beverage house was owned by Edward Lloyd and was favoured by ship owners, merchants, and marine insurers. That simple shop was the origin of the Lloyd’s, the worldwide insurance firm. It attempted to close the coffee houses which were made throughout the eighteenth century because of the free speeches encouraged, but such measures proved so unpopular and were always quickly revoked. Experiencing the Dutch tavern garden teas, the English developed the idea of tea gardens. Here ladies and gentlemen took their tea outdoors surrounded by entertainment such as orchestras, hidden arbours, flowered walks, bowling greens, concerts, gambling or fireworks at night. It was at such a tea garden that Lord Nelson, who defeated Napoleon by sea, met the great love of his life, Emma, known as Lady Hamilton later. Women were permitted to enter a mixed, public gathering for the first time without social criticism. British society (public) mixed here freely for the first time at these gardens, cutting across lines of class and birth [3].
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Tipping as a response to proper service developed in the tea gardens of England. Small locked wooden boxes were placed on the tables throughout the garden. Inscribed on each were the letters T.I.P.S, which stood for the sentence ‘To Insure Prompt Service’. If a guest wished the waiter to hurry (and so insure the tea arrived hot from the often-distant kitchen) he dropped a coin into the box on being seated ‘To Insure Prompt Service’. Hence, the custom of tipping servers was created.
5.2.5 Russia Imperial Russia was attempting to engage China and Japan in trade at the same time as the East Indian Company. The Russian interest in tea began as early as 1618 when the Chinese embassy in Moscow presented several chests of tea to the Czar Alexis. By 1689, the Trade Treaty of Newchinsk established a common border between Russia and China, allowing caravans to cross back and forth freely. Still, the journey was not easy. The trip was 11,000 miles long and took over sixteen months to complete. The average caravan consisted of 200– 300 camels. As a result of such factors, the cost of tea was initially prohibitive and available only to the wealthy. By the time Catherine the Great died (1796), the price had dropped to some extent, and tea was spreading throughout the Russian society. Tea was ideally suited to the Russian life – hearty, warm, and sustaining. The Samovar, adopted from the Tibetan hot pot, is a combination of bubbling hot water heater and teapot. Placed in the centre of a Russian home, it could run all day and serve up to forty cups of tea at a time. Again showing the Asian influence in the Russian culture, guests sipped their tea from glasses in silver holders, very similar to the Turkish coffee cups. The Russian have always favoured strong tea which is highly sweetened with sugar, honey, or jam. With the completion of the TransSiberian railroad in 1900, the overland caravans were abandoned. Although the revolution intervened in the flow of the Russian society, tea remained a staple throughout. Tea (along with vodka) is the national drink of the Russians today [3].
5.2.6 America By 1650, the Dutch were actively involved in trade throughout the Western world. Peter Stuyvesant brought the first tea to America and to the colonists in the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam (later re-named New York by the English). Settlers here were confirmed tea drinkers. In addition, on acquiring the colony, the English found that the small settlement consumed more tea at that time than all of England put together [3].
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It was not until 1670 that English colonists in Boston became aware of tea, and it was not publicly available for sale until twenty years later. Tea Gardens were first opened in the New York City, already aware of tea as a former Dutch colony. The new gardens were centred on the natural springs, which the city fathers now equipped with pumps to facilitate the tea craze. The most famous of these were the tea springs at Roosevelt and Chatham (later Park Row Street). By 1720 tea was a generally accepted as a staple of trade between the colony and the mother country. It was especially a favourite of colonial women, a factor England was to base a major political decision on later. Tea trade was centred in Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, future centres of American rebellion. As tea was heavily taxed, even at this early date, contraband tea was smuggled into the colonies by the independent minded American merchants from ports far away, and adopted herbal teas from the Indians. The directors of the ‘then’ John Company (to merge with the East India Company later) fumed as they saw their profits diminish and so they pressured the Parliament to take action [3].
Tea and the American Revolution England had recently completed the French and the Indian war fought, from England’s point of view, to free the colony from French influence and stabilize trade. It was the feeling of Parliament that as a result, it was not unreasonable that the colonists shoulder the majority of the cost. After all the war had been fought for their benefit, Charles Townshend presented the first tax measures, which today are known by his name. They imposed a higher tax on newspapers (which they considered far too outspoken in America), tavern licenses (too much free speech there), legal documents, marriage licenses, and docking papers. The colonists rebelled against taxes imposed upon them without their consent and which were so repressive. New and heavier taxes were levelled by the Parliament for such rebellion. Among these was the tea tax in June 1767 that was to become the watershed of America’s desire for freedom. Townshend died three months later due to fever and he never knew that his tax measures helped create a free nation. The colonists rebelled and openly purchased imported tea, largely Dutch in origin. The John Company, already in deep financial trouble saw its profits fall even further. By 1773, the John Company merged with the East India Company for structural stability and pleaded with the Crown for assistance. The new Lord of the Treasury, Lord North, as a response to this pressure, granted to the new Company permission to sell directly to the colonists, bypassing the colonial merchants and pocketing the difference. In plotting this strategy, England was counting on the well-known passion among American women for tea to force consumption and it was a major miscalculation. Throughout
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the colonies, women pledged publicly at meeting and in newspapers not to drink English sold tea until their free rights, and those of their merchant husbands, were restored [3].
The Boston Tea Party By December 16, events had deteriorated enough that the men of Boston, dressed as Indians (remember the original justification for taxation had been the expense of the French and Indian war) threw hundreds of pounds of tea into the harbour. Such leading citizens as Samuel Adams and John Hancock took part. England had had enough. In retaliation, the port of Boston was closed and the city occupied by royal troops. The colonial leaders met and revolution declared. The trade continued in the Orient, though concerned over developments in America, English tea interests still centred on the product’s source—the Orient. There the trading of tea had become a way of life, developing its own language known as Pidgin English. Created solely to facilitate commerce, the language was composed of English, Portuguese, and Indian words all pronounced in Chinese. Indeed, the word pidgin is a corrupted form of the Chinese word for ‘does business’. So dominant was the tea culture within the English speaking cultures that many of these words came to hold a permanent place in our language. Mandarin (from the Portuguese ‘mandar’ meaning ‘to order’) – the court official empowered by the emperor to trade tea. Cash (from the Portuguese ‘caixa’ meaning ‘case or money box’) – the currency of tea transactions; Caddy (from the Chinese word ‘one pound weight’) – the standard tea trade container; Chow (from the Indian word ‘food cargo’) – slang for food.
The Opium Wars Not only was language a problem, but also was the currency. Vast sums of money were spent on tea. Transportation of large amounts of currency out of England would have been impossible to transport safely half way around the world and the country would have collapsed financially. With plantations in newly occupied India, the John Company saw a solution. In India, they could grow the inexpensive crop of opium and use it as a means of exchange. Because of its addictive nature, the demand for the drug would be long, insuring an unending market. Chinese emperors tried to maintain the forced distance between the Chinese people and the devils. However, disorder in the Chinese culture and foreign military might have prevented it. The Opium Wars broke out with the English ready to go to war for free trade (their right to sell opium). By 1842 England had gained enough military advantages to enable her to sell opium in China undisturbed until 1908 [3].
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America began direct trade with China soon after the revolution was over in 1789. America’s newer, faster, clipper ships out-sailed the slower, heavier English tea wagons that had dominated the trade until then. This forced the English navy to update their fleet, a fact America would have to address in the War of 1812. The new American ships established sailing records that still stand for speed and distance. John Jacob Astor began his tea trading in 1800. He required a minimum profit of 50% on each venture and often made 100%. Stephen Girard of Philadelphia was known as the gentle tea merchant. His critical loans to the young and weak American government enabled the nation to re-arm for the war of 1812. The orphanage founded by him still perpetuates his good name. Thomas Perkins was from one of Boston’s oldest sailing families. The trust of the Chinese in him as a gentleman of his word enabled him to conduct enormous transactions half way around the world without a single written contract. His word and his handshake was enough – so great was his honour in the eyes of the Chinese. It is to their everlasting credit that none of these men ever paid for tea with opium. America was able to break the English tea monopoly because its ships were faster and it paid in gold. By the mid-1800 the world was involved in a global clipper race as nations competed with each other to claim the fastest ships. England and America were the leading rivals. Each year the tall ships would race from China to the tea exchange in London to bring in the first tea for auction. Though beginning half way around the world, the mastery of the crews was such that the great ships often raced up the Thames separated by only by minutes. However, by 1871 the newer steamships began to replace these great ships [3].
5.2.7 Global tea plantations The Scottish botanist Robert Fortune, who spoke fluent Chinese, was able to sneak into mainland China the first year after the opium war. He obtained some of the closely guarded tea seeds and made notes on tea cultivation. With the support from the Crown, various experiments in growing tea in India were attempted. Many of these failed due to bad soil selection and incorrect planting techniques. However, through each failure, the technology was perfected. Finally, after years of trial and error, fortunes made and lost the English tea plantations in India and other parts of Asia flourished. The great English tea marketing companies were founded and production mechanized as the world industrialized in the late 1880s.
5.2.8 Iced tea and teabags America stabilized her government, strengthened her economy, and expanded her borders and interests. By 1904, the United States was ready for the world
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to see her development at the St. Louis world’s fair. Trade exhibitors from around the world brought their products to America’s first world’s fair. One such merchant Richard Blechynden, a tea plantation owner, had planned to give away free samples of hot tea to fair visitors. However, when a heat wave hit no one was interested. To save his investment of time and travel, he dumped a load of ice into the brewed tea and served the first iced tea. It was the hit of the fair. Four years later, Thomas Sullivan of New York developed the concept of bagged tea. As a tea merchant, he carefully wrapped each sample delivered to restaurants for their consideration. He recognized a natural marketing opportunity when he realized the restaurants were brewing the samples in the bags to avoid the mess of tea leaves in the kitchens.
5.2.9 Tea rooms, tea courts and tea dances Beginning in the late 1880s in both America and England, fine hotels began to offer tea service in tea rooms and tea courts. In the late afternoon, Victorian ladies (and their gentlemen friends) could meet for tea and conversation. Many of these tea services became the hallmark of the elegance of the hotel, such as the tea services at the Ritz (Boston) and the Plaza (New York). By 1910, hotels began to host afternoon tea dances. These swept the United States and England [3].
5.2.10 Vari (Tea) – English breakfast The prototype of this most popular of all teas was developed over a hundred years ago by the Scottish tea master Drysdale in Edinburgh. It was marketed simply as breakfast tea. It became popular in England, as Queen Victoria created the craze for Scottish (the summer home of Victoria) things. Teashops in London, however, changed the name and marketed it as English breakfast tea. It is a blend of fine black teas, often including some Keemun tea. Many tea authorities suggest that the Keemun tea blended with milk creates a bouquet that reminds people of toast hot from the oven and maybe the original source for the name. It should be offered with milk or lemon. (One never serves lemon to a guest if they request milk as it would curdle the milk.) It may also be used to brew iced tea.
5.2.11 Irish breakfast The Irish have always been great tea drinkers, and they drink their tea brewed very strong. In fact, there is a common tea saying among the Irish is that “a proper cup of tea should be strong enough for a mouse to trot on”. Along the same line, the Irish believed there were only three types of tea fit to drink. The first and best of quality was in China. The second best was sent directly
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to Ireland. The third and lowest in quality was sent to the English. Irish tea is usually drunk only in the morning because of its robust flavour, except for the Irish who drink it all day. Usually it is blended with an Assam tea base. Due to its taste, it is served with lots of sugar and milk.
5.2.12 Tea – Commercial varieties Caravan, this excellent tea was created in imperial Russia from the teas brought overland by camel from Asia. Because the trade route was dangerous and supplies unsteady, Russian tea merchants blended the varying incoming tea cargoes, selling a blend rather than a single tea form. It was usually a combination of black teas from China and India. Like the Irish, the Russian favoured this tea all day long. Earl Grey (1764–1845), though he was prime minister of England under William IV, is better remembered for the tea named after him. Tea legends say a Chinese mandarin gave the blend to him seeking to influence trade relations. A smoky tea with a hint of sweetness to it and served plain is the second most popular tea in the world today. It is generally a blend of black teas and bergamot oil. Black teas and Oolong Darjeeling refers to the tea grown in the mountain area of India. The mountain altitude and gentle misty rains of the region produce a unique full-bodied but a light flavoured, with a subtly lingering, aroma reminiscent of muscatel and highest grade. Reserved for afternoon use, it is traditionally offered to guests with lemon and without milk. Oolong, the elegant tea is sometimes known as the champagne of teas. Originally grown in the Fukien province of China, it was first imported to England in 1869 by John Dodd. Today, the highest grade Oolongs (Formosa Oolongs) are grown in Taiwan. A cross between green and black teas, it is fermented to achieve a delicious fruity taste. It is perfect for afternoon use with cucumber sandwiches and madeleine. Green tea makes up only ten percent of the world’s produced tea. The Japanese tea service (in which green tea is used) is an art. The serving of a full Japanese tea service would be beyond the ability of most properties and as a result, should not be attempted. Green tea is generally not a part of the afternoon tea tradition as appropriate to the hotel use. Keemun China Teas is the most famous of China’s black teas. Because of its subtle and complex nature, it is considered the burgundy of teas. It is a mellow tea that will stand alone as well as support sugar and /or milk, because of its wine-like quality [3] Today the bush tea is known as Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze of which there are two varieties: var. sinensis and var. assamica. In 1690, Kaempfer, a German medical doctor cum botanist who came to Japan from Holland and
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observed the habit of tea drinking among the people, named the bush Thea. In 1753, the famed botanist Linne gave the name of Camellia sinensis, changing its original naming of Thea sinensis. Since, the nomenclature of tea bush has been confused between these two names, in 1958 a British botanist Sealy classified all plants in Genus Camellia and tea was given the name it has today [6]. Tea is cultivated successfully in many different countries of the world and consumed in almost every part of the world, but the association of tea with China remains strong. Today the birthplace of tea is assumed to be southwestern China, centred in Yunnan district [7]. There are two approaches in tracing the history of tea usage, viz., anthropological or archival. Chinese legend claimed that the tea consumption goes back as far as 2737 BC. The first credible documentary reference on tea was made in 59 BC in a servant’s contract which stated that his duties included the making of tea and going to the city to buy it. Lu Yu, who described the botany, cultivation and processing of tea, as well as the utensils and proper way of drinking tea, etc., in his writings in detail, Tea classics or tea sutra has been the bible for people involved with tea ever since [8].
5.3 Tea production 5.3.1 World scenario of production and trade
Figure 5.1 Major tea producing countries [9]
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China and India are the two largest producers as well as consumers of tea. In global production, China’s contribution is 31% while that of India is 25% (Figure 5.1). The contribution of both in global tea business is 18% and 11% respectively. Other countries like Kenya, Sri Lanka, Vietnam and Indonesia contribute 25% of the world tea and control 50% of the world trade [9]. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reports that the market for tea industry is expected to grow at 3% per annum. With the removal of quantitative restrictions (QRs) following World Trade Organization (WTO) regulations coming into force, the consumption is going to increase in developing countries. During the last four decades, Kenya has increased tea production by 25 times. Chinese tea production has witnessed a cumulative growth rate of 4.6%. The production growth rates have been slower in India and Sri Lanka at 2.3% and 0.9% respectively, during the same period. The area under cultivation has gone up by 33% in India and ten times in Kenya during the last 40 years [10].
5.3.2 Indian scenario Indian is one of the largest producer and consumer of tea in the world. In India, tea is grown in 15 states. Among these states, the major share is by Assam (50%), followed by West Bengal (24%), Tamil Nadu (17%) and Kerala (7%), others account for remaining 2%. India accounts for 20% of the total area under tea cultivation in the world, 25% of global tea production, 22% of world tea consumption and 11% of total tea exports [9]. India also leads in global research and development in tea industry. India is the largest manufacturer and exporter of tea machinery. The annual per capita consumption in India is low at 800 g compared to other countries like Pakistan (950 g), Sri Lanka (1.2 kg), UK (2.3 kg) and Bangladesh (1.2 kg). The annual tea production has been above 900 million kg for the last four years (Table 5.1). The tea production grew at an average annual rate of 2.3% during last 4 decades and 1.4% in the last decade. But over last few years the consumption growth has slowed down, this coupled with falling exports (Table 5.2) has led to surplus supply, and so the prices are declining in the market. It has reflected in the statistics of auction centres [10]. Table 5.1 Production of tea in India from 2001 to 2008 (in million kg) [11]
State
Assam West Bengal Tamil Nadu
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
132
143
167
163
159
164
161
171
454 187
433 188
435 201
436 215
487 218
502 237
512 236
487 233
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Kerala India*
65 854
58 838
58 878
62 893
63 946
59 982
560 987
70 981
*Includes other states also Table 5.2 Tea exports from India during 2006–2008 [12]
Year Quantity (in million kg) Value (in crores) Unit price (Rs/kg)
2006 218.73
2007 178.75
2008 203.12
2006.53 91.73
1810.11 101.26
2392.91 117.81
5.4 Botanical and taxonomical characteristics Tea as a commercial crop includes several species within the Genus Camellia in the family Theaceae. The Genus Camellia includes 82
species, which are mostly indigenous to the highlands of South-East Asia [6]. The systematic position of the tea plant is given in Table 5.3. Table 5.3 Systematic taxonomical position of tea
Division
Angiospermae
Class
Dicotyledones
Order
Parietales
Family
Theaceae
Genus
Camellia
Species
sinensis
Tea is commonly accepted as Camellia sinensis (L) O. Kuntze, irrespective of any variation in the characteristics. This is normally a diploid (2n=30 chromosomes) but polyploids occur. Taxonomically, four basic varieties of the tea plant are recognized commercially – China type (Camellia sinensis var. sinensis), Assam type (Camellia sinensis var. assamica), Cambodia type (Camellia sinensis var. lasiocalyx), and the hybrid of China and Assam types [13]. Based on leaf pose and growth habitat, two intra specific forms of C. sinensis (L.) are China variety, Camellia sinensis var. sinensis (L.) and Assam variety, Camellia sinensis var. assamica (Kitamura). The characteristic features that separate these two varieties are presented in Table 5.4 [6, 14]. Table 5.4 Characteristics of two tea varieties
Variety
Sub-variety
Growth habitat
Leaf features
Leaf pose
Leaf angle
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China Camellia sinensis var. sinensis (L.)
Camellia sinensis var. sinensis f. paviflora (Miq) Sealy Camellia sinensis var. sinensis f. macrophylla Sieb (Kitamura)
Assam Camellia sinensis var. assamica (Kitamura)
_
Dwarf, slow growing, shrub like
Small, erect narrow, dark green
Erectophile
<50 degree
Tall, quick growing tree
Large, horizontal, broad, mostly non-serrated, light green
Planophile
>70 degree
5.4.1 General characteristics Tea plant is an evergreen perennial shrub most often reaching a height of 30 ft. The leaves are of small length 5.5–6.1 cm, by width 2.2–2.4 cm, alternate, evergreen, elliptical, acuminate, serrated margins, glabrous sheet with pubescent below surface and become dark green and leathery on maturity. The flower buds originate either singly or in clusters from the side buds, flowers are white with 5 to 7 leathery sepals and petals. Fruits are glabrous, brownish green in colour, and trilobate with 1–3 seeds.
5.5 Cultivation practices 5.5.1 Climatic requirements The temperature in the range of 18–30°C is optimal for shoot growth. The minimum air temperature for shoot growth appears to be 13–14°C. Soil temperature is also important and optimum growth occurs between 20°C and 25°C [15].
5.5.2 Soil type Tea is grown in a wide variety of soil types, ranging from alluvial soils, drained soils and peat in the soil derived from volcanic ash. Growth of tea is favoured by acidic conditions, a pH value of 5.0–5.6 being considered optimum. Tea will not grow in soils with a pH value as low as 4.0 but soils with a pH value
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only marginally above 5.6 are considered unsuitable. Soils with pH values above 6.5 are not amenable to treatment and cannot be used for tea cultivation [15].
5.5.3 Land preparation Land clearance is required for tea cultivation as per the rules of different countries. The accumulation of large quantities of decaying vegetation can lead to significant rise in pH values and cleared material should be removed from the site. Burning is not recommended, as ash will also raise the soil’s pH value. Soil should be mixed well and proper drainage should be provided [15].
5.5.4 Seed Tea propagation is done by sowing seeds directly into the field and also by vegetative propagated clones. The quality of seeds within a single batch can vary considerably and a simple grading by floatation is applied immediately before planting. Seeds that remain floating after 72 h are unsuitable for use. Seeds require cracking before use to permit water entry and ensure a high and even rate of germination. Nursery beds require good quality of top soil. Shade is necessary for young plants, the shade density being progressively reduced until the plant is exposed to full sunlight and fertilizer is generally applied as foliar spray. In the field, bushes should be planted as closely as possible, to give complete ground coverage without over-crowding. Optimum spacing is dictated by the branching patterns of clones. Tea plants are most commonly planted as hedges, plant with the hedges are usually planted 0.6–0.8 m apart, with a space of about 1.2 m between the hedges [15].
5.5.5 Hoeing Hoeing is an operation in which soil around young plants is frequently loosened to a depth of 3 inches for a distance of 12 inches around. The hoeing helps to cut down the weeds and also helps in better aeration [8].
5.5.6 Irrigation Irrigation is an absolute necessity in countries such as Zimbabwe, where annual rainfall may be less than 700 mm. Irrigation should be considered where regular dry seasons of three to six months may be expected, where potential soil water deficits 300 mm annually. Evaporative loss of water in a whole year from many tea areas exceeds 1270 mm, which is believed to be a minimum annual requirement of water by tea plant [16].
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5.5.7 Fertilizer requirements The requirements of major nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium for the tea plant are as follows, nitrogen at the rate of 200–300 kg, phosphorus ranges from 75 to 100 kg and potassium application ranges from 100 to150 kg per hectare [16].
5.5.8 Shade trees and windbreaks The role of shade trees and shelter in tea husbandry has been the subject of discussion for many years. The finding that yields were often higher without shade led to the removal of shade trees. Shade trees were, however, valuable in some low altitude tree growing areas, particularly Assam, due to the maintenance of the air temperature with in the optimum range. Leaf fall from shade trees can also improve the nutrient status and physical conditions of soil. Trees grown under shade will be blacker due to more chlorophyll but has lower polyphenol content, more of amino acids and caffeine content. The major types of tree grown for shade in tea plantations include: Albizzia stipulate, A. procera; Dalbergia assamica and Derris Robusta in north India, and Eryrhrina lithosperma, Dalbergia sisso, Albizzia lebbeck and Grevillea Robusta in south India. High winds have an adverse effect on tree through physical damage, reduction of leaf temperature and increased transpiration rate. Belts of shelter can transfer these effects. The shelter trees can reduce yield through competition for nutrients and water and through shading. Belts of shelter trees are usually justified only where very high wind is common. Apart from all these, mulching and top dressing are done at regular intervals.
5.5.9 Pest and diseases Major pests of tea includes tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis theavora), red spider mite, pink mite, green fly, thrips, aphides, crickets, tea mealy bugs, Leafy feeding caterpillar (Homona coffearia), etc. Major diseases of leaves, shoot and root are mentioned in Table 5.5. Table 5.5 Diseases of tea plant
Plant part Leaves
Disease
Blister blight Grey blight Brown blight Anthacnose Eye spot Brown spot
Causative organism
Exobasidium vexans Pestalotia theae Colletotrichum camilleae Colletotrichum thea-sinensis Pseudocercospora ocellata Calonectria spp.
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Bacterial blight Stem canker Armillaria rot Charcoal rot Red rot Brown root Violet root
Pseudomonas syringe pv. theae Phomopsis theae Armillaria mellea Ustulina deusta Poria hypolateritia Fomes noxius Sphaerostillbe repens
5.5.10 Harvesting The harvesting is done manually by employing labourers. This is expensive compared to mechanical harvesting. Irrespective whether manual and/ or mechanical plucking is used, it is usual to maintain a flat plucking table parallel to ground. Manual labourers are able to maintain the correct level by the use of a light pole, while wheeled harvesting equipment maintains a preset level. Maintaining a flat plucking table is, however, difficult where held mechanical sheers hand is used. It is important to stress that freshly harvested tea shoots are perishable. These can be bruised or broken easily, there by premature triggering the fermentation process and causing deterioration in quality. To avoid these problems, it is necessary to begin the manufacture process as quickly as possible after harvest. The most popular factor is coarseness of harvest (leaf number per shoot). The polyphenol and caffeine content is highest on dry weight basis in the youngest leaf of a given shoot. The content drops with each older leaf moving down the stem. It is very important that the harvested shoots are uniform. Without uniformity at the front end, it is very difficult to manage all the later steps. In north India the method of plucking involves two leaves and a bud (Figure 5.2). In south India however tea is plucked year round and the practice is to pluck two leaves and a bud, leaving the fully developed leaves on the bush exclusive of sheath leaf, which is called as Jannum or fish leaf. From the second flush until the end of July one fully matured leaf is left beside the fish leaf. From the first of August, close plucking is practiced. The interval between each pluck is 7–9 days. Plucking may be coarse or fine. Fine plucking involves plucking two leaves and a bud. Coarse plucking involves plucking 3 or 4 leaves [15].
5.5.11 Pruning Pruning is a necessary evil for tea plants. Shaping of new bushes is to develop new surface with new shoots and it is achieved by pruning and bending branches down and pegging into position, is commonly referred as bringing into bearing. After the bush is brought into bearing but before regular plucking has commenced, a procedure commonly known as tipping is applied. This is
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intended to level the plucking surface and to increase the number of plucking points. Pruning is required to remove all stems above the basic frame of the bush [16]. The frequency of pruning i.e., the pruning cycle, varies from 1 to 4 years. For economic reasons, it is desirable to prune during the dry seasons when yield is low. Usually, pruning is done at a height of 8 to 15 inches from ground level. A very light pruning is sometimes possible as an alternative to full maintenance pruning. Only the over crowded upper layer is removed and bushes are out of production for only a short period. On the other hand, light pruning cannot maintain a bush in a satisfactory condition indefinitely, so it is necessary to prune very heavily below the lowest normal prune. This is variously referred as collar pruning. Heavy pruning is done once in ten years. Pruning helps to get good growth in subsequent season [16].
Figure 5.2 Tea garden; two leaves and a bud
5.5.12 Adulterants Most common adulterants are the leaves of other plants. Commonly used leaves are beech (Fagus sylvatica), hawthorn (Crataegus oxycantha), sloe (Prunus spinosa), oak, poplar, maple and other trees. Another formerly wide spread adulteration was the addition of spent tea leaves. These spent teas were impregnated with catechins, caramel, campeachy wood, indigo, berlin blue, curcuma, humus, graphite etc. Adulteration can be detected by microscopic examinations and can often be discovered by chemical means, particularly by the estimation of hot water extract, tannin and total water-soluble ash [8].