- Email: [email protected]
Invasive Species
C H A P T E R
17
Invasive Species Colin G. Scanes University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, United States
17.1 INTRODUCTION Invasive species are animals or plants that are nonnative to the region and were introduced by human intervention (Keller et al., 2011). The “100 World’s Worst” invaders have been listed by the Invasive Species Specialist Group. Introductions that have resulted in increasing populations and expansion to new geographical areas are viewed by some as “successful” (Wodzicki and Wright, 1980) or as establishing invasive species. If an exotic species survives and is reproducing in the new locale, it is viewed as established. If it spreads widely it is viewed as invasive if it is exerting a “measurable” effect on ecosystems or human activity (Keller et al., 2011). These species can detrimentally influence indigenous biodiversity (both plant and animal) and potentially cause extinctions. The study of the effects of invasive species is difficult as there is unlikely to be data on the region prior to and after the establishment of the invasive species. Effects may be confounded by other changes in the environment (often caused by humans) and it is difficult to definitively quantitate competition for food or nesting sites and/or predation (Grarock et al., 2012).
Animals and Human Society http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805247-1.00024-1
Examples of invasive species are summarized in Table 17.1. Invasive species can be categorized as one of the following (based on Wodzicki and Wright, 1980): • Accidentally introduced • “Stowaways” on ships [rats (Norway and black) and mice (house mouse) to multiple locales] or planes (brown tree snakes transported to Guam). • Escaped from captivity (e.g., gray squirrels in the United Kingdom). • Thoughtlessly released (e.g., pet Burmese pythons released into the Everglades, Florida). • Deliberately introduced • On esthetics or other supposed quality of life issues, such as the species being named in Shakespeare plays (e.g., starlings) or to help settlers/immigrants from Europe become comfortable by having familiar animals around them (e.g., North America, South Africa, and Australia). • As game species for sport/hunting including wild boar (introduced to the USA), wallabies (New Zealand), deer
413
Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
414
17. Invasive Species
TABLE 17.1 Examples of Invasive Species Species
Category
Location introduced
Camel
Feral
Australia
Cat
Feral
Australia
Deer
Deliberately introduced
Australia, Islands, New Zealand, United Kingdom
Dingos
Accidentally introduced
Australia
European rabbit
Feral
Australia
Gray squirrel
Accidentally introduced
United Kingdom
Horses and donkeys
Feral
North and South America, Australia
Norway or brown rat
Accidentally introduced
Islands
Pacific rat
Deliberately introduced
Polynesian islands
Ship or black rat
Accidentally introduced
Islands
Wild pig
Deliberately introduced + feral
USA
Starling
Deliberately introduced
USA
Feral pigeon
Feral
North America, Australia
House sparrow
Deliberately introduced
USA
Common myna
Deliberately introduced
Australia
Brown tree snake
Accidentally introduced
Guam (Mariana Islands in Pacific Ocean)
Burmese python
Thoughtlessly introduced
USA (Everglades in Florida)
Deliberately introduced
Australia
Alewife
Accidentally introduced
Great Lakes, USA and Canada
Sea lamprey
Accidentally introduced
Great Lakes, USA and Canada
Quagga mussels
Accidentally introduced
Great Lakes, USA and Canada
Zebra mussels
Accidentally introduced
Great Lakes, USA and Canada
Deliberately introduced
South America
Mammals
Birds
Reptiles
Amphibian Cane toad Aquatic species
Other species (Arthropods) Africanized bees
(British Isles, New Zealand, and South America), and game birds, such as pheasants (New Zealand). • For biological control, such as cane toad and common mynas (introduced to Australia for insect control), hedgehogs
(insect control), stoats, ferrets, and weasels (introduced to New Zealand for the control of rabbits), and small Indian mongoose (introduced to over 40 islands for the control of rodents and other pests).
17.2 Mammalian Invasive Species
• As utility species for fur or meat, such as possum and rabbits (introduced to New Zealand). • Feral animals: agricultural or companion animals that have escaped (e.g., camels, cats, dogs/dingos, donkeys, horses, and rabbits).
415
Given the serious effects that some invasive species cause, the Ecological Society of America made the following recommendations to the US Government about invasive species (Lodge et al., 2006):
Biology Institute and the US Fish and Wildlife Service, they may represent “the single greatest source of anthropogenic mortality for US birds and mammals.” Cats prefer to hunt small mammals. It is estimated that cats kill the following annually in the contiguous 48 States of the USA (Loss et al., 2013):
1. Use new information and practices to better manage commercial and other pathways to reduce the transport and release of potentially harmful species. 2. Adopt more quantitative procedures for risk analysis and apply them to every species proposed for importation into the country. 3. Use new cost-effective diagnostic technologies to increase active surveillance and sharing of information about invasive species so that responses to new invasions can be more rapid and effective. 4. Create new legal authority and provide emergency funding to support rapid responses to emerging invasions. 5. Provide funding and incentives for costeffective programs to slow the spread of existing invasive species to protect still uninvaded ecosystems, social and industrial infrastructure, and human welfare. 6. Establish a National Center for Invasive Species Management.
• • • •
mammals, 12.3 billion birds, 2.4 billion reptiles, 478 million amphibians, 173 million Free-roaming cats include the following:
• Owned cats allowed to roam. • Unowned cats including feral cats, semiferal cats/strays (may be fed but not enter homes), and barn cats.
17.2 MAMMALIAN INVASIVE SPECIES
The majority of the wildlife killed are due to so called “unowned cats.” Even so, about 30% of the wild birds killed are by owned cats that are allowed to roam. Globally, feral cats are among the “100 of the World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species.” They are thought to be responsible for 33 modern extinctions of mammals, birds, and reptiles and are threatening many more particularly on islands (Lowe et al., 2000). It is estimated that feral cats on islands caused as much as 14% of all global extinctions of mammals, birds, and reptiles (238 species) (Medina et al., 2011). Feral cats were successfully eradicated in 1991 from Marion Island; a sub-Antarctic island south of South Africa in the Indian Ocean. Following the eradication, there were rapidly marked improvements of the breeding success of the great-winged petrel (Pterodroma macroptera) and the blue petrel (Halobaena caerulea) (Cooper et al., 1995).
17.2.1 Cats (Free Roaming, Unowned, and Feral)
17.2.2 Dingos and Other Feral Dogs Based on genomic and archaeological studies, it has been concluded that the wild dog of Australia, the dingo, originated from escaped domestic dogs transported on boats from
Free-roaming domestic cats are responsible for killing large numbers of wildlife. According to researchers at the Smithsonian Conservation
416
17. Invasive Species
East Asia about 5000 years ago (Savolainen et al., 2004). Dingos are found throughout Australia. Damages from dingos and other wild dogs in Australia are reported to be A$48.5 million (Gong et al., 2009).
have been estimated to consume the equivalent food for 200 million people for an entire year (Singleton, 2003). The economic impact of rats in the USA was estimated in 2000 at $19 billion year−1 many times greater than any other invasive animal species (Pimentel et al. 2000).
17.2.3 Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus)
17.2.4.1 Black Rat or Ship or Roof Rat (Rattus rattus) The black rat (Fig. 17.1) originated in the Indian subcontinent and South East Asia (Aplin et al., 2011). Human activity has led to their spreading. There were black rats in the Middle East about 15,000 BP. They reached the areas around the Mediterranean Sea about 6000 BP and the British Isles by CE/AD 400 (Aplin et al., 2011). Accidental introduction from ships has led to its global distribution with the species introduced to North America in the 16th century. The black rat is particularly successful in Tropical areas but tends to be out-competed by the Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus) in temperate regions. In the USA, the black rat is found in the Southern States and along the Pacific coast. According to the Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG, 2015), the ship or black rat (R. rattus) is the species of rat responsible for many of the island extinctions of birds. It, but not the Norway rat, is included among the 100 of the World’s Worse Invasive Species. Recently, it has been reported that logging in Borneo is
One of the best examples of a damaging invasive alien species is the European wild rabbit, which was introduced into Australia with the first feral population reported in Australia in 1827 (Australian Department of Environment). Damage and losses from rabbits in Australia are estimated at A$206.0 million (Gong et al., 2009) with damage to grazing for sheep estimated to be between A$7.1 and A$38.7 million (Vere et al., 2004). The myxomatosis virus was introduced to control wild rabbit numbers in Australia in 1950 and also in Europe including the United Kingdom. Although the myxomatosis virus exhibited high lethality killing 99% of rabbits, numbers rebounded as the virus became attenuated and the surviving rabbits showed resistance (Kerr and Best, 1998).
17.2.4 Rodents as Invasive Species Rats and mice are among the most destructive species to the environment following their introduction by humans, albeit accidentally. Island habitats are especially vulnerable to rats. For example, islands are important breeding sites for seabirds. Rats and mice are threatening both populations and entire species of seabirds. Mitigation programs have been implemented in over 400 islands. Rodent eradication has been successfully carried out on many islands amounting to over 20,000 ha in 2005 (Martins et al., 2006) and extrapolating to 30,000 ha by 2015. Costs increase geometrically with the size of islands (Martins et al., 2006). Rodents have major economic and social impacts (see Chapter 16). For instance in Asia, rats
FIGURE 17.1 Black rat (R. rattus). Source: Courtesy CDC.
17.2 Mammalian Invasive Species
accompanied by large increases in black rats in disturbed areas of a tropic rain forest (Loveridge et al., 2016).
417
17.2.4.2 Brown or Norway Rat (Rattus norvegicus) Contrary to its name, the Norway or brown rat (R. norvegicus) (Fig. 17.2) does not come from Norway. They originally come from Northern China. They were brought to Europe later than the arrival of the ship or black rat (R. rattus) sometime between the AD 800 and AD 1500. Accidental introduction from ships has led to the global distribution of the Norway or brown rat. The species was introduced to North America in about 1750 and spread as humans migrated across the continent. The Norway rat out-competes the ship rat in temperate regions. In the USA, the Norway rat is found throughout the country. Norway rats are found in most of the provinces of Canada. The exception to this is Alberta where there has been a successful series of programs to prevent the western expansion and to eradicate rats. In around 1800, whaling boats inadvertently brought Norway rats together with house mice to South Georgia, a mountainous island in the South Atlantic Ocean close to the Antarctic with a subarctic climate. Moreover, reindeer
were introduced (Black et al., 2012). At present, there are over 100,000 seabirds that breed on the island (Clarke et al., 2012). South Georgia is the breeding site for 29 seabird species and the most important breeding site for 6 species [Macaroni Penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus), gray-headed albatross (Thalassarche chrysostoma), northern giant petrel (Macronectes halli), Antarctic prion (Pachyptila desolata), white-chinned petrel (Procellaria aequinoctialis), and common diving petrel (Pelecanoides urinatrix)] and one of the top three sites for 7 other species (Clarke et al., 2012). The rats negatively impact marine bird populations particularly those that nest on the ground on these islands by depredating eggs and chicks (Pye and Bonner, 1980; reviewed by Black et al., 2012). It is estimated that the introduction of the rat led to an over 90% decrease in the number of seabirds nesting on the island (Clarke et al., 2012). A successful rodent eradication program was implemented (Black et al., 2012). 17.2.4.3 Pacific Rat (Rattus exulans) The Polynesians voyaging across the Pacific and colonizing islands brought with them Pacific rats as a source of food (Matisoo-Smith and Robins, 2004). These escaped leading to the extinction of over 2000 species of birds and are now an important invasive species (Duncan et al., 2013; Steadman, 1995). In part, this was due to the clearing of forests and hence habitat changes, but also due to damage from their accompanying animals, Pacific rats and pigs. The former have had major detrimental effects on seabirds. There is direct observational evidence of predation by Pacific rats of seabirds including adult and chick Laysan albatrosses and reductions in nests (Kepler, 1967).
FIGURE 17.2 Brown rat. Source: Courtesy EPA.
17.2.4.4 House Mice (Mus musculus) Until it was studied, it was assumed that the introduction of house mice had little significant effect on ecosystems and particularly birds breeding. However, the effects on birds are supported based on observations on Gough Island.
418
17. Invasive Species
This is an uninhabited island in the South Atlantic Ocean that it is very useful to study the effects of mice as they are the sole introduced species; there being no rats or feral animals (Wanless et al., 2007). Not only were mice observed by video as killing and eating chicks but they were also demonstrated to be at least one major cause for the poor breeding success in Tristan albatrosses (Diomedea dabbenena) and Atlantic petrels (Pterodroma incerta) (Wanless et al., 2007).
New Mexico, Tennessee, and North Carolina, and extending into Kansas, Missouri, Kentucky, and West Virginia with wild pigs also reported in the Midwest (e.g., Ohio and Michigan), North East (Pennsylvania, Vermont, and New Hampshire), and West (e.g., Washington and Utah) (National Feral Swine Mapping System, 2015). Losses and damages from wild pigs have been estimated as the following:
17.2.4.5 Gray Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) According to the Introduced Species Summary Project (2015) of Columbia University, the gray squirrel (S. carolinensis) is the second most damaging introduced species in the British Isles (after the Norway rat). Gray squirrels have also out-competed the native red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) in much of the United Kingdom leading to the decline and replacement of the latter (Okubo et al., 1989). It is thought that the large population originated from escapees from the London zoo between 1876 and 1929 (Introduced Species Summary Project, 2015) or multiple sites including Woburn Abbey in Bedfordshire (Okubo et al., 1989).
• Australia, A$9.2 million (Gong et al., 2009) • USA, $0.8 billion dollars per year (Pimentel et al., 2000, 2005) • Hawaii, $4 million including marked soil erosion (Pimentel et al., 2000, 2005) In addition to damage, wild pigs are a reservoir for pathogens for domestic pigs and for zoonotic diseases for humans.
17.2.6 Mongoose
17.2.5 Wild Pigs
The small Indian mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) was introduced to more than 40 islands including Jamaica (1872), Hawaii (1883), Fiji (1883), Cuba (1886), Okinawa (1910), and the Croatian islands in the Adriatic Sea (1910) with the goal of controlling rat populations (Carnivora: Herpestidae) (Hays and Conant, 2007). It was at best somewhat effective in controlling rats in sugar cane fields but had a negative effect on wildlife particularly birds and reptiles (Hays and Conant, 2007). The mongoose is responsible for $50 million in losses and damages in the USA, specifically in Hawaii and Puerto Rico (Pimentel et al., 2005).
Wild pigs (Sus scrofa) are also known as wild boar, wild hog, feral pig, feral hog, Old World swine, razorback, Eurasian wild boar, and Russian wild boar. They are derived from escaped domestic pigs or wild boar that were introduced for hunting. The range of the wild pigs in the USA has been expanding considerably. In 1982, wild pigs were largely restricted to some areas of Texas, Louisiana, and Florida with isolated populations in California, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Tennessee, and Arkansas. By 2015, wild pigs were found throughout Texas, California, Oklahoma, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina together with large parts of Oregon, Arizona,
17.2.7 Horses and Donkeys The populations of feral donkeys and horses in Australia and the USA are as follows:
• Australia (Australian Department of Environment, 2015) • feral donkey 5 million • feral horse 400,000
17.3 Avian Invasive Species
419
17.3.1 Common or European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris)
• USA (US Bureau of Land Management, 2016) • feral donkey (burros) 10,800 • feral horse 47,000
The American Acclimatization Society introduced about a hundred European starlings into New York’s Central Park in 1890–91 (Mirsky, 2008). Today there are about 200 million starlings across the USA with populations also in South Africa, New Zealand, and Australia (reviewed by Lintz et al., 2007) (see Chapter 16). Losses and damages from starlings in the USA are estimated at $0.8 billion dollars per year (Pimentel et al., 2000, 2005).
The number of feral horses and burros showed a one year 18% increase and now exceeds the appropriate management level by 31,435 (US Bureau of Land Management, 2016). Losses and damages from wild horses and burros in the USA are estimated at $5 million dollars per year (Pimentel et al., 2000, 2005). Losses in Australia are likely much greater.
17.2.8 Other Invasive Mammals in Australia
17.3.2 Feral Pigeon (Columba livia)
Other invasive mammals in Australia are feral camels (1 million and damages/losses A$8.9 million), feral goat (2.6 million), feral water buffalo (150,000), and introduced red fox (damage and losses A$21.2 million). Introduced deer (fallow deer, red deer, chital deer, hog deer, rusa deer, and sambar deer) are an emerging problem (Australian Department of Environment, 2015). These invasive species destroy native plants, compete with domestic animals and can cause soil erosion.
Feral pigeons are derived from domesticated rock pigeons. Pigeons are found in agricultural and urban areas around the world. Urban pigeon populations are growing rapidly with increased urbanization. The highest numbers are found in those urban areas surrounded by agriculture in Poland (Hetmanski et al., 2010). Estimates for some urban pigeon populations include the following:
17.3 AVIAN INVASIVE SPECIES
• Venice and Pisa, 1000–2000 pigeons per km2 (Giunchi et al., 2012). • Sheffield, United Kingdom, 15,000 pigeons (Fuller et al., 2008) compared to a total of 550,000 for the entire United Kingdom (Baker et al., 2006).
In the 19th century, the American Acclimatization Society imported and introduced birds named in Shakespeare’s plays to the USA. The group introduced about a hundred European starlings into New York’s Central Park in 1890–91 (Mirsky, 2008). They prospered at the expense of native species. Today there are about 200 million starlings across the USA. Another introduced species is the house sparrow. There were multiple introductions of sparrows in the 19th century as part of an effort to ensure that European immigrants had familiar birds around.
There are problems with feral pigeons particularly in urban areas including the following (Giunchi et al., 2012):
• Damage to buildings particularly medieval buildings accelerating deterioration (cleaning costs in Europe are estimated at 7–9 euros per pigeon per year) and increasing maintenance costs. • Public health concerns with pathogens in the excreta and dust from feathers. • Bird strikes and aircraft. • Fouling grain in elevators.
420
17. Invasive Species
• Agricultural damage with losses in Italy estimated between 20 and 43 million euros per year. Losses and damages from feral pigeons in the USA are estimated at $1.1 billion dollars per year (Pimentel et al., 2000, 2005) (see Chapter 16).
• House sparrow (Passer domesticus): the US population of house sparrows (70 million) originated from 16 released house sparrows brought in by European immigrants (Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, 2017; Moulton et al., 2010). • Ring-necked pheasant: introduced in the USA for hunting and is now widespread.
17.3.3 Common Myna (Acridotheres tristis)
17.4 REPTILIAN INVASIVE SPECIES
The common myna was introduced to Australia from India to control insect pests in agriculture (Hone, 1978). The species spread from its initial locus of Melbourne across much of eastern Australia (Hone, 1978). The common myna is one of the world’s top 100 worst invaders. Recently, the impact of the common myna on native birds, particularly competition for nesting sites, was reported based on empirical studies prior to and after their arrival in Canberra (Grarock et al., 2012).
17.4.1 Burmese Pythons (Python molurus bivittatus)
17.3.4 Mute Swans (Cygnus olor)
There is growing concern on the detrimental effects of Burmese pythons (Fig. 17.3) on the integrity of the ecosystem of the Everglades (Fig. 17.4) and the Florida Keys. It is thought that a small number of pet Burmese pythons were released into the Everglades in about 1985 (Willson et al., 2011). The numbers have increased based on the number of pythons removed. Also, their distribution is increasing (Fig. 17.5) The Everglades is biologically vulnerable with endangered species. There has been a decline in the population of mammals based on decreases in the number observed during nocturnal
Mute swans were introduced in the USA and Canada between 1850 and 1900. Their population around the Great Lakes is increasing at over 10% per year. They are displacing ducks, geese, and loons from wetlands and destroying aquatic vegetation with each swan uprooting about 10 kg of submersed aquatic vegetation daily (Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, in press; Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, in press).
17.3.5 Other Invasive Birds in the USA Other alien avian species in the USA include the following: • Eurasian collared-dove (Streptopelia decaocto): introduced in Florida, where they have been increasing exponentially since the early 1970s (Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, 2017)
FIGURE 17.3 Burmese python (P. molurus bivittatus).
Source: Courtesy National Parks Service.
17.4 Reptilian Invasive Species
421
Moreover, it has been concluded that Burmese pythons are responsible for 77% of mortalities of marsh rabbits (Sylvilagus palustris) (McCleery et al., 2015).
17.4.2 Brown Tree Snake (Boiga irregularis)
observation on roads between 2003 and 2013 (Dorcas et al., 2012):
The brown tree snake (Fig. 17.6) is thought to have arrived in Guam in 1949 as a female stowaway on a plane from New Guinea/Solomon Islands (reviewed by Rodda and Savidge, 2007; Wildlife Service, 2011). From a small population, even a single pregnant female, the population grew to over 2 million in 1980 with population densities as high as 100 ha−1 (reviewed by Rodda and Savidge, 2007). Brown tree snakes have the following impacts (reviewed by Rodda and Savidge, 2007):
• • • • •
• To people • Injury or death to particularly babies or young children due to snake bites. • Injury or death and even consumption of their pets, such as dogs due to snake bites.
FIGURE 17.4 Everglades. Source: Courtesy US National Parks Service.
bobcats decreased 87.5% opossums decreased 98.7% raccoons decreased 99.3% rabbits decreased 100% white-tailed deer 94.1%
FIGURE 17.5 Number of Burmese python removed per year from the Everglades. Source: Based on data by Dorcas, M.E., Willson, J.D., Reed, R.N., Snow, R.W., Rochford, M.R., Miller, M.A., Meshaka, W.E. Jr., Andreadis, P.T., Mazzotti, F.J., Romagosa, C.M., Hart, K.M. 2012. Severe mammal declines coincide with proliferation of invasive Burmese pythons in Everglades National Park. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 109, 2418–2422.
422
17. Invasive Species
vertebrate fauna (Reed, 2005) resulting in the extinction of the following: – 10 of 13 species of endemic forest birds – 2 of 3 native mammals – 6 endemic lizards • Decreased transmission of plant seeds • Reduced negative impact of introduced rats
17.5 AMPHIBIAN INVASIVE SPECIES 17.5.1 Cane Toad (Rhinella marina) According to the Australian Department of Environment (2015), the cane toad is an invasive species with a significant impact. It was initially released in northern Queensland in 1935 as a biological control to eliminate pest beetles.
17.6 AQUATIC INVASIVE SPECIES
FIGURE 17.6 Brown tree snake (B. irregularis). Source:
Aquatic animals have been introduced accidentally to rivers and lakes. For example, 79 species have been introduced into the Great Lakes (reviewed by Cuhel and Aguilar, 2013). The ecosystems of the Great Lakes of North America (or Laurentian Great Lakes) are new in Geological terms being formed with the retreat/ melting of the glacial continental ice sheets from the last Ice Age between 14,000 and 4,000 years ago (reviewed by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Great Lakes Commission, 1999). Of the invasive species in the Great Lakes, four have been demonstrated to be having a major ecological impact. These damaging invasive species are the following: the sea lamprey, the alewife, the zebra mussel, and the quagga mussel (reviewed by Cuhel and Aguilar, 2013).
Courtesy USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service; Photo by R. Anson Eaglin.
• To human society • Electrical system damage estimated at $1.7 billion per year. • Losses of poultry. • Inspections of exported goods doubling costs. In contrast in another analysis, the estimated total losses and damages were reported as $11 million per year (Pimentel et al., 2005) (see Chapter 16). • To the environment • Major detrimental effects to the native mammals and birds; decimating
17.6.1 Alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus)
Alewife are also called mulhaden, gray herring, or golden shad. Alewife spread to Lake Erie through the Welland Canal and then to
423
17.7 Conclusions
other Great Lakes via the Detroit River and Lake St. Clair (USGS, 2016). The species has spread to reservoirs (e.g., Cherry Merritt Reservoir in Nebraska), lakes (e.g., in Tennessee and New York), and rivers, such as Missouri River and Mississippi River (USGS, 2016). Alefish are problematic as they out-compete with other species for zooplankton and, in die-offs, they foul beaches and negatively impact recreation and local economies (USGS, 2016).
bivalves of the family Unionidae (Burlakova et al., 2014).
17.6.4 Africanized Bees (Apis mellifera scutellata) or Killer Bees
17.6.2 Sea Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus)
African Bees were imported to Brazil in 1956 with the goal of hybridization with the European honeybee to improve the latter’s ability to live in tropical environments (reviewed by Kono and Kohn, 2015). Africanized bees escaped an apiary in Rio Claro (São Paulo, Brazil) and spread being first observed in the following places (Ferreira et al., 2012; Lazaneo, 2002; Winston, 1992):
Sea lampreys are native to the Atlantic Ocean. They spread from Lake Ontario to Lake Erie (1921) again via the Welland Canal then invaded Lake Huron, Lake Michigan, and Lake Superior. Today they are also present in many rivers in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan (USGS, 2016). Sea lamprey feeds on and/or damage native fish. It is thought that sea lampreys are at least partially responsible for the collapse of commercial fishing on the Great Lakes (USGS, 2016).
• • • •
throughout Brazil by 1979 reaching Argentina in 1968 reaching Mexico in 1985 reaching the USA in 1990; first Texas, then Arizona and in 1994 into California
17.6.3 Zebra Mussels (Dreissena bugensis) and Quagga Mussel (Dreissena rostriformis bugensis)
They have out-competed European honeybees with now over two-thirds of feral bees in San Diego county (California) with Africanized bee mitochondrial DNA (Kono and Kohn, 2015). The spread of Africanized bees has continued with some Africanized bees identified in the San Joaquin or Central Valley, California (Kono and Kohn, 2015). There are implications for the spread of the Africanized bee. There is improved pollination of both wild and domesticated plants. However, the Africanized bee is much more aggressive to humans stinging people. A single sting may be unpleasant or lead to an allergic reaction (reviewed by Ferreira et al., 2012; Lazaneo, 2002). Multiple stings from an aggressive swarm of Africanized bees can have severe health consequences (reviewed by Ferreira et al., 2012; Lazaneo, 2002).
Zebra mussels were first found in the North American Great Lakes in 1986 (reviewed by Mills et al., 1996). It has spread first to all the Great Lakes and then to waterways and lakes throughout the eastern USA and Canada (reviewed by Mills et al., 1996). The quagga mussel was first observed in the Great Lakes in 1989 (reviewed by Mills et al., 1996). The zebra and quagga mussels are native to waterways and lakes around the Black and Caspian seas. It is presumed that these mussels were transported to the Great Lakes in ships from this area. The invasive mussels, the zebra and quagga mussels, have marked effects on the ecology of the Great Lakes. For instance, their presence has accelerated the decline in populations of native
17.7 CONCLUSIONS
Human introduction of animals or invasive species have disrupted ecosystems globally. In some cases, this is being successfully addressed
424
17. Invasive Species
with eradication programs. However, it is likely that invasive species will continue to be a major problem unless there are concerted efforts by governments and international agencies with sciencebased policies and careful implementation.
References
Dorcas, M.E., Willson, J.D., Reed, R.N., Snow, R.W., Rochford, M.R., Miller, M.A., Meshaka, Jr., W.E., Andreadis, P.T., Mazzotti, F.J., Romagosa, C.M., Hart, K.M., 2012. Severe mammal declines coincide with proliferation of invasive Burmese pythons in Everglades National Park. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 109, 2418–2422. Duncan, R.P., Boyer, A.G., Blackburn, T.M., 2013. Magnitude and variation of prehistoric bird extinctions in the Pacific. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 110, 6436–6441. Ferreira, Jr., R.S., Almeida, R.A., Barraviera, S.R., Barraviera, B., 2012. Historical perspective and human consequences of Africanized bee stings in the Americas. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B Crit. Rev. 15, 97–108. Fuller, R.A., Tratalos, J., Gaston, K.J., 2008. How many birds are there in a city of half a million people? Divers. Distrib. 15, 328–337. Giunchi, D., Albores-Barajas, Y.V., Baldaccini, N.E., Vanni, L., Soldatini, C., 2012. Feral pigeons: problems, dynamics and control methods. Available from: http://cdn.intechweb.org/pdfs/29607.pdf Gong, W., Sinden, J., Braysher, M., Jones, R., 2009. The economic impacts of vertebrate pests in Australia Invasive Animals Cooperative Research Centre. University of Canberra, Australia. Available from: http:// www.pestsmart.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/ IACRC_EconomicImpactsReport.pdf Grarock, K., Tidemann, C.R., Wood, J., Lindenmayer, D.B., 2012. Is it benign or is it a Pariah? Empirical evidence for the impact of the common myna (Acridotheres tristis) on Australian birds. PLoS One 7, e40622. Hays, W.S.T., Conant, S., 2007. Biology and impacts of Pacific island invasive species. 1. A worldwide review of effects of the small Indian mongoose, Herpestes javanicus (Carnivora: Herpestidae). Pac. Sci. 61, 3–16. Hetmanski, T., Bochenski, M., Tryjanowski, P., Skórka, P., 2010. The effect of habitat and number of inhabitants on the population sizes of feral pigeons around towns in northern Poland. Eur. J. Wildlife Res. 57, 421–428. Hone, J., 1978. Introduction and spread of the common myna in New South Wales. Emu 78, 227–230. ISSG (Invasive Species Specialist Group), 2015. Available from: http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology. asp?si=19&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN Kepler, C.B., 1967. Polynesian rat predation on nesting Laysan albatrosses and other Pacific seabirds. Auk 84, 426– 430. Keller, R.P., Geist, J., Justice, J.M., Kühn, I., 2011. Invasive species in Europe: ecology, status, and policy. Environ. Sci. Eur. 23, 23. Kerr, P.J., Best, S.M., 1998. Myxoma virus in rabbits. Rev. Sci. Tech. 17, 256–268. Kono, Y., Kohn, J.R., 2015. Range and frequency of Africanized honey bees in California (USA). PLoS One 10, e0137407.
Aplin, K.P., Suzuki, H., Chinen, A.A., Chesser, R.T., Ten Have, J., Donnellan, S.C., Austin, J., Frost, A., Gonzalez, J.P., Herbreteau, V., Catzeflis, F., Soubrier, J., Fang, Y.P., Robins, J., Matisoo-Smith, E., Bastos, A.D., Maryanto, I., Sinaga, M.H., Denys, C., Van Den Bussche, R.A., Conroy, C., Rowe, K., Cooper, A., 2011. Multiple geographic origins of commensalism and complex dispersal history of Black Rats. PLoS One 6, e26357. Australian Department of Environment, 2015. Available from: https://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/ invasive-species/feral-animals-australia Baker, H., Stroud, D.A., Aebischer, N.J., Cranswick, P.A., Gregory, R.D., McSorley, C.A., Noble, D.G., Rehfisch, M.M., 2006. Population estimates of birds in Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Br Birds 99, 25–44. Black, A., Poncet, S., Wolfaardt, A., Peters, D., Hart, T., Wolfaardt, L.-A., Tasker, M., Rexer-Huber, K., 2012. Rodent eradication on South Georgia—preparation and evaluation: a summary report of activities during the 2011/2012 field season. Government of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands and UK Overseas Territories Environment Programme. Available from: http://www. gov.gs/docsarchive/Environment/Invasive%20Species/Rodent%20eradication%20preparation%20and%20 evaluation%20-OTEP%20report.pdf Burlakova, L.E., Tulumello, B.L., Karatayev, A.Y., Krebs, R.A., Schloesser, D.W., Paterson, W.L., Griffith, T.A., Scott, M.W., Crail, T., Zanatta, D.T., 2014. Competitive replacement of invasive congeners may relax impact on native species: interactions among zebra, quagga, and native unionid mussels. PLoS One 9, e114926. Clarke, A., Croxall, J.P., Poncet, S., Martin, A.R., Burton, R., 2012. Important bird areas: South Georgia. British Birds 105, 118–144. Cooper, J., Marais, A.v.N., Bloomer, J.P., Bester, M.N., 1995. A success story: breeding of burrowing petrels (Procellariidae) before and after the eradication of feral cats Felis catus at subantarctic Marion Island. Mar. Ornithol. 23, 33–37. Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, 2017. All about birds. Available from: https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/ House_Sparrow/lifehistory Cuhel, R.L., Aguilar, C., 2013. Ecosystem transformations of the Laurentian Great Lake Michigan by non-indigenous biological invaders. Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 5, 289–320.
REFERENCES
Lazaneo, V., 2002. Bee alert: Africanized honey bee facts. University of California-Agriculture and Natural Resources; Publication 8068. Lintz, G.M., Homan, H.J., Gaukler, S.M., Penry, L.B., Bleier, W.J., 2007. European starlings: a review of an invasive species with far reaching impacts. In: Witmer, G.W., Pitt, W.C., Fagerstone, K.A. (Eds.), Managing Vertebrate Invasive Species: Proceedings of an International Symposium. USDA/APHIS/WS, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, CO, pp. 378–386, Available from: http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si =74&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN. Lodge, D.M., Williams, S., MacIsaac, H.J., Hayes, K.R., Leung, B., Reichard, S., Mack, R.N., Moyle, P.B., Smith, M., Andow, D.A., Carlton, J.T., McMichael, A., 2006. Biological invasions: recommendations for U.S. policy and management. Ecol. Appl. 16, 2035–2054. Loss, S.R., Will, T., Marra, P.P., 2013. The impact of free-ranging domestic cats on wildlife of the United States. Nat. Commun. 4, 1396. Loveridge, R., Wearn, O.R., Vieira, M., Bernard, H., Ewers, R.M., 2016. Movement behavior of native and invasive small mammals shows logging may facilitate invasion in a tropical rain forest. Biotropica 48 (3), 373–380. Lowe, S., Browne, M., Boudjelas, S., 2000. 100 of the World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species: A Selection from the Global Invasive Species Database. Invasive Species Specialist Group, International Union for Conservation of Nature, Auckland, NZ. Martins, T.L.F., Brooke, M.D.L., Hilton, G.M., Farnsworth, S., Gould, J., Pain, D.J., 2006. Costing eradications of alien mammals from islands. Anim. Conserv. 9, 439–444. Matisoo-Smith, E., Robins, J.H., 2004. Origins and dispersals of Pacific peoples: evidence from mtDNA phylogenies of the Pacific rat. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101, 9167–9172. McCleery, R.A., Sovie, A., Reed, R.N., Cunningham, M.W., Hunter, M.E., Hart, K.M., 2015. Marsh rabbit mortalities tie pythons to the precipitous decline of mammals in the Everglades. Proc. Biol. Sci. 282, pii: 20150120. Medina, F.M., Bonnaud, E., Vidal, E., Tersey, B.R., Zavaleta, E.S., Donlaqn, C.J., Keitt, B.S., Corre, M.l., Horwath, S.V., Nogale, M.S., 2011. A global review of the impacts of invasive cats on island endangered vertebrates. Global Change Biol. 17, 3503–3510. Mills, E.L., Rosenberg, G., Spidle, A.P., Ludyanskiy, M., Pligin, Y., May, B., 1996. A review of the biology and ecology of the quagga mussel (Dreissena bugensis), a second species of freshwater Dreissenid introduced to North America. Am. Zool. 36, 271–286. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 2017. Available from: http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/invasives/terrestrialanimals/muteswan/index.html Mirsky, S., 2008. Shakespeare to blame for introduction of European starlings to U.S. Scientific American. Available
425
from: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/callof-the-reviled/ Moulton, M.P., Cropper, W.P., Avery, M.L., Moulton, L.E., 2010. The earliest house sparrow introductions to North America. Biol. Invasions 12, 2955–2958. National Feral Swine Mapping System, 2015. Available from: http://swine.vet.uga.edu/nfsms/information/maps/ swineDistribution1982.jpg Okubo, A., Maini, P.K., Williamson, M.H., Murray, J.D., 1989. On the spatial spread of the grey squirrel in Britain. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 238, 113–125. Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, 2017. Available from: http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/bbs/state_of_the_ birds_2009.pdf Pimentel, D., Lach, L., Zuniga, R., Morrison, D., 2000. Environmental and economic costs of non-indigenous species in the United States. BioScience 50, 53–65. Pimentel, D., Zuniga, R., Morrison, D., 2005. Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States. Ecol. Econ. 52, 273–288. Pye, T., Bonner, W.N., 1980. Feral brown rats, Rattus norvegicus in South Georgia (South Atlantic Ocean). J. Zool. 192, 237–255. Reed, R.N., 2005. An ecological risk assessment of nonnative boas and pythons as potentially invasive species in the United States. Risk Anal. 25, 753–766. Rodda, G.H., Savidge, J.A., 2007. Biology and impacts of pacific island invasive species. 2. Boiga irregularis, the brown tree snake (Reptilia: Colubridae). Pac. Sci. 61, 307–324. Savolainen, P., Leitner, T., Wilton, A.N., Matisoo-Smith, E., Lundeberg, J., 2004. A detailed picture of the origin of the Australian dingo, obtained from the study of mitochondrial DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101, 12387–12390. Singleton, G.R., 2003. Impacts of rodents on rice production in Asia. No. 45, IRRI Discussion Paper Series, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Los Baños, 30 pp. Steadman, D.W., 1995. Prehistoric extinctions of Pacific island birds: biodiversity meets zooarchaeology. Science 267, 1123–1131. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Great Lakes Commission, 1999. About our Great Lakes. Available from: http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/pr/ourlakes/background. html US Bureau of Land Management, 2016. Wild horse and burro quick facts. Available from: http://www.blm. gov/wo/st/en/prog/whbprogram/history_and_facts/ quick_facts.html USGS (Geological Survey), 2016. Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database. USGS, Gainesville, FL. Vere, D.T., Jones, R.E., Saunders, G.R., 2004. The economic benefits of controlling rabbits in Australian temperate pasture systems from the introduction of the rabbit calicivirus disease. Agric. Econ. 30, 143–155.
426
17. Invasive Species
Wanless, R.M., Angel, A., Cuthbert, R.J., Hilton, G.M., Ryan, P.G., 2007. Can predation by invasive mice drive seabird extinctions? Biol. Lett. 3, 241–244. Wildlife Service (of APHIS, USDA), 2011. Brown tree snake— an invasive reptile. Available from: https://www.aphis. usda.gov/publications/wildlife_damage/content/ printable_version/fs_brown_tree_snake_2011.pdf Willson, J.D., Dorcas, M.E., Snow, R.W., 2011. Identifying plausible scenarios for the establishment of invasive Bur-
mese pythons (Python molurus) in Southern Florida. Biol. Invasions 13, 1493–1504. Winston, M.L., 1992. The biology and management of Africanized honey bees. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 37, 173–193. Wodzicki, K., Wright, S., 1980. Introduced birds and mammals in New Zealand and their effect on the environment. Tuatara 27, 78–103.
17
Invasive Species Colin G. Scanes University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, United States
17.1 INTRODUCTION Invasive species are animals or plants that are nonnative to the region and were introduced by human intervention (Keller et al., 2011). The “100 World’s Worst” invaders have been listed by the Invasive Species Specialist Group. Introductions that have resulted in increasing populations and expansion to new geographical areas are viewed by some as “successful” (Wodzicki and Wright, 1980) or as establishing invasive species. If an exotic species survives and is reproducing in the new locale, it is viewed as established. If it spreads widely it is viewed as invasive if it is exerting a “measurable” effect on ecosystems or human activity (Keller et al., 2011). These species can detrimentally influence indigenous biodiversity (both plant and animal) and potentially cause extinctions. The study of the effects of invasive species is difficult as there is unlikely to be data on the region prior to and after the establishment of the invasive species. Effects may be confounded by other changes in the environment (often caused by humans) and it is difficult to definitively quantitate competition for food or nesting sites and/or predation (Grarock et al., 2012).
Animals and Human Society http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805247-1.00024-1
Examples of invasive species are summarized in Table 17.1. Invasive species can be categorized as one of the following (based on Wodzicki and Wright, 1980): • Accidentally introduced • “Stowaways” on ships [rats (Norway and black) and mice (house mouse) to multiple locales] or planes (brown tree snakes transported to Guam). • Escaped from captivity (e.g., gray squirrels in the United Kingdom). • Thoughtlessly released (e.g., pet Burmese pythons released into the Everglades, Florida). • Deliberately introduced • On esthetics or other supposed quality of life issues, such as the species being named in Shakespeare plays (e.g., starlings) or to help settlers/immigrants from Europe become comfortable by having familiar animals around them (e.g., North America, South Africa, and Australia). • As game species for sport/hunting including wild boar (introduced to the USA), wallabies (New Zealand), deer
413
Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
414
17. Invasive Species
TABLE 17.1 Examples of Invasive Species Species
Category
Location introduced
Camel
Feral
Australia
Cat
Feral
Australia
Deer
Deliberately introduced
Australia, Islands, New Zealand, United Kingdom
Dingos
Accidentally introduced
Australia
European rabbit
Feral
Australia
Gray squirrel
Accidentally introduced
United Kingdom
Horses and donkeys
Feral
North and South America, Australia
Norway or brown rat
Accidentally introduced
Islands
Pacific rat
Deliberately introduced
Polynesian islands
Ship or black rat
Accidentally introduced
Islands
Wild pig
Deliberately introduced + feral
USA
Starling
Deliberately introduced
USA
Feral pigeon
Feral
North America, Australia
House sparrow
Deliberately introduced
USA
Common myna
Deliberately introduced
Australia
Brown tree snake
Accidentally introduced
Guam (Mariana Islands in Pacific Ocean)
Burmese python
Thoughtlessly introduced
USA (Everglades in Florida)
Deliberately introduced
Australia
Alewife
Accidentally introduced
Great Lakes, USA and Canada
Sea lamprey
Accidentally introduced
Great Lakes, USA and Canada
Quagga mussels
Accidentally introduced
Great Lakes, USA and Canada
Zebra mussels
Accidentally introduced
Great Lakes, USA and Canada
Deliberately introduced
South America
Mammals
Birds
Reptiles
Amphibian Cane toad Aquatic species
Other species (Arthropods) Africanized bees
(British Isles, New Zealand, and South America), and game birds, such as pheasants (New Zealand). • For biological control, such as cane toad and common mynas (introduced to Australia for insect control), hedgehogs
(insect control), stoats, ferrets, and weasels (introduced to New Zealand for the control of rabbits), and small Indian mongoose (introduced to over 40 islands for the control of rodents and other pests).
17.2 Mammalian Invasive Species
• As utility species for fur or meat, such as possum and rabbits (introduced to New Zealand). • Feral animals: agricultural or companion animals that have escaped (e.g., camels, cats, dogs/dingos, donkeys, horses, and rabbits).
415
Given the serious effects that some invasive species cause, the Ecological Society of America made the following recommendations to the US Government about invasive species (Lodge et al., 2006):
Biology Institute and the US Fish and Wildlife Service, they may represent “the single greatest source of anthropogenic mortality for US birds and mammals.” Cats prefer to hunt small mammals. It is estimated that cats kill the following annually in the contiguous 48 States of the USA (Loss et al., 2013):
1. Use new information and practices to better manage commercial and other pathways to reduce the transport and release of potentially harmful species. 2. Adopt more quantitative procedures for risk analysis and apply them to every species proposed for importation into the country. 3. Use new cost-effective diagnostic technologies to increase active surveillance and sharing of information about invasive species so that responses to new invasions can be more rapid and effective. 4. Create new legal authority and provide emergency funding to support rapid responses to emerging invasions. 5. Provide funding and incentives for costeffective programs to slow the spread of existing invasive species to protect still uninvaded ecosystems, social and industrial infrastructure, and human welfare. 6. Establish a National Center for Invasive Species Management.
• • • •
mammals, 12.3 billion birds, 2.4 billion reptiles, 478 million amphibians, 173 million Free-roaming cats include the following:
• Owned cats allowed to roam. • Unowned cats including feral cats, semiferal cats/strays (may be fed but not enter homes), and barn cats.
17.2 MAMMALIAN INVASIVE SPECIES
The majority of the wildlife killed are due to so called “unowned cats.” Even so, about 30% of the wild birds killed are by owned cats that are allowed to roam. Globally, feral cats are among the “100 of the World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species.” They are thought to be responsible for 33 modern extinctions of mammals, birds, and reptiles and are threatening many more particularly on islands (Lowe et al., 2000). It is estimated that feral cats on islands caused as much as 14% of all global extinctions of mammals, birds, and reptiles (238 species) (Medina et al., 2011). Feral cats were successfully eradicated in 1991 from Marion Island; a sub-Antarctic island south of South Africa in the Indian Ocean. Following the eradication, there were rapidly marked improvements of the breeding success of the great-winged petrel (Pterodroma macroptera) and the blue petrel (Halobaena caerulea) (Cooper et al., 1995).
17.2.1 Cats (Free Roaming, Unowned, and Feral)
17.2.2 Dingos and Other Feral Dogs Based on genomic and archaeological studies, it has been concluded that the wild dog of Australia, the dingo, originated from escaped domestic dogs transported on boats from
Free-roaming domestic cats are responsible for killing large numbers of wildlife. According to researchers at the Smithsonian Conservation
416
17. Invasive Species
East Asia about 5000 years ago (Savolainen et al., 2004). Dingos are found throughout Australia. Damages from dingos and other wild dogs in Australia are reported to be A$48.5 million (Gong et al., 2009).
have been estimated to consume the equivalent food for 200 million people for an entire year (Singleton, 2003). The economic impact of rats in the USA was estimated in 2000 at $19 billion year−1 many times greater than any other invasive animal species (Pimentel et al. 2000).
17.2.3 Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus)
17.2.4.1 Black Rat or Ship or Roof Rat (Rattus rattus) The black rat (Fig. 17.1) originated in the Indian subcontinent and South East Asia (Aplin et al., 2011). Human activity has led to their spreading. There were black rats in the Middle East about 15,000 BP. They reached the areas around the Mediterranean Sea about 6000 BP and the British Isles by CE/AD 400 (Aplin et al., 2011). Accidental introduction from ships has led to its global distribution with the species introduced to North America in the 16th century. The black rat is particularly successful in Tropical areas but tends to be out-competed by the Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus) in temperate regions. In the USA, the black rat is found in the Southern States and along the Pacific coast. According to the Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG, 2015), the ship or black rat (R. rattus) is the species of rat responsible for many of the island extinctions of birds. It, but not the Norway rat, is included among the 100 of the World’s Worse Invasive Species. Recently, it has been reported that logging in Borneo is
One of the best examples of a damaging invasive alien species is the European wild rabbit, which was introduced into Australia with the first feral population reported in Australia in 1827 (Australian Department of Environment). Damage and losses from rabbits in Australia are estimated at A$206.0 million (Gong et al., 2009) with damage to grazing for sheep estimated to be between A$7.1 and A$38.7 million (Vere et al., 2004). The myxomatosis virus was introduced to control wild rabbit numbers in Australia in 1950 and also in Europe including the United Kingdom. Although the myxomatosis virus exhibited high lethality killing 99% of rabbits, numbers rebounded as the virus became attenuated and the surviving rabbits showed resistance (Kerr and Best, 1998).
17.2.4 Rodents as Invasive Species Rats and mice are among the most destructive species to the environment following their introduction by humans, albeit accidentally. Island habitats are especially vulnerable to rats. For example, islands are important breeding sites for seabirds. Rats and mice are threatening both populations and entire species of seabirds. Mitigation programs have been implemented in over 400 islands. Rodent eradication has been successfully carried out on many islands amounting to over 20,000 ha in 2005 (Martins et al., 2006) and extrapolating to 30,000 ha by 2015. Costs increase geometrically with the size of islands (Martins et al., 2006). Rodents have major economic and social impacts (see Chapter 16). For instance in Asia, rats
FIGURE 17.1 Black rat (R. rattus). Source: Courtesy CDC.
17.2 Mammalian Invasive Species
accompanied by large increases in black rats in disturbed areas of a tropic rain forest (Loveridge et al., 2016).
417
17.2.4.2 Brown or Norway Rat (Rattus norvegicus) Contrary to its name, the Norway or brown rat (R. norvegicus) (Fig. 17.2) does not come from Norway. They originally come from Northern China. They were brought to Europe later than the arrival of the ship or black rat (R. rattus) sometime between the AD 800 and AD 1500. Accidental introduction from ships has led to the global distribution of the Norway or brown rat. The species was introduced to North America in about 1750 and spread as humans migrated across the continent. The Norway rat out-competes the ship rat in temperate regions. In the USA, the Norway rat is found throughout the country. Norway rats are found in most of the provinces of Canada. The exception to this is Alberta where there has been a successful series of programs to prevent the western expansion and to eradicate rats. In around 1800, whaling boats inadvertently brought Norway rats together with house mice to South Georgia, a mountainous island in the South Atlantic Ocean close to the Antarctic with a subarctic climate. Moreover, reindeer
were introduced (Black et al., 2012). At present, there are over 100,000 seabirds that breed on the island (Clarke et al., 2012). South Georgia is the breeding site for 29 seabird species and the most important breeding site for 6 species [Macaroni Penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus), gray-headed albatross (Thalassarche chrysostoma), northern giant petrel (Macronectes halli), Antarctic prion (Pachyptila desolata), white-chinned petrel (Procellaria aequinoctialis), and common diving petrel (Pelecanoides urinatrix)] and one of the top three sites for 7 other species (Clarke et al., 2012). The rats negatively impact marine bird populations particularly those that nest on the ground on these islands by depredating eggs and chicks (Pye and Bonner, 1980; reviewed by Black et al., 2012). It is estimated that the introduction of the rat led to an over 90% decrease in the number of seabirds nesting on the island (Clarke et al., 2012). A successful rodent eradication program was implemented (Black et al., 2012). 17.2.4.3 Pacific Rat (Rattus exulans) The Polynesians voyaging across the Pacific and colonizing islands brought with them Pacific rats as a source of food (Matisoo-Smith and Robins, 2004). These escaped leading to the extinction of over 2000 species of birds and are now an important invasive species (Duncan et al., 2013; Steadman, 1995). In part, this was due to the clearing of forests and hence habitat changes, but also due to damage from their accompanying animals, Pacific rats and pigs. The former have had major detrimental effects on seabirds. There is direct observational evidence of predation by Pacific rats of seabirds including adult and chick Laysan albatrosses and reductions in nests (Kepler, 1967).
FIGURE 17.2 Brown rat. Source: Courtesy EPA.
17.2.4.4 House Mice (Mus musculus) Until it was studied, it was assumed that the introduction of house mice had little significant effect on ecosystems and particularly birds breeding. However, the effects on birds are supported based on observations on Gough Island.
418
17. Invasive Species
This is an uninhabited island in the South Atlantic Ocean that it is very useful to study the effects of mice as they are the sole introduced species; there being no rats or feral animals (Wanless et al., 2007). Not only were mice observed by video as killing and eating chicks but they were also demonstrated to be at least one major cause for the poor breeding success in Tristan albatrosses (Diomedea dabbenena) and Atlantic petrels (Pterodroma incerta) (Wanless et al., 2007).
New Mexico, Tennessee, and North Carolina, and extending into Kansas, Missouri, Kentucky, and West Virginia with wild pigs also reported in the Midwest (e.g., Ohio and Michigan), North East (Pennsylvania, Vermont, and New Hampshire), and West (e.g., Washington and Utah) (National Feral Swine Mapping System, 2015). Losses and damages from wild pigs have been estimated as the following:
17.2.4.5 Gray Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) According to the Introduced Species Summary Project (2015) of Columbia University, the gray squirrel (S. carolinensis) is the second most damaging introduced species in the British Isles (after the Norway rat). Gray squirrels have also out-competed the native red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) in much of the United Kingdom leading to the decline and replacement of the latter (Okubo et al., 1989). It is thought that the large population originated from escapees from the London zoo between 1876 and 1929 (Introduced Species Summary Project, 2015) or multiple sites including Woburn Abbey in Bedfordshire (Okubo et al., 1989).
• Australia, A$9.2 million (Gong et al., 2009) • USA, $0.8 billion dollars per year (Pimentel et al., 2000, 2005) • Hawaii, $4 million including marked soil erosion (Pimentel et al., 2000, 2005) In addition to damage, wild pigs are a reservoir for pathogens for domestic pigs and for zoonotic diseases for humans.
17.2.6 Mongoose
17.2.5 Wild Pigs
The small Indian mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) was introduced to more than 40 islands including Jamaica (1872), Hawaii (1883), Fiji (1883), Cuba (1886), Okinawa (1910), and the Croatian islands in the Adriatic Sea (1910) with the goal of controlling rat populations (Carnivora: Herpestidae) (Hays and Conant, 2007). It was at best somewhat effective in controlling rats in sugar cane fields but had a negative effect on wildlife particularly birds and reptiles (Hays and Conant, 2007). The mongoose is responsible for $50 million in losses and damages in the USA, specifically in Hawaii and Puerto Rico (Pimentel et al., 2005).
Wild pigs (Sus scrofa) are also known as wild boar, wild hog, feral pig, feral hog, Old World swine, razorback, Eurasian wild boar, and Russian wild boar. They are derived from escaped domestic pigs or wild boar that were introduced for hunting. The range of the wild pigs in the USA has been expanding considerably. In 1982, wild pigs were largely restricted to some areas of Texas, Louisiana, and Florida with isolated populations in California, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Tennessee, and Arkansas. By 2015, wild pigs were found throughout Texas, California, Oklahoma, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina together with large parts of Oregon, Arizona,
17.2.7 Horses and Donkeys The populations of feral donkeys and horses in Australia and the USA are as follows:
• Australia (Australian Department of Environment, 2015) • feral donkey 5 million • feral horse 400,000
17.3 Avian Invasive Species
419
17.3.1 Common or European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris)
• USA (US Bureau of Land Management, 2016) • feral donkey (burros) 10,800 • feral horse 47,000
The American Acclimatization Society introduced about a hundred European starlings into New York’s Central Park in 1890–91 (Mirsky, 2008). Today there are about 200 million starlings across the USA with populations also in South Africa, New Zealand, and Australia (reviewed by Lintz et al., 2007) (see Chapter 16). Losses and damages from starlings in the USA are estimated at $0.8 billion dollars per year (Pimentel et al., 2000, 2005).
The number of feral horses and burros showed a one year 18% increase and now exceeds the appropriate management level by 31,435 (US Bureau of Land Management, 2016). Losses and damages from wild horses and burros in the USA are estimated at $5 million dollars per year (Pimentel et al., 2000, 2005). Losses in Australia are likely much greater.
17.2.8 Other Invasive Mammals in Australia
17.3.2 Feral Pigeon (Columba livia)
Other invasive mammals in Australia are feral camels (1 million and damages/losses A$8.9 million), feral goat (2.6 million), feral water buffalo (150,000), and introduced red fox (damage and losses A$21.2 million). Introduced deer (fallow deer, red deer, chital deer, hog deer, rusa deer, and sambar deer) are an emerging problem (Australian Department of Environment, 2015). These invasive species destroy native plants, compete with domestic animals and can cause soil erosion.
Feral pigeons are derived from domesticated rock pigeons. Pigeons are found in agricultural and urban areas around the world. Urban pigeon populations are growing rapidly with increased urbanization. The highest numbers are found in those urban areas surrounded by agriculture in Poland (Hetmanski et al., 2010). Estimates for some urban pigeon populations include the following:
17.3 AVIAN INVASIVE SPECIES
• Venice and Pisa, 1000–2000 pigeons per km2 (Giunchi et al., 2012). • Sheffield, United Kingdom, 15,000 pigeons (Fuller et al., 2008) compared to a total of 550,000 for the entire United Kingdom (Baker et al., 2006).
In the 19th century, the American Acclimatization Society imported and introduced birds named in Shakespeare’s plays to the USA. The group introduced about a hundred European starlings into New York’s Central Park in 1890–91 (Mirsky, 2008). They prospered at the expense of native species. Today there are about 200 million starlings across the USA. Another introduced species is the house sparrow. There were multiple introductions of sparrows in the 19th century as part of an effort to ensure that European immigrants had familiar birds around.
There are problems with feral pigeons particularly in urban areas including the following (Giunchi et al., 2012):
• Damage to buildings particularly medieval buildings accelerating deterioration (cleaning costs in Europe are estimated at 7–9 euros per pigeon per year) and increasing maintenance costs. • Public health concerns with pathogens in the excreta and dust from feathers. • Bird strikes and aircraft. • Fouling grain in elevators.
420
17. Invasive Species
• Agricultural damage with losses in Italy estimated between 20 and 43 million euros per year. Losses and damages from feral pigeons in the USA are estimated at $1.1 billion dollars per year (Pimentel et al., 2000, 2005) (see Chapter 16).
• House sparrow (Passer domesticus): the US population of house sparrows (70 million) originated from 16 released house sparrows brought in by European immigrants (Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, 2017; Moulton et al., 2010). • Ring-necked pheasant: introduced in the USA for hunting and is now widespread.
17.3.3 Common Myna (Acridotheres tristis)
17.4 REPTILIAN INVASIVE SPECIES
The common myna was introduced to Australia from India to control insect pests in agriculture (Hone, 1978). The species spread from its initial locus of Melbourne across much of eastern Australia (Hone, 1978). The common myna is one of the world’s top 100 worst invaders. Recently, the impact of the common myna on native birds, particularly competition for nesting sites, was reported based on empirical studies prior to and after their arrival in Canberra (Grarock et al., 2012).
17.4.1 Burmese Pythons (Python molurus bivittatus)
17.3.4 Mute Swans (Cygnus olor)
There is growing concern on the detrimental effects of Burmese pythons (Fig. 17.3) on the integrity of the ecosystem of the Everglades (Fig. 17.4) and the Florida Keys. It is thought that a small number of pet Burmese pythons were released into the Everglades in about 1985 (Willson et al., 2011). The numbers have increased based on the number of pythons removed. Also, their distribution is increasing (Fig. 17.5) The Everglades is biologically vulnerable with endangered species. There has been a decline in the population of mammals based on decreases in the number observed during nocturnal
Mute swans were introduced in the USA and Canada between 1850 and 1900. Their population around the Great Lakes is increasing at over 10% per year. They are displacing ducks, geese, and loons from wetlands and destroying aquatic vegetation with each swan uprooting about 10 kg of submersed aquatic vegetation daily (Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, in press; Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, in press).
17.3.5 Other Invasive Birds in the USA Other alien avian species in the USA include the following: • Eurasian collared-dove (Streptopelia decaocto): introduced in Florida, where they have been increasing exponentially since the early 1970s (Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, 2017)
FIGURE 17.3 Burmese python (P. molurus bivittatus).
Source: Courtesy National Parks Service.
17.4 Reptilian Invasive Species
421
Moreover, it has been concluded that Burmese pythons are responsible for 77% of mortalities of marsh rabbits (Sylvilagus palustris) (McCleery et al., 2015).
17.4.2 Brown Tree Snake (Boiga irregularis)
observation on roads between 2003 and 2013 (Dorcas et al., 2012):
The brown tree snake (Fig. 17.6) is thought to have arrived in Guam in 1949 as a female stowaway on a plane from New Guinea/Solomon Islands (reviewed by Rodda and Savidge, 2007; Wildlife Service, 2011). From a small population, even a single pregnant female, the population grew to over 2 million in 1980 with population densities as high as 100 ha−1 (reviewed by Rodda and Savidge, 2007). Brown tree snakes have the following impacts (reviewed by Rodda and Savidge, 2007):
• • • • •
• To people • Injury or death to particularly babies or young children due to snake bites. • Injury or death and even consumption of their pets, such as dogs due to snake bites.
FIGURE 17.4 Everglades. Source: Courtesy US National Parks Service.
bobcats decreased 87.5% opossums decreased 98.7% raccoons decreased 99.3% rabbits decreased 100% white-tailed deer 94.1%
FIGURE 17.5 Number of Burmese python removed per year from the Everglades. Source: Based on data by Dorcas, M.E., Willson, J.D., Reed, R.N., Snow, R.W., Rochford, M.R., Miller, M.A., Meshaka, W.E. Jr., Andreadis, P.T., Mazzotti, F.J., Romagosa, C.M., Hart, K.M. 2012. Severe mammal declines coincide with proliferation of invasive Burmese pythons in Everglades National Park. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 109, 2418–2422.
422
17. Invasive Species
vertebrate fauna (Reed, 2005) resulting in the extinction of the following: – 10 of 13 species of endemic forest birds – 2 of 3 native mammals – 6 endemic lizards • Decreased transmission of plant seeds • Reduced negative impact of introduced rats
17.5 AMPHIBIAN INVASIVE SPECIES 17.5.1 Cane Toad (Rhinella marina) According to the Australian Department of Environment (2015), the cane toad is an invasive species with a significant impact. It was initially released in northern Queensland in 1935 as a biological control to eliminate pest beetles.
17.6 AQUATIC INVASIVE SPECIES
FIGURE 17.6 Brown tree snake (B. irregularis). Source:
Aquatic animals have been introduced accidentally to rivers and lakes. For example, 79 species have been introduced into the Great Lakes (reviewed by Cuhel and Aguilar, 2013). The ecosystems of the Great Lakes of North America (or Laurentian Great Lakes) are new in Geological terms being formed with the retreat/ melting of the glacial continental ice sheets from the last Ice Age between 14,000 and 4,000 years ago (reviewed by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Great Lakes Commission, 1999). Of the invasive species in the Great Lakes, four have been demonstrated to be having a major ecological impact. These damaging invasive species are the following: the sea lamprey, the alewife, the zebra mussel, and the quagga mussel (reviewed by Cuhel and Aguilar, 2013).
Courtesy USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service; Photo by R. Anson Eaglin.
• To human society • Electrical system damage estimated at $1.7 billion per year. • Losses of poultry. • Inspections of exported goods doubling costs. In contrast in another analysis, the estimated total losses and damages were reported as $11 million per year (Pimentel et al., 2005) (see Chapter 16). • To the environment • Major detrimental effects to the native mammals and birds; decimating
17.6.1 Alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus)
Alewife are also called mulhaden, gray herring, or golden shad. Alewife spread to Lake Erie through the Welland Canal and then to
423
17.7 Conclusions
other Great Lakes via the Detroit River and Lake St. Clair (USGS, 2016). The species has spread to reservoirs (e.g., Cherry Merritt Reservoir in Nebraska), lakes (e.g., in Tennessee and New York), and rivers, such as Missouri River and Mississippi River (USGS, 2016). Alefish are problematic as they out-compete with other species for zooplankton and, in die-offs, they foul beaches and negatively impact recreation and local economies (USGS, 2016).
bivalves of the family Unionidae (Burlakova et al., 2014).
17.6.4 Africanized Bees (Apis mellifera scutellata) or Killer Bees
17.6.2 Sea Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus)
African Bees were imported to Brazil in 1956 with the goal of hybridization with the European honeybee to improve the latter’s ability to live in tropical environments (reviewed by Kono and Kohn, 2015). Africanized bees escaped an apiary in Rio Claro (São Paulo, Brazil) and spread being first observed in the following places (Ferreira et al., 2012; Lazaneo, 2002; Winston, 1992):
Sea lampreys are native to the Atlantic Ocean. They spread from Lake Ontario to Lake Erie (1921) again via the Welland Canal then invaded Lake Huron, Lake Michigan, and Lake Superior. Today they are also present in many rivers in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan (USGS, 2016). Sea lamprey feeds on and/or damage native fish. It is thought that sea lampreys are at least partially responsible for the collapse of commercial fishing on the Great Lakes (USGS, 2016).
• • • •
throughout Brazil by 1979 reaching Argentina in 1968 reaching Mexico in 1985 reaching the USA in 1990; first Texas, then Arizona and in 1994 into California
17.6.3 Zebra Mussels (Dreissena bugensis) and Quagga Mussel (Dreissena rostriformis bugensis)
They have out-competed European honeybees with now over two-thirds of feral bees in San Diego county (California) with Africanized bee mitochondrial DNA (Kono and Kohn, 2015). The spread of Africanized bees has continued with some Africanized bees identified in the San Joaquin or Central Valley, California (Kono and Kohn, 2015). There are implications for the spread of the Africanized bee. There is improved pollination of both wild and domesticated plants. However, the Africanized bee is much more aggressive to humans stinging people. A single sting may be unpleasant or lead to an allergic reaction (reviewed by Ferreira et al., 2012; Lazaneo, 2002). Multiple stings from an aggressive swarm of Africanized bees can have severe health consequences (reviewed by Ferreira et al., 2012; Lazaneo, 2002).
Zebra mussels were first found in the North American Great Lakes in 1986 (reviewed by Mills et al., 1996). It has spread first to all the Great Lakes and then to waterways and lakes throughout the eastern USA and Canada (reviewed by Mills et al., 1996). The quagga mussel was first observed in the Great Lakes in 1989 (reviewed by Mills et al., 1996). The zebra and quagga mussels are native to waterways and lakes around the Black and Caspian seas. It is presumed that these mussels were transported to the Great Lakes in ships from this area. The invasive mussels, the zebra and quagga mussels, have marked effects on the ecology of the Great Lakes. For instance, their presence has accelerated the decline in populations of native
17.7 CONCLUSIONS
Human introduction of animals or invasive species have disrupted ecosystems globally. In some cases, this is being successfully addressed
424
17. Invasive Species
with eradication programs. However, it is likely that invasive species will continue to be a major problem unless there are concerted efforts by governments and international agencies with sciencebased policies and careful implementation.
References
Dorcas, M.E., Willson, J.D., Reed, R.N., Snow, R.W., Rochford, M.R., Miller, M.A., Meshaka, Jr., W.E., Andreadis, P.T., Mazzotti, F.J., Romagosa, C.M., Hart, K.M., 2012. Severe mammal declines coincide with proliferation of invasive Burmese pythons in Everglades National Park. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 109, 2418–2422. Duncan, R.P., Boyer, A.G., Blackburn, T.M., 2013. Magnitude and variation of prehistoric bird extinctions in the Pacific. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 110, 6436–6441. Ferreira, Jr., R.S., Almeida, R.A., Barraviera, S.R., Barraviera, B., 2012. Historical perspective and human consequences of Africanized bee stings in the Americas. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B Crit. Rev. 15, 97–108. Fuller, R.A., Tratalos, J., Gaston, K.J., 2008. How many birds are there in a city of half a million people? Divers. Distrib. 15, 328–337. Giunchi, D., Albores-Barajas, Y.V., Baldaccini, N.E., Vanni, L., Soldatini, C., 2012. Feral pigeons: problems, dynamics and control methods. Available from: http://cdn.intechweb.org/pdfs/29607.pdf Gong, W., Sinden, J., Braysher, M., Jones, R., 2009. The economic impacts of vertebrate pests in Australia Invasive Animals Cooperative Research Centre. University of Canberra, Australia. Available from: http:// www.pestsmart.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/ IACRC_EconomicImpactsReport.pdf Grarock, K., Tidemann, C.R., Wood, J., Lindenmayer, D.B., 2012. Is it benign or is it a Pariah? Empirical evidence for the impact of the common myna (Acridotheres tristis) on Australian birds. PLoS One 7, e40622. Hays, W.S.T., Conant, S., 2007. Biology and impacts of Pacific island invasive species. 1. A worldwide review of effects of the small Indian mongoose, Herpestes javanicus (Carnivora: Herpestidae). Pac. Sci. 61, 3–16. Hetmanski, T., Bochenski, M., Tryjanowski, P., Skórka, P., 2010. The effect of habitat and number of inhabitants on the population sizes of feral pigeons around towns in northern Poland. Eur. J. Wildlife Res. 57, 421–428. Hone, J., 1978. Introduction and spread of the common myna in New South Wales. Emu 78, 227–230. ISSG (Invasive Species Specialist Group), 2015. Available from: http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology. asp?si=19&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN Kepler, C.B., 1967. Polynesian rat predation on nesting Laysan albatrosses and other Pacific seabirds. Auk 84, 426– 430. Keller, R.P., Geist, J., Justice, J.M., Kühn, I., 2011. Invasive species in Europe: ecology, status, and policy. Environ. Sci. Eur. 23, 23. Kerr, P.J., Best, S.M., 1998. Myxoma virus in rabbits. Rev. Sci. Tech. 17, 256–268. Kono, Y., Kohn, J.R., 2015. Range and frequency of Africanized honey bees in California (USA). PLoS One 10, e0137407.
Aplin, K.P., Suzuki, H., Chinen, A.A., Chesser, R.T., Ten Have, J., Donnellan, S.C., Austin, J., Frost, A., Gonzalez, J.P., Herbreteau, V., Catzeflis, F., Soubrier, J., Fang, Y.P., Robins, J., Matisoo-Smith, E., Bastos, A.D., Maryanto, I., Sinaga, M.H., Denys, C., Van Den Bussche, R.A., Conroy, C., Rowe, K., Cooper, A., 2011. Multiple geographic origins of commensalism and complex dispersal history of Black Rats. PLoS One 6, e26357. Australian Department of Environment, 2015. Available from: https://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/ invasive-species/feral-animals-australia Baker, H., Stroud, D.A., Aebischer, N.J., Cranswick, P.A., Gregory, R.D., McSorley, C.A., Noble, D.G., Rehfisch, M.M., 2006. Population estimates of birds in Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Br Birds 99, 25–44. Black, A., Poncet, S., Wolfaardt, A., Peters, D., Hart, T., Wolfaardt, L.-A., Tasker, M., Rexer-Huber, K., 2012. Rodent eradication on South Georgia—preparation and evaluation: a summary report of activities during the 2011/2012 field season. Government of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands and UK Overseas Territories Environment Programme. Available from: http://www. gov.gs/docsarchive/Environment/Invasive%20Species/Rodent%20eradication%20preparation%20and%20 evaluation%20-OTEP%20report.pdf Burlakova, L.E., Tulumello, B.L., Karatayev, A.Y., Krebs, R.A., Schloesser, D.W., Paterson, W.L., Griffith, T.A., Scott, M.W., Crail, T., Zanatta, D.T., 2014. Competitive replacement of invasive congeners may relax impact on native species: interactions among zebra, quagga, and native unionid mussels. PLoS One 9, e114926. Clarke, A., Croxall, J.P., Poncet, S., Martin, A.R., Burton, R., 2012. Important bird areas: South Georgia. British Birds 105, 118–144. Cooper, J., Marais, A.v.N., Bloomer, J.P., Bester, M.N., 1995. A success story: breeding of burrowing petrels (Procellariidae) before and after the eradication of feral cats Felis catus at subantarctic Marion Island. Mar. Ornithol. 23, 33–37. Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, 2017. All about birds. Available from: https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/ House_Sparrow/lifehistory Cuhel, R.L., Aguilar, C., 2013. Ecosystem transformations of the Laurentian Great Lake Michigan by non-indigenous biological invaders. Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 5, 289–320.
REFERENCES
Lazaneo, V., 2002. Bee alert: Africanized honey bee facts. University of California-Agriculture and Natural Resources; Publication 8068. Lintz, G.M., Homan, H.J., Gaukler, S.M., Penry, L.B., Bleier, W.J., 2007. European starlings: a review of an invasive species with far reaching impacts. In: Witmer, G.W., Pitt, W.C., Fagerstone, K.A. (Eds.), Managing Vertebrate Invasive Species: Proceedings of an International Symposium. USDA/APHIS/WS, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, CO, pp. 378–386, Available from: http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si =74&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN. Lodge, D.M., Williams, S., MacIsaac, H.J., Hayes, K.R., Leung, B., Reichard, S., Mack, R.N., Moyle, P.B., Smith, M., Andow, D.A., Carlton, J.T., McMichael, A., 2006. Biological invasions: recommendations for U.S. policy and management. Ecol. Appl. 16, 2035–2054. Loss, S.R., Will, T., Marra, P.P., 2013. The impact of free-ranging domestic cats on wildlife of the United States. Nat. Commun. 4, 1396. Loveridge, R., Wearn, O.R., Vieira, M., Bernard, H., Ewers, R.M., 2016. Movement behavior of native and invasive small mammals shows logging may facilitate invasion in a tropical rain forest. Biotropica 48 (3), 373–380. Lowe, S., Browne, M., Boudjelas, S., 2000. 100 of the World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species: A Selection from the Global Invasive Species Database. Invasive Species Specialist Group, International Union for Conservation of Nature, Auckland, NZ. Martins, T.L.F., Brooke, M.D.L., Hilton, G.M., Farnsworth, S., Gould, J., Pain, D.J., 2006. Costing eradications of alien mammals from islands. Anim. Conserv. 9, 439–444. Matisoo-Smith, E., Robins, J.H., 2004. Origins and dispersals of Pacific peoples: evidence from mtDNA phylogenies of the Pacific rat. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101, 9167–9172. McCleery, R.A., Sovie, A., Reed, R.N., Cunningham, M.W., Hunter, M.E., Hart, K.M., 2015. Marsh rabbit mortalities tie pythons to the precipitous decline of mammals in the Everglades. Proc. Biol. Sci. 282, pii: 20150120. Medina, F.M., Bonnaud, E., Vidal, E., Tersey, B.R., Zavaleta, E.S., Donlaqn, C.J., Keitt, B.S., Corre, M.l., Horwath, S.V., Nogale, M.S., 2011. A global review of the impacts of invasive cats on island endangered vertebrates. Global Change Biol. 17, 3503–3510. Mills, E.L., Rosenberg, G., Spidle, A.P., Ludyanskiy, M., Pligin, Y., May, B., 1996. A review of the biology and ecology of the quagga mussel (Dreissena bugensis), a second species of freshwater Dreissenid introduced to North America. Am. Zool. 36, 271–286. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 2017. Available from: http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/invasives/terrestrialanimals/muteswan/index.html Mirsky, S., 2008. Shakespeare to blame for introduction of European starlings to U.S. Scientific American. Available
425
from: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/callof-the-reviled/ Moulton, M.P., Cropper, W.P., Avery, M.L., Moulton, L.E., 2010. The earliest house sparrow introductions to North America. Biol. Invasions 12, 2955–2958. National Feral Swine Mapping System, 2015. Available from: http://swine.vet.uga.edu/nfsms/information/maps/ swineDistribution1982.jpg Okubo, A., Maini, P.K., Williamson, M.H., Murray, J.D., 1989. On the spatial spread of the grey squirrel in Britain. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 238, 113–125. Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, 2017. Available from: http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/bbs/state_of_the_ birds_2009.pdf Pimentel, D., Lach, L., Zuniga, R., Morrison, D., 2000. Environmental and economic costs of non-indigenous species in the United States. BioScience 50, 53–65. Pimentel, D., Zuniga, R., Morrison, D., 2005. Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States. Ecol. Econ. 52, 273–288. Pye, T., Bonner, W.N., 1980. Feral brown rats, Rattus norvegicus in South Georgia (South Atlantic Ocean). J. Zool. 192, 237–255. Reed, R.N., 2005. An ecological risk assessment of nonnative boas and pythons as potentially invasive species in the United States. Risk Anal. 25, 753–766. Rodda, G.H., Savidge, J.A., 2007. Biology and impacts of pacific island invasive species. 2. Boiga irregularis, the brown tree snake (Reptilia: Colubridae). Pac. Sci. 61, 307–324. Savolainen, P., Leitner, T., Wilton, A.N., Matisoo-Smith, E., Lundeberg, J., 2004. A detailed picture of the origin of the Australian dingo, obtained from the study of mitochondrial DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101, 12387–12390. Singleton, G.R., 2003. Impacts of rodents on rice production in Asia. No. 45, IRRI Discussion Paper Series, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Los Baños, 30 pp. Steadman, D.W., 1995. Prehistoric extinctions of Pacific island birds: biodiversity meets zooarchaeology. Science 267, 1123–1131. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Great Lakes Commission, 1999. About our Great Lakes. Available from: http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/pr/ourlakes/background. html US Bureau of Land Management, 2016. Wild horse and burro quick facts. Available from: http://www.blm. gov/wo/st/en/prog/whbprogram/history_and_facts/ quick_facts.html USGS (Geological Survey), 2016. Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database. USGS, Gainesville, FL. Vere, D.T., Jones, R.E., Saunders, G.R., 2004. The economic benefits of controlling rabbits in Australian temperate pasture systems from the introduction of the rabbit calicivirus disease. Agric. Econ. 30, 143–155.
426
17. Invasive Species
Wanless, R.M., Angel, A., Cuthbert, R.J., Hilton, G.M., Ryan, P.G., 2007. Can predation by invasive mice drive seabird extinctions? Biol. Lett. 3, 241–244. Wildlife Service (of APHIS, USDA), 2011. Brown tree snake— an invasive reptile. Available from: https://www.aphis. usda.gov/publications/wildlife_damage/content/ printable_version/fs_brown_tree_snake_2011.pdf Willson, J.D., Dorcas, M.E., Snow, R.W., 2011. Identifying plausible scenarios for the establishment of invasive Bur-
mese pythons (Python molurus) in Southern Florida. Biol. Invasions 13, 1493–1504. Winston, M.L., 1992. The biology and management of Africanized honey bees. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 37, 173–193. Wodzicki, K., Wright, S., 1980. Introduced birds and mammals in New Zealand and their effect on the environment. Tuatara 27, 78–103.