Irrigator responses to groundwater resource management in northern Victoria, southeastern Australia

Accepted Manuscript Irrigator responses to groundwater resource management in northern Victoria, southeastern Australia Bruce C. Gill, John Webb, Roger Wilkinson, Don Cherry PII: DOI: Reference:

S0022-1694(14)00320-5 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.04.046 HYDROL 19577

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Journal of Hydrology

Please cite this article as: Gill, B.C., Webb, J., Wilkinson, R., Cherry, D., Irrigator responses to groundwater resource management in northern Victoria, southeastern Australia, Journal of Hydrology (2014), doi: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.04.046

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1

Irrigator responses to groundwater resource management in northern Victoria,

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southeastern Australia.

3 Bruce C. Gilla,b *, John Webba, Roger Wilkinsonb , and Don Cherryb

4 5

a.

Environmental Geoscience, Department of Agricultural Sciences, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia b.

6

Department of Environment and Primary Industries, Victoria, Australia.

7 8

KEY WORDS:

9

Victoria (Australia)

Groundwater management, Stakeholder analysis, Groundwater sociology,

10 11 12

ABSTRACT In northern Victoria, farmers are the biggest users of groundwater and therefore the main

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stakeholders in plans that seek to sustainably manage the resource. Interviews with 30 irrigation

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farmers in two study areas, analysed using qualitative social research methods, showed that the

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overwhelming majority of groundwater users agreed with the need for groundwater management

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and thought that the current plans had achieved sustainable resource use. The farmers also

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expressed a strong need for clear technical explanations for management decisions, in particular

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easily understood water level data. The social licence to implement the management plans arose

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through effective consultation with the community during plan development. Several additional

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factors combined to gain acceptance for the plans: good data on groundwater usage and aquifer

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levels is available; irrigation farmers had been exposed to usage restrictions since the late 1990s;

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an ‘adaptive’ management approach is in use which allowed refinements to be readily

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incorporated and fortuitously, plan development coincided with the 1998–2009 drought, when

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declines in groundwater levels reinforced the usefulness of the plans. The imposition of a

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nation-wide water use reduction plan in 2012 had relatively little impact in Victoria because of

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the early implementation of effective groundwater management plans. However, economic

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difficulties that reduce groundwater users’ capacity to pay groundwater management charges Page 1 of 40

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mean that the future of the plans in Victoria is not assured. Nevertheless, the high level of trust

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that exists between Victorian irrigation farmers and the management agencies suggests that the

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continued use of a consultative approach will continue to produce workable outcomes. Lessons

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from the Victorian experience may be difficult to apply in other areas of groundwater use in

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Australia and overseas, where there may be a quite different history of development and culture

33

of groundwater management.

34 35

* Corresponding Author at: Department of Environment and Primary Industries, Victoria, Australia. Ferguson Road, Tatura VIC

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3616, Australia. Tel.: +61 3 58335 330.

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E-mail addresses: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected];

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[email protected]; [email protected].

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1. Introduction Groundwater resources play a valuable role in agricultural production; the main user of

42

groundwater in most parts of the world is agriculture. In the Australian state of Victoria,

43

irrigated agriculture is responsible for over 70% of the state’s groundwater extraction. During

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the recent period of reduced rainfall and drought from 1998 to 2009, the value of groundwater to

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many farm enterprises in Victoria was made abundantly clear when surface water supplies

46

dwindled. However, groundwater extraction caused numerous aquifers to suffer significant

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declines in standing water level, with winter-spring recovery levels falling over 10 metres in

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some areas (G-MW, 2012a). Although the aquifers were not as stressed as those elsewhere in

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Australia, e.g. Lockyer and Condamine catchments in Queensland (Baldwin and Ross, 2012;

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Baldwin et al., 2012) and some other countries (Foster and Chilton, 2003; Hoque et al., 2007;

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Konikow, 2013; Sophocleous, 2010) the declines were nevertheless large enough to precipitate

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action, leading to the introduction of new regulations to manage demand and respond to

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community concerns.

Page 2 of 40

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In this study, two agricultural areas in Victoria with significant groundwater use (Loddon

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Highlands and Campaspe Plains; Fig. 1) were investigated using social research methods to learn

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from the main stakeholders, the irrigation farmers, what they know and understand about the

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aquifers they depend upon, their thoughts on the groundwater management plans they are

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involved with and their information needs for more effective participation in the management

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process. A major goal was to assist groundwater resource managers to better understand the

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mindset and knowledge needs of the irrigation farmers, to enable more effective communication

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and help improve the strategic fit of sustainable groundwater use plans. The study was also able

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to highlight benefits from the early implementation of these management plans and flag potential

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areas of concern that may impact on groundwater users’ capacity to financially support the

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management plans in the future.

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<>

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2. Groundwater Resource Concepts

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There are fundamental differences between surface water and groundwater; these affect the

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role that groundwater users play in water management and they informed the development of the

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interview questions in this study. Surface water irrigation supply systems require costly

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collection and distribution schemes, generally entirely paid for by governments, to supply even

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small numbers of users, and it may be difficult to ensure sufficient water availability because of

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the vagaries of rainfall and losses due to evaporation (Schlager, 2006). In contrast, groundwater

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irrigation offers ready access for individual users, more reliable year-round supplies and less

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vulnerability to droughts because it is not subject to evaporation (Garrido et al., 2006).

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Furthermore, groundwater development is often not subsidised, so that financing, operation and

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maintenance are paid for by the groundwater users, who may be highly independent and

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protected by virtue of owning the infrastructure on private land (Turrel and Fullager, 2007). Page 3 of 40

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However, limited scientific understanding of cause and effect relationships between the

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availability and use of groundwater mean that users may not readily see the impacts of their

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pumping and may be reluctant to reduce usage when called upon to do so, especially if large

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volumes of water remain in storage. As a result, groundwater can be difficult to govern,

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particularly if the flow systems are ill-defined, and mapping and modelling to overcome data

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gaps are expensive.

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The intent of any groundwater management plan should be to ensure that the development

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and use of groundwater occurs at a rate that is renewable, so the natural system retains its

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integrity for the future, and groundwater resource development must adapt to the aquifer’s

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capacity for replenishment (Kretsinger-Grabert and Narasimhan, 2006).

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Different groundwater management approaches have evolved in different parts of the globe

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(Kalf and Woolley, 2005; Steenbergen, 2006; Villholth, 2006; Garrido et al., 2006; Schlager,

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2006; Kretsinger-Grabert and Narasimhan, 2006; Lopez-Gunn and Cortina, 2006) but all seek to

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impose some form of management and control where increased consumption of groundwater has

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caused demand to exceed supply and water levels in aquifers to decline.

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Llamas et al. (2006) highlighted three problems with the management of groundwater

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resources. Firstly, the concept of groundwater sustainability is not just volumetric: economic,

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social, environmental, agricultural, political, and inter- and intra-generational issues must also be

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considered. The weighting given to these dimensions is mainly a political decision, and there is

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no blue-print applicable to every case. Secondly, Llamas et al. (2006) challenged the paradigm

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of the ‘fragility’ of groundwater development, whereby every groundwater development

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becomes a ‘tragedy of the commons’. They concluded that degradation through collective over-

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exploitation is not generally the case. Because groundwater storage in aquifers is usually 100 to

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1,000 times the annual recharge, it takes one or two generations for adverse effects to appear,

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while in the meantime, a positive social transition frequently takes place, reducing water

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demands and allowing management systems that meet community needs to be developed and Page 4 of 40

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implemented. Thirdly, management of intensive groundwater use requires a greater degree of

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stakeholder participation than surface water systems, and without this, it is almost impossible to

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achieve good groundwater governance. These three problems need to be addressed if

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groundwater management is to be effective. They are discussed again in section 7.2, where

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Victoria’s success in addressing them is considered.

111 112 113

3. Development of Victorian Groundwater Management Plans The development of the groundwater regulatory environment in Victoria (Table 1) began

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in 1969, when it was legislated that all groundwater bores must be registered and all bores except

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domestic and stock wells required a license to take and use water. These legal requirements

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were primarily to protect existing users from drawdown interference, but the rules have meant

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that groundwater users in Victoria have been subject to regulations for some time and have

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enabled basic user location and entitlement volume data to be gathered across the State. Both

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these factors helped with the subsequent development and implementation of groundwater

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management plans.

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<>

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Recognising that a trigger was required to ascertain where and when groundwater

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management plans were needed, a simple, rapid, empirical approach was developed by

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estimating the available groundwater resource through the ‘permissible annual volume’, which

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was loosely analogous to ‘safe groundwater yield’ (DNRE, 1996). This number was calculated

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from the available usage data and the geology and hydrogeology of each groundwater

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management area, and used as the basis for setting initial groundwater pumping limits and

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identifying where total licensed volume was approaching sustainable levels of development.

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The Victorian Water Act (1989) legislated the development of groundwater management

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plans through consultative committees appointed by the government Water Minister, and the first

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plans commenced in the late 1990s, pre-dating the Australian water planning policy framework Page 5 of 40

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(COAG, 2004). Although there was some initial opposition, the implementation of groundwater

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management plans became established for highly developed aquifers throughout Victoria.

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However, tensions arose from time to time between management authorities and the groundwater

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users, particularly when usage restrictions were implemented, new users were denied access or

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higher costs were levied on users to run the plans.

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In the two areas investigated in this study (Loddon Highlands and Campaspe Plains, see

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Fig. 1) the Victorian Government Water Minister appointed a consultative committee,

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comprising local groundwater users and other relevant stakeholders, to draft a groundwater

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management plan in 1999. The process was coordinated by the local rural water authority,

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Goulburn-Murray Water (G-MW). The overarching aim of the plans was to ‘make sure the

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groundwater resources of the protection areas are managed in an equitable manner and to ensure

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the long term sustainability of those resources’ (DNRE, 2001, Appendix 3). The first plan in the

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Spring Hill area of the Loddon Highlands (Fig. 1) was approved in 2001, and the Campaspe

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Plains plan was approved in 2003 (DNRE, 2003).

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The plans included these key components:

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• Establishment of monitoring bores throughout the management areas to capture water

149 150 151 152 153 154 155

level data for both technical and community education purposes; • A requirement for all licensed bores (mostly irrigation bores) to be fitted with flow meters to capture usage data; • The establishment of a community-based consultative committee to oversee the development of the plan; • Running of community information meetings, sending information sheets to bore owners, writing press releases, undertaking user surveys and seeking comment on draft plans;

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• Ceasing to issue new licenses for additional allocation of the groundwater resource;

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• Establishment of seasonal allocation restrictions based upon water levels in the aquifer; Page 6 of 40

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• Establishment of water trading rules and trading zones.

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With declining groundwater levels during the dry years 1998 to 2009, the need for

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management over larger parts of the aquifer systems was recognised. The plans were reviewed

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in 2010–12 by new consultative committees comprising mainly groundwater users (some of

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whom had served on the earlier consultative committees) and the original plans were replaced by

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the Loddon Highlands and Lower Campaspe Valley WSPA Groundwater Management Plans

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(DSE 2012a, 2012b).

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4. The Study Areas The Loddon Highlands form the southern end of the Loddon River catchment near the

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topographic divide and slope northwards into the Murray-Darling Basin from an elevation over

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600 m at the divide to 200 m in the north. The main groundwater resources in this area are found

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within Pliocene-Pleistocene basalt lavas and volcanic cones and to a lesser extent, the underlying

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Tertiary alluvial, valley-fill aquifer (Calivil Formation). The Campaspe Plains lie at the northern

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end of the adjacent catchment to the east (Fig. 1) and are at elevation ranging from 200 m to

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120m above sea level. The main aquifer is the Calivil Formation, which lies generally 50–100 m

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below the surface and is a more expansive and thicker analogue of the Loddon Highlands Calivil

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Formation. It is overlain by the clay-dominated aquitard/aquifer sequence called the Shepparton

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Formation.

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The climate over both study areas has cool winters and hot summers with generally winter-

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dominated rainfall, but it is highly variable from year to year. Average annual rainfall ranges

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from over 700 mm/year at the higher elevation south (Loddon Highlands) to less than 400

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mm/year at the north of the Campaspe Plains (Gill et al., 2011).

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A review of groundwater modelling in the two study areas (Cheng et al., 2010) identified

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17 models that had been developed for a range of purposes since 1991, but as they pre-dated the

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most recent management area boundaries, specific models had to be developed to provide Page 7 of 40

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volumetric assessments of the resource and simulate responses of the aquifer systems to recharge

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and extraction. For the Loddon Highlands, a Modflow numerical model (Harbaugh et al., 2000;

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G-MW, 2011) showed that recharge from rainfall and irrigation to the largely unconfined aquifer

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is approximately 252 GL/a (gigaliters per annum) under average climate conditions, but reduced

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to 169 GL/a during the 1998 to 2009 drought, causing declining groundwater levels. The

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dominant loss is via evapotranspiration, averaging 209 GL/a and declining to 165 GL/a during

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drought. Groundwater extraction, which is concentrated near the southern end of the

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management area, impacts on levels only on a local scale. Sustainable yield under average

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climate conditions is 38 GL/a, but reduces under drier scenarios.

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For the Campaspe Plains Groundwater Management Area, a spreadsheet-based mass

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balance model (G-MW, 2012b) was used in preference to a complex numerical model because of

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the good conceptual understanding of the aquifer system. It suggests that rainfall recharge to the

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confined aquifer through the overlying Shepparton Formation ranges from 26 GL/a in wet years

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to only 10 GL/a in very dry years (DSE, 2012b). Sustainable yield is somewhat higher at

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56GL/a, although maximum recorded usage only reached 36GL in the drought year of 2007.

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Groundwater pumping is the main loss from the aquifer, because groundwater loss at the

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downstream end of the aquifer system is very slow due to the flat hydraulic gradients and there is

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minimal evapotranspiration loss or discharge to streams from the confined aquifer.

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In the Campaspe Plains and Loddon Highlands Groundwater Management Areas, 28 GL

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and 7 GL of groundwater worth A$14 million and A$3.5 million, respectively, were extracted in

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the 2012/13 irrigation season, based upon Australian and Victorian groundwater valuations for

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agricultural usage of A$410–500/ML (Deloitte, 2013; RMCG, 2008). This water was used to

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irrigate mainly fodder crops for dairy cattle on the Campaspe Plains and potatoes in the Loddon

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Highlands (Table 2).

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5. Methodology Page 8 of 40

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The study areas were selected because the groundwater management plans for the Spring

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Hill area of the Loddon Highlands and the Campaspe Plains had been implemented in 2001 and

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2002, providing an opportunity to interview users who already had some understanding of

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groundwater systems and experience of living under a water resource management plan. The

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water management plans for the two areas were being reviewed when the interviews for this

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study were conducted, and have since been updated (DSE, 2012a and 2012b) but this was purely

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coincidental.

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To obtain a wide range of groundwater users and reduce sample bias, three different

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sampling methods were used. Initially, several community members of the consultative

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committee were asked by G-MW if they were willing to participate in the study, from which

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some initial interviews were conducted. These participants were then asked to name additional

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contacts in their area (a snowballing sampling technique) from which additional contacts and

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interviews were arranged. Another group of participants was obtained by approaching

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groundwater users at two groundwater planning community information sessions run by G-MW.

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A list of over 20 potential groundwater users was obtained this way, although not all these

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people were available or willing to participate. A final group was obtained by cold-calling

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people at addresses in the study areas from the online telephone book. This provided

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interviewees who were not active as committee members and had not recently attended

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groundwater plan community information sessions, and so were potentially less exposed to the

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groundwater management planning process. A total of thirty groundwater users from the two

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study areas were interviewed (Table 2) representing 8% of Loddon Highlands licensed bore

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users (n=160) and 12% of Campaspe Plains licensed bore users (n=138).

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<>

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Page 9 of 40

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The face-to-face interviews with groundwater users were semi-structured, guided by a set

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of questions to ensure each interview covered the same topics. Most questions were open-ended

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and the sequence was structured to commence the conversation with factual data about the

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groundwater user’s farm and water use (their own groundwater supply and history of usage,

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knowledge of rising and falling groundwater levels). This was followed by more abstract

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questions to encourage the interviewees to explore their knowledge, perceptions and beliefs

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about groundwater and management of the resource, including groundwater as a water supply,

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management plans and regulations, the groundwater management process, any limitations in

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their knowledge of groundwater, and what sort of groundwater information they would like.

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Most interviews lasted approximately one hour, but some were considerably longer and all

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but one participant agreed to audio recording of their interview. Each interview was conducted

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at the groundwater user’s property. Audio recordings of the interviews were transcribed into text

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and imported into a commercial software package NVivo9 (www.qsrinternational.com/) for

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coding, quantitative analysis (Table 3) and qualitative analysis.

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6. Results The goal of the interviews was to gain a description the interviewees’ perceptions of their

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circumstances, based on their responses to the questions (Sandelowski, 2000). The

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conversations provided valuable insights into groundwater users attitudes and thoughts about

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groundwater resource planning and its management. Interpretation of the data yielded some

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quantitative results, for example, numbers of people whose responses fitted a particular category

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(Table 3). The following sections look at some key findings from the quantitative results and

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focusses on the language and words used by the stakeholders to highlight the social reality with

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which the groundwater management process must co-evolve.

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6.1. Acceptance of groundwater management plans The overwhelming majority of users (n=27/30) gave an unequivocal yes to the question

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‘Do you see a need for groundwater management in your district’. Common reasons given were

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to manage the resource during the drought years and/or the greed of some fellow users. Some

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mentioned that they were aware of over-use of aquifers in other countries, and a few highlighted

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a historical understanding of the need for plans, such as when too many bores were drilled close

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to each other and when licence volumes were over-generous.

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Out of the thirty interviews, on the question of whether they thought the management plans

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had been effective in achieving the goal of sustainable resource use, 22 responded positively.

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Several (n = 6) noted that the plans have played a valuable part in maintaining water levels

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through the drought years, preventing over-use, or made mention of the need for sustainable

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resource use into the future. One respondent made the following comment about the original

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management plan:

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‘The last one was probably too inflexible, better than not having them, but no-one foresaw

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the 10 dry years, and the recovery levels were set too high, but overall they stopped the overuse

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of groundwater. It achieved that’. (Int. #21)

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There were several comments that indicated good engagement with the community had

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occurred, particularly during the most recent plan development process:

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‘Much better communications now than there was’ (Int. #24)

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‘It made sense, it seems that the water authority is making a reasonable effort to make it

282 283 284 285 286

clear’ (Int. #6) A few interviewees were less positive about the information received from the water authority and one showed low trust in the plan development process: ‘I was certainly very interested and involved in the plans in early years and went to the meetings, but I concluded that it was a total waste of time, money and effort going on’ (Int. #8) Page 11 of 40

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A summary of a desirable consultation meeting from one interview provides good advice for groundwater resource managers in planning community meetings: ‘Public meetings need best quality information in most concise form, well designed, keep it

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simple, they don't want lots of hydrological information. People come in scared to these things,

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some have had bad experiences and may be intimidated by technical experts ... Don't lecture to

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people, give them good facts, be open to questions. There will always be hard cases in the

293

audience, but get stuff into the local papers, why is the plan good, that's my thoughts’ (Int. #9)

294 295 296

On the question whether people thought groundwater was used properly and wisely, 25 said yes and many added comments similar to this: ‘Yes, especially as the costs of pumping are so high; it’s not a cheap source of water. (Int.

297

#19). One of the three (Int. #9) who thought that groundwater was overused, said so on the basis

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that lower groundwater levels during the drought put their own usage at risk, so reduced usage

299

was needed if the levels didn’t recover to pre-drought levels

300 301

6.2. Reasons for acceptance of plans – climate variability

302

Southeastern Australia, including Victoria, has a very variable climate, and this is the

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major influence on groundwater levels through this region (Yihdego and Webb, 2011). A wetter

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climate phase from the 1950s to 1990s (Kiem and Verdon-Kidd, 2010; Rančić et al., 2009)

305

manifested as rising groundwater levels in both the Campaspe Plains and Loddon Highlands

306

(Fig. 2). In many places these caused widespread salinity problems and subsequent catchment

307

degradation, so groundwater pumping was encouraged to try to stem these rising levels. Several

308

groundwater users in the Campaspe Plains recalled how at this time they were given exceedingly

309

large allocations (by today’s standards) and in some cases, were paid a small subsidy for a few

310

years to pump groundwater:

311 312

‘My groundwater license was 1880ML, I got it in the early days, 1981 I think, when you went for a license and they said “how much do you want?” – I said as much as I can get – “then Page 12 of 40

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this is as much as you can have”. They didn’t care much, because it was originally supposedly a

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salt control bore … As a salt bore, there were no charges in the early days.’ (Int. #18)

315

With increased groundwater consumption during the 1990’s and the onset of the drought in

316

1998, groundwater levels began to decline in these areas (Fig. 2) as well as much of Victoria. A

317

return to higher rainfall years in 2010 and 2011 brought a recovery in groundwater levels almost

318

to pre-drought levels in the Loddon Highlands (Fig. 2) where numerical modelling indicates that

319

recovery is due to both increased recharge and a localised reduction in usage (usage declined

320

from 7.5 GL in 2008/9 to 2 GL in 2010/11). This accords with the observations of many

321

groundwater users in the Loddon Highlands, who mentioned they were aware that levels fell and

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then recovered from the management plan information they received. They often related these

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trends to observations in their own bores, especially where they increased pumping costs.

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‘I’ve seen the effect of the drought, and I can show you the data that showed the level until

325

this year was always lower than the previous year, showing that it wasn't recharging. … They

326

have accepted the fact that one really good recharge event hasn't taken away 7 years of

327

drought’. (Int. #5)

328 329

<< Insert Fig. 2>>

330 331

The post-drought recovery on the Campaspe Plains was less dramatic (Fig. 2). The

332

seasonal drawdown varied according to irrigation demand, which was dependent on climate, so

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the deepest drawdown in the very dry summers of 2006 and 2007 corresponded to high

334

groundwater usage of 36 GL, but when usage declined to 8 GL in the wet years of 2010 and

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2011, the resulting drawdown was much less. Between 2006 and 2010, groundwater restrictions

336

were applied in the more intensively pumped areas, and both the mass balance modelling and the

337

hydrographs show that the lower usage caused less seasonal drawdown and the non-pumping

Page 13 of 40

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season recovery levels appear to have stabilised due to the management plan intervention (G-

339

MW, 2011, 2012b).

340 341

Some interviews indicated awareness of the levels in the aquifer and attributed benefits to the management plans:

342

In our area they have been alright, no issues, although I’m not sure if levels are quite right

343

yet. It did a good job and during the drought it prevented a catastrophe with the plan in place in

344

2004. (Int. #6)

345

The timing of the introduction of the groundwater plans at the early stages of the drought

346

was therefore fortuitous, as declining water levels in the aquifers triggered restrictions on usage

347

in more heavily developed areas. Under the plan rules, the majority of users were able to access

348

sufficient water for their needs, so there was broad recognition that the plans provided a

349

necessary and equitable approach, hence most people endorsed the plans.

350

A long history of groundwater resource management and monitoring has also played a part

351

in acceptance of the plans. Because all groundwater bores in Victoria have required a license

352

since 1969, then there was the period of rising groundwater levels and salinity threat in the 1980s

353

(which fostered increased monitoring) followed by the commencement of groundwater

354

management plans in the late 1990s, these irrigation farmers represent a relatively mature water

355

resource management community that has been involved with the government and water

356

authorities in discussing and hearing about their groundwater resources for several decades. This

357

has helped create a general acceptance that the management agencies have a reasonable

358

understanding of the aquifers and the state of the groundwater resources, thus there was a strong

359

degree of trust developed over considerable period of time between users and resource managers,

360

representing social capital and therefore community capacity for self-regulation (Mitchell et al.,

361

2012).

362 363

A key feature of the Victorian plans is the inclusion of an ‘adaptive’ management approach, highlighted by the review of the plans in 2010–12, when refinements proposed (such Page 14 of 40

364

as water banking and trade rules) were subsequently incorporated. The groundwater users had

365

become more comfortable with the ongoing operation of the plans, so they had sufficient faith to

366

agree to this second generation renewal. Evolution of the plans is therefore able to keep abreast

367

of changing social circumstances by allowing groundwater users to have an ongoing role in plan

368

development, representing social learning within an adaptive management framework (Mitchell

369

et al., 2012).

370 371

6.3. Impediment to acceptance of plans – perceived inequitable treatment of groundwater

372

users

373

One barrier to acceptance of the groundwater plan in the Campaspe Plains was the

374

perception of inequitable treatment of groundwater users in the northern and southern parts of

375

the management area. In the southern part there are relatively few water licences, whereas

376

towards the northern end there are more users with a collectively greater licensed extraction

377

volume and therefore a greater impact in drawing water levels down (Fig. 3). The management

378

plan has dealt with this difference by imposing different rules in these two areas: during the

379

drought the northern users facing a reduction in annual usage of up to 50%, whereas the southern

380

users maintained 100% of their allocations. While there are sound hydrogeological reasons for

381

the different treatment applied to the two areas, comments made in the interviews highlighted

382

some strong feelings of inequality and doubt about the validity of the technical aspects. From

383

the south:

384

‘There probably has been some misunderstanding about the 2 separate zones and the

385

reasons for them … The whole thing was that we were stealing water from those downstream,

386

and the hinge point put that to rest, but a lot of people still don’t want to understand that

387

because it doesn’t suit their mindset’. (Int. #21)

388 389

<< Insert Fig. 3>> Page 15 of 40

390 391

And from the north:

392

‘Those guys past Elmore, only because of the so called choke (hinge line) they were able to

393

pump without restriction, it was disgusting, they grew crops all through the drought, and you

394

had nothing growing down here, and everybody talking about it, especially people in Elmore.’

395

(Int. #22)

396

In the Loddon Highlands, an urban supply bore near an intensively developed aquifer

397

pumps almost continuously (or is perceived to by agricultural users) one of whom made the

398

following comment about it:

399

‘We’re nibbling at it [the basalt aquifer] because we only use it 3 months of the year. The

400

people who are using it to a major extent are those on the reticulated supply so bores that pump

401

24hrs a day. I’m a little bit against that, because you need to create a natural balance with what

402

the bore or spring can produce’ (Int. #26)

403

A perception held by one non-agricultural user of wastage occurring in some agricultural

404

enterprises in the past, was alleviated somewhat by the ability of the management plans to

405

impose usage restrictions when aquifer levels fall below trigger levels. The plans also provide

406

the option for users to leave unused irrigation water in the aquifer for use in the following

407

season. The potential of trade between users to generate water savings was also mentioned as a

408

positive outcome, made possible by the management plans bringing different users together and

409

providing rules for trading to occur.

410 411 412 413 414

6.4. Need for technical information Questions that sought people’s views on the type of information they would like to see as part of the management plan process brought out a range of responses. One mentioned the

Page 16 of 40

415

importance of providing well-designed, easily understood information strongly justifying the

416

management plan:

417 418

Keep the public informed and make it transparent. Can it justify the management; Find the happy medium so you’re not just bleeding the customer. (Int. #20)

419

On the question of how they would like groundwater information presented, nearly half (n

420

= 13) preferred basic information on water level change over time (simple bore hydrographs).

421

One interviewee noted that people can relate well to levels because they know it costs more to

422

pump as levels drop, but wondered whether volumes of groundwater would make any sense to

423

users:

424

‘Levels in the ground – people can picture that, so while it may not relate to a lineal

425

amount of water, if they can see a big drop in level, they know it means their water will cost

426

more to pump out of the ground, but if you said there was 50,000 ML and its gone down to

427

40,000 ML, what would that mean to people and they might say, so what?’ (Int. #5)

428 429 430

Another respondent recognised that the plans are still evolving and of the importance of providing information suitable for the audience, particularly simple water level graphs: ‘It doesn't need to get too complicated; you can have the encyclopaedia back at the office,

431

but get it out to the community at a level they can understand, and the level that most of them

432

understand is groundwater level charts. If you put them up, it usually stops all debate, quite

433

amazing’. (Int. #4)

434

Another mentioned the potential for people to see the latest water level data online:

435

‘I think probably the best ways, and these days it might use the internet, are to keep the

436

ongoing and up-to-date water levels in bores so that they can get a feel for themselves what the

437

levels are doing’. (Int. #20)

438 439

However, a fourth cautioned that people need to have confidence that the data matches their own experiences:

Page 17 of 40

440 441

‘… but I'm concerned about the discrepancies between what authorities say is happening to levels and what users see in levels, so I take it all with a grain of salt. (Int. #13)

442

The different perceptions of resource access and equity held by some of the southern and

443

northern groundwater users in the Campaspe Plains Groundwater Management Area highlights

444

the need for clear technical explanations for management decisions. While the water authority

445

has provided information on the physical characteristics of the aquifer and the response of water

446

levels to pumping, some people have not been persuaded. Better information products, including

447

3D visualisations, may be helpful to enable more effective communication and help improve the

448

strategic fit of sustainable groundwater use plans. In the Condamine catchment, a range of tools,

449

including 3D visualisations of the groundwater system (Cox et al., 2013) were used to increase

450

technical understanding so the community could engage sufficiently to decide on acceptable

451

reductions in groundwater usage (Tan et al., 2012).

452 453 454

6.5. Costs associated with groundwater use Several interviewees expressed concern about the high cost of using groundwater (n = 13)

455

and some mentioned it several times (the total number of ‘costs of management’ comments made

456

was 26):

457 458 459

I’m concerned that groundwater users pay for all groundwater pumping costs, yet if they have 50% allocation, why are groundwater fees still 100%? (Int. #10) With recent difficult conditions weighing heavily on the interviewees’ minds, economic

460

issues mentioned included declining commodity prices, the closure of the surface irrigation

461

supply system in part of the Campaspe Plains Groundwater Management Area and a lack of

462

prospective buyers for irrigation properties of retiring farmers:

463 464

Where the plans fall down is that if the farming is not commercially viable because of commodity prices; that makes it uneconomic to use the groundwater. (Int. #23)

Page 18 of 40

465 466 467

It has become fairly expensive to use groundwater, with the fees, so if you’re not growing anything with that water, you’ve still got costs to cover. (Int. #25) While users recognised that the groundwater resource plans and their associated costs and

468

restrictions are necessary, there is resentment toward costs that do not seem to accord with the

469

user’s perceptions of value. This is especially the case for Victorian groundwater users, who

470

bear all the capital costs of developing their supply and all management costs associated with

471

using the groundwater resource; no central government subsidies are provided. This contrasts

472

with many other global groundwater users (e.g. Balali et al., 2011; Dinar and Mody, 2004) who

473

either receive subsidies or are not charged for groundwater usage.

474

While bore owners in the study areas clearly understand the value of groundwater to their

475

business, they recognise it is both an asset and a liability. Users recognise that it is a drought-

476

proof, sustainable water supply when managed carefully, and that the ownership of a bore

477

licence increases the value of their property. Therefore they agreed that groundwater

478

management charges were necessary, but questioned the level of costs. In particular, increasing

479

energy costs and falling commodity prices have made it uneconomic for some users to continue

480

with the enterprise for which investment in the bores was originally made. The main

481

groundwater use in the Loddon Highlands was for irrigating potatoes, but in recent years, prices

482

barely covered the costs of production. Increasing land values and an influx of non-farming

483

‘lifestyle’ landholders may also reduce future demand for groundwater. On the Campaspe

484

Plains, some farmers facing lower returns from the dairy industry ceased using their bores and no

485

longer considered them an asset unless they could sell their farm; such changes in property

486

ownership can impact groundwater use (Mendham and Curtis, 2010).

487

An additional factor is the relative cost of groundwater compared to surface water. In

488

2011–12, annual groundwater fees in the two study areas (fixed and allocation volume-based)

489

were A$3,375 for 400ML (http://www.g-mwater.com.au/pricingcalculator/groundwater.aspx);

490

pumping and maintenance costs added $20,000–32,000. The same amount of surface water cost Page 19 of 40

491

$13,384 and additional surface water could be bought on a seasonal basis in 2012 for less than

492

$20/ML. Decreasing commodity prices and increasing energy and regulatory costs will make

493

the use of surface water increasingly economic as an irrigation option, particularly if changes to

494

national water management (see Section 7.1) increase the reliability and reduce the costs of

495

surface water supply. Groundwater users that have access to surface water may use that source

496

in preference when higher salinity groundwater acts as an additional disincentive for use. If

497

there is a decline in demand for groundwater and a reduction in numbers of users, this will

498

enhance the stabilisation of groundwater levels on top of that achieved through the management

499

plans, but it threatens the future of those plans, because the cost of administering the plans must

500

be met by a declining number of irrigators.

501

At present, records of groundwater licences in both study areas show that few bores have

502

been relinquished or licence volumes reduced to date (B. Knowles, G-MW, pers. comm.) but

503

three interviewees were no longer using their irrigation bores at the time of the interview. While

504

some interviewees expressed some pessimism about the future, they still consider their bores to

505

be a valuable enough asset to maintain ownership at this time. It remains to be seen whether

506

Australian farming economics will become favourable enough in the future to reverse the present

507

trends, so that new landholders will invest in groundwater-supplied irrigation systems, and hence

508

increase groundwater demand.

509 510 511 512

7.

Discussion

7.1 National water reforms Development of the groundwater resource management plans in the two study areas

513

occurred prior to and then during a period of major water reform at both national and state levels.

514

Many groundwater users interviewed in this study were aware of these reforms, some of which

515

have implications for groundwater planning in the study areas. The national reforms in particular

516

are likely to influence future surface water security and its cost compared with groundwater; Page 20 of 40

517

fortunately, early attention in Victoria to groundwater resource management put Victorian

518

irrigators in a better position to face some aspects of the reforms.

519

The recent decadal drought in southeast Australia culminated in realisations that past over-

520

allocations of surface water and groundwater would require programs of water buy-back and

521

improvements in water use efficiency (Lucasiewicz et al., 2013). This precipitated enormous

522

change in government and community awareness of the use and management of water resources,

523

particularly in the Murray-Darling Basin (see Fig. 1) which resulted in the re-writing of

524

Australian water law (Water Act, 2007a) and the development of a Murray-Darling Basin water

525

management plan (Water Act, 2007b). A key intention of this new legislation is to reduce

526

consumption of water resources (both surface and groundwater) to return a greater amount for

527

environmental needs. A consequence of this will be greater carryover from season to season of

528

both surface and groundwater resources, which will improve security for all users and in turn

529

reduce water trade price volatility, preventing prices from rising as much in future drought years.

530

If in future this means surface water will be the cheaper and more reliable option for irrigation

531

supply, comparatively expensive groundwater (due to pumping costs) may further reduce

532

demand and stabilise aquifer levels.

533

When the groundwater resource management plans in the Loddon Highlands and

534

Campaspe Plains Groundwater Management Areas were implemented, licences for new bores

535

were limited, capping total groundwater allocations, so that during the drought no over-

536

allocation of the resource occurred. Consumption was then reduced where necessary through

537

seasonal reductions in allocations (down to 50% in parts of the Campaspe area) and Victoria

538

largely avoided the conflicts that other areas have faced (Tan et al., 2012, Baldwin and Ross,

539

2012). In Victoria, existing groundwater use is less than rainfall recharge (CSIRO, 2008b) and

540

some groundwater levels have stabilised, indicating that the state is in a good position with

541

regard to implementation of the Murray-Darling Basin Plan. Some other Australian states face

542

the prospect of cutting significant numbers of licences or having to find substantial sums of Page 21 of 40

543

money to buy back groundwater licences to fit within the estimates of sustainable yield.

544

Victorian groundwater users have avoided this, a benefit of the early and effective

545

implementation of groundwater licensing and the water management plans.

546 547 548

7.2

Not just about sustainable yield The successful development of the groundwater resource management plans in the two

549

Victorian study areas did not arise only from the determination of sustainable groundwater yields

550

for each defined aquifer. The planning process addressed all three problems of groundwater

551

resources management identified by Llamas et al. (2006) in Section 2 (though this is apparent

552

only in hindsight). Firstly, there were valuable advances made in raising community interest

553

through the early implementation of rules in 1969 to limit bore interference between neighbours.

554

Further opportunities to improve groundwater awareness occurred in the 1990s when

555

groundwater levels were rising and salinity threatened the farming landscape. Secondly,

556

management planning began before there was any lasting damage to the aquifer systems (which

557

may be due more to the ‘non-fragility’ of these two aquifers than the timing of usage restrictions)

558

but this allowed sufficient time for positive social transition to occur. Thirdly, stakeholder

559

participation through strong community consultation and engagement in the development of the

560

groundwater management plans resulted in a workable groundwater governance system, thereby

561

giving the plans a ‘social licence’ to operate (Thomson and Boutilier, 2011) built on a strong

562

history of consensus building (Baldwin and Ross, 2012).

563 564 565

7.3 Comparison with groundwater management in other areas The methods of social engagement used to develop the Victorian groundwater plans were

566

successful, with the plans implemented without too much opposition and in relatively short

567

timeframes. However, whether the Victorian experience can be trans-located to other

568

jurisdictions is unclear, as the key factors that enabled a successful outcome in Victoria often do Page 22 of 40

569

not occur elsewhere, e.g. where bore ownership has not developed under compulsory

570

government licensing, where there are large numbers of illegal bores (Garrido et al., 2006) or

571

where prior appropriation doctrine creates quite a different culture (Schlager, 2006).

572

Two studies elsewhere in Australia illustrate the problems that can arise. In the Howard

573

East area, Northern Territory, the community is highly heterogeneous and had little experience in

574

water planning and the stakeholder survey identified two barriers to collaboration: a widespread

575

lack of understanding of groundwater systems and a lack of trust of the science underpinning

576

decision making and government-driven management of their aquifer system (Jackson et al.,

577

2012). As a result, little agency-based information about the aquifer was trusted by the broader

578

community (composed predominantly of non-agricultural water users).

579

In the Condamine catchment, southeast Queensland, where the priority issue was water

580

over-allocation, George et al. (2009) found it was unclear whether there was a shared

581

understanding of groundwater, or the extent of the problem and potential ways to resolve the

582

issue. Because groundwater development in the Condamine catchment was relatively

583

unrestricted until the turn of this century, extraction volumes in 15 of the 22 Groundwater

584

Management Units reached more than double the average potential rainfall recharge (CSIRO,

585

2008a) in stark contrast to the situation in the Victorian catchments. Furthermore, groundwater

586

irrigation in some regions was largely unlicensed and unmetered until recent times, so there was

587

little data on resource volumes or usage (Lockyer Valley, Queensland, Baldwin and Ross, 2012).

588

Such differences highlight that development of groundwater resource management plans in a

589

particular area will need to be tailored to the local conditions and especially the history of

590

groundwater resource development, implementation of regulations and effectiveness of

591

consensus building. No single approach is likely to be successful.

592 593

8. Conclusions

Page 23 of 40

594

Two agricultural areas in northern Victoria with significant groundwater use (Loddon

595

Highlands and Campaspe Plains) were investigated using social research methods to determine

596

how irrigation farmers perceive the groundwater management plans they are involved with.

597

Face-to-face interviews with 30 groundwater users showed that the overwhelming majority

598

agreed with the need for groundwater management and thought that the current plans had been

599

effective in achieving the goal of sustainable resource use, and that good engagement with the

600

community had occurred during the plan development. During the 1998–2009 drought,

601

reductions in groundwater allocations allowed most users to access enough water for their needs,

602

reinforcing the usefulness of the plans. A small number of groundwater users distrusted aspects

603

of the water management plans, particularly the different allocations applied to the northern and

604

southern parts of the Campaspe Plains management area during the drought.

605

Several additional factors combined to gain acceptance for the plans in the Victorian study

606

areas: good data on groundwater usage and aquifer levels is available, groundwater users were

607

familiar with usage restrictions since the 1990’s due to State water legislation that required

608

orderly development and licensing of groundwater, and an ‘adaptive’ management approach was

609

used, so refinements could be readily incorporated.

610

Groundwater users expressed a strong need for clear technical explanations for

611

management decisions, in particular well-designed, easily understood information on the latest

612

water level data, including online. More complex products like 3D visualisations may be useful

613

adjuncts.

614

The irrigation farmers recognised the value of groundwater in maintaining access to water

615

and increasing the value of their property, and they agreed that groundwater management

616

charges were necessary, but questioned the level of costs. Victorian farmers provide all the

617

capital to develop their supply, and increasing energy costs and falling commodity prices have

618

caused economic difficulties and increased the relative cost of groundwater compared to surface

619

water. This may impact on groundwater users’ capacity to financially support the management Page 24 of 40

620

plans in the future. Nevertheless, the farmers still consider their bores to be sufficiently valuable

621

to maintain ownership.

622

Recent changes to Australian water management, intended to reduce consumption and

623

return a greater amount to the environment, have had relatively little impact in Victoria, a benefit

624

of the early implementation of effective groundwater management plans there and the fact that

625

existing groundwater use is less than rainfall recharge. As a result, Victoria avoided a large-

626

scale buy-back of groundwater licences to fit within the estimates of sustainable yield.

627

The trust that exists between irrigation farmers and the management agencies in Victoria

628

allowed groundwater plans to be implemented without much opposition and in short timeframes,

629

and contrasts with other areas of Australia and overseas, where there is often a lack of

630

understanding of groundwater systems and a lack of trust of management of the aquifer system.

631 632 633

Acknowledgments We would like to sincerely thank the groundwater users who shared their thoughts and

634

time for this study. The Australian National Water Commission and the Victorian Water Trust

635

for funding an investigation of the use of 3D hydrogeology to improve groundwater resource

636

management on the Loddon Highlands and Campaspe Plains from 2008 to 2011which led to this

637

social study. Brendan Cossens from Goulburn-Murray Rural Water Authority provided

638

assistance in checking historical and technical aspects of groundwater management plan

639

development in Victoria. Malcolm Cox and three anonymous reviewers made extensive

640

suggestions to early drafts that substantially improved this paper.

641 642 643

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RMCG 2008. Groundwater Economics. Prepared by RMCG Consultants for the Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment, August 2008. 135 pages. Sandelowski, M. 2000. Whatever happened to qualitative description? Research in Nursing and Health 23, 334–340. Schlager, E., 2006. Challenges of governing groundwater in U.S. western states. Hydrogeol. J. 14, 350-360.

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Turrel, H., Fullager, I., 2007. Institutional Directions in Groundwater Management in

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Australia. Chapter 15 in ‘The Agricultural Groundwater Revolution: Opportunities and Threats

773

to Development. Eds: M. Giordana and K.G. Villholth. CABI International, pp 320-361

774 775 776 777

Victorian Water Act 1989. http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/wa198983/ (access 26.08.13). Villholth, K. G., 2006. Groundwater assessment and management: Implications and opportunities of globalization. Hydrogeol. J. 14, 330-339.

778

Water Act 2007a. An Act to make provision for the management of the water resources of

779

the Murray-Darling Basin, and to make provision for other matters of national interest in relation

780

to water and water information, and for related purposes. Federal Government of Australia.

781

http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C2013C00163. (Accessed 12.06.13).

782

Water Act 2007b. A plan for the integrated management of Basin water resources made

783

under the Water Act 2007. Guidelines for the method to determine priorities for applying

784

environmental water. Federal Government of Australia and the Murray Darling Basin Authority.

785

http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/F2012L02240. (Accessed 12.06.13).

786

Yihdego, Y., Webb, J. 2011. Modeling of bore hydrographs to determine the impact of

787

climate and land-use change in a temperate subhumid region of southeastern Australia.

788

Hydrogeol. J. 19, 877-887. Page 31 of 40

1

Irrigator response to groundwater resource management planning in Victoria, Australia.

2 3

Bruce C. Gilla,b *, John Webba, Roger Wilkinsonb , and Don Cherryb

4

a.

Environmental Geoscience, Department of Agricultural Sciences, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia

5

b.

Department of Environment and Primary Industries, Victoria, Australia.

6 7

TABLES AND FIGURES

8

Table 1. History of Victoria’s groundwater management, including the Groundwater

9

Management Plans for the Campaspe Plains and Loddon Highlands. YEAR

Groundwater Resource Management Event

1969

State legislation (Water Act) requires registration of groundwater bores and licensing of extraction bores.

1982

Significant expansion of groundwater use for irrigation due to drought year.

1989

Victorian Water Act amended to support development of Water Management Plans.

1996

Permissible Annual Volumes (extraction limits) derived for key aquifers around the state, identifying where usage was reaching or exceeding safe yield.

1998

Moratorium on new licenses imposed. Metering of groundwater usage commences with fitting of flow meters to all irrigation bores. First groundwater management plans commenced development with the declaration of Groundwater Management Planning Area boundaries and calling for community consultative committees to guide plan development.

2001

Spring Hill Groundwater Supply Protection Area (GSPA) plan approved

2003

Campaspe Deep Lead Groundwater Supply Protection Area plan approved

2004

COAG Australian Water Planning Policy Framework.

Requirement for

community partnerships in developing management plans. 2010 - 12

Spring Hill GSPA Plan reviewed and re-written into the larger Loddon Highlands Water Supply Protection Area Groundwater Management Plan and Campaspe Deep Lead GSPA Plan reviewed and re-written as the Lower Campaspe Water Supply Protection Area Groundwater Management Plan.

10 11 12

Table 2. Interviewee details Interviewee categories

n

Age Range

20 to 40

5

40 to 60

16

60 Plus

9

Female

2

Male

16

Couple

10

Father and Son

2

Loddon – Ascot

4

Loddon – Spring Hill

9

Campaspe – North

12

Campaspe – South

5

Irrigation

15

Irrigation + Stock & Domestic

11

Stock and Domestic only

3

Urban

1

Maximum

6

Gender

Farm locations

Bore Types

Number of

irrigation bores

Minimum

0

and pumps on

Median

1

Years of

Maximum

45

groundwater

Minimum

1

usage

Median

26.5

Main crop

Pasture

7

irrigated with

Lucerne

9

groundwater

Potatoes

7

Mixed vegetables

1

farm

13 14

Table 3. Interview responses (all out of 30). INTERVIEW TOPIC AND QUESTION: About their own groundwater supply: Do you know what rock types and soils are under your property? Do you know the rock type that your groundwater is found in? Do you know the salinity of the water? Does your bore supply always meet your needs? Have you had to replace any bores and pumps? Have you ever sought geology and groundwater information for your property? Have you seen any changes in groundwater levels in your bore? Do you follow the groundwater level information for your district? About groundwater regulations and the need for Management plans: Do you see a need for groundwater management in your district? Do you think the groundwater resource is currently over used? Have you had concerns about new bores going in in your vicinity? Do you have any concerns about the amount that neighbours use? Is groundwater being used properly and wisely? Do you think the management plans have been effective? Do you think that the authorities and their technical advisors know enough about the groundwater systems in your area? Have you had concerns about the amount of information the plans are based upon? LEVEL OF TRUST: How much do you trust the information provided by the water authority?

INVOLVEMENT IN PLAN DEVELOPMENT: How much involvement have you had in groundwater

On Committee 7

Yes n

No n

NA n

21 20 17 15 13

9 10 13 10 15

0 0 0 5 2

6 19 21

22 11 7

2 0 2

28 3 8 8 25 22

0 20 19 18 1 3

2 7 3 4 4 5

15

15

0

15

13

2

Good 18

Poor 9

NA 3

Some 11

None 10

NA 2

management plan development? CHANGE IN GROUNDWATER LEVEL: What causes change in groundwater levels?

15

Pumping 8

Rain 4

Both 16

NA a 3

a – One response suggested tree clearing was responsible for change in groundwater level.

16

17 18

Fig. 1. Left: Loddon Highlands Water Supply Protection Area (containing Spring Hill

19

Groundwater Supply Protection Area). Inset Map: Locations of the study areas in Victoria;

20

Victoria in the Murray-Darling Basin and Australia. Right: The Lower Campaspe Valley Water

21

Supply Protection Area.

22

locations of bore hydrographs in Figs 2 and 3.

23

Black triangles are observation bores; orange triangles are the

0.0

Campaspe Plains

Depth Below Surface (m)

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 Bore 60132. Screened 90 - 96m

24

10.0

Loddon Highlands

15.0

Depth Below Surface (m)

20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 55.0 60.0 1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

Bore 46488. Screened 104-125m.

25 26

Fig. 2. Groundwater levels in the Calivil Formation aquifer in the Campaspe Plains and Loddon

27

Highlands (see Fig. 1 for bore locations), showing major drawdowns during each irrigation

28

season. The overall decline during the drought (1998-2009) and recovery since 2010 (data from

29

www.vicwaterdata.net/vicwaterdata/home.aspx).

30

0.0

5.0

Depth Below Surface (m)

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 Bore 89574 (north) Screened 100 - 140m

Bore 62589 (south) Screened 78 - 102m

31 32

Fig. 3. Comparison of groundwater levels in the northern (bore 89574) and southern (bore

33

62589) parts of the Calivil Formation aquifer in the Campaspe Plains (see Fig. 1 for bore

34

locations). Note the significant seasonal drawdown and long-term decline in level in the heavily

35

developed north, while to the south, there has been little change in ground water level.

36 37

831

Paper Highlights:

832 833 834 835 836 837 838 839 840 841

• • • • •

We interviewed 30 groundwater users about what they think of groundwater resource management plans. Nearly all responded positively about the need for management and believe that the plans are effective. Good fore-sight and good consultation processes have been critical for plan development. The groundwater management plans appear to be achieving sustainable resource use. Ongoing engagement with resource users is fundamental to maintaining effective water use plans.

842 843

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