- Email: [email protected]
Issues in the education of minorities — England and the United States
180
Book Reviews
duction for those not well versed in the area of educational choice, and provides food for thought to those who are familiar with the issues.
DEBRA S. HAAS Texas Education Agency
One
School, Many Cultures. CENTRE FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND INNOVATION. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1989. 79 pp. U.S. $15.00 (Available from Washington, D.C., Office of OECD) (paper). Social Goals and Educational Reform American Schools in the Twentieth Century.
Edited by CHARLESV. WILLIE and INABETH MILLER. Westport: Greenwood Press. 176 pp. U.S. $37.95 (cloth). Issues in the Education of Minorities England and the United States. By GEORGE A.
MALE. Wolfeboro: Longwood Publishing. 101 pp. U.S. $22.50 (cloth), U.S. $15.00 (paper). EDUCATION has often seemed to be directed at those children who come from the majority culture, especially where this is white, but increasingly over the last 30 years or more policy-makers have felt uneasy over the education of minority group children: even if the relative position of the latter was often gradually improving, there was increasing evidence of and publicity regarding deprivation and discrimination, at the same time as expectations were rising. These three books provide much evidence that all is not well in this field and are, in their different ways, challenging and thought-provoking contributions to the literature. One School, Many Cultures has been produced by the respected Centre for Educational Research and Innovation at OECD as a survey of educational programmes in developed countries for the multicultural, multiethnic and multilingual nature of contemporary societies. It seeks to portray general social trends and educational reactions rather than specific programmes of multicultural education and, as would be expected, gives a comprehensive review which brings out the wide diversity of situations and experiences in OECD member countries. Its starting ground is that most educational curricula are ethnocentric and as such are liable to convey notions of superiority of the majority culture, allied to the crucial and complex
question of language teaching. Whilst the survey gives details of the undoubted quickening of developments and the many policy measures introduced over the last 15 years, its general tenor is pessimistic: “At school level, the situation is rather bleak: the available programmes are inadequate for needs, the quality of courses is sometimes dubious and ethnic groups are not all treated in the same way”. Regret is expressed throughout the report that multicultural education is almost everywhere interpreted as being for minority group children, and does not generally form part of the education of all children. Emphasis is placed on the interaction between economic, social and political factors: primarily economic considerations, in terms of employment, job opportunities and labour needs, led to most minority communities being where they are, but more recently social and political factors have played dominant roles in bringing about the growth of multicultural education policies. Not all such minority communities are immigrants, as with the Lapps in north Sweden, the Aborigines in Australia or the Bretons in France, but they all feel threatened by the majority culture -save perhaps in Los Angeles where there is now no one majority culture group. All children will be at a disadvantage if they do not attain high proficiency in the majority language but countries differ widely in their policies for supporting minority languages, from strongly positive in Canada to little if any in the U.K. Typical economists’ approaches, such as cost-benefit studies of teaching children Chinese in Toronto schools on Saturday mornings, would indicate low returns, suggesting that economic considerations are not predominant in such programmes. This survey is sound and generally thorough, with relatively rare lapses, such as when the summary of the position in Canada manages to avoid mentioning Quebec. A useful little volume containing a great deal of relevant information, although perhaps at times, like the proverbial camel, reading like a report put together by a committee. It is also available in French under the title “L’Ecole et les Cultures”. The title of Male’s book Issues in the Education of Minorities - England and the United States is rather misleading in that (a) it focuses almost solely on the situation in England, with only occasional references to the U.S.A. and (b) it has as one of its main themes the development of anti-racist policies for all children rather than solely looking at multicultural issues in respect of children from minority cultures: indeed, the reader is left in little doubt that the author sees the reduction of antiracism on the part of the cultural majority as the principal problem at issue. From the author’s American perspective the U.K. has clearly been doing too little too slowly in this area and the general tenor of the comments is critical, even sometimes suggesting that matters, in an anti-racist sense, are gradually worsening over time. Male is, for example, very critical of the fact that teacher training institutions are producing very few new teachers coming from ethnic minority backgrounds. This book is good on details of legislative and other developments, on actions by Local Education Authorities, and on writings by authors in this field-indeed at times it
Book Reviews reads like an extended book review; but it is weak on local
situations (such as those in Brixton, Bradford or Handsworth) or the views of those concerned with minority education issues in the U.K. There is little evidence of the author having studied his subject at first hand in the U.K. nor even of having spent any time in the U.K. whilst preparing this book. Social Goals and Education Reform -American Schools in the Twentieth Century is a collection of seven essays by
different authors, its stated focus being “the sources and circumstances of contemporary educational concerns”, a very wide remit. At the outset the editors ask how could it be that the National Commission on Excellence in Education described education in the U.S.A. as “a current declining trend” at a time when participation in education by racial and ethnic minorities and by women was steadily increasing. The intervention of the legal system in equal-access matters has been important and uneven and Williams and Willie suggest that if “Brown 1” (requiring equal access to public school education for all) represented the federal government at its best, then “Brown 2” (allowing local authorities to look after the implementation of desegration in their own good time) was the federal government at its worst: 10 years later, nearly 99% of black children were still in segregated schools. The authors make clear that they see equality of access and equity in distribution as the fundamental issues in schooling. Ginsberg and Wimpelberg show, however, that a long series of commissioned reports on educational reform seem to have achieved rather little. Grady and Sandler find the social goals of schools to fall under the four headings of Americanization, economic and technological advancement, equalization and stratification, and the maintenance of diversity, and in respect of each they show how reform goals have, over time, been modified and rearranged by a gradual, osmosis-like process, a key factor in which was the “volatile compound of race and urban poverty”. Essays by Lynch and Chickering on individual enhancement in education and by Thomas on socialization and conformity show how these concepts have ebbed and flowed, and Willie and Miller conclude this volume by portraying America still trying to face up to the question “Who shall be educated?“. A useful book, with a historical and thoughtful perspective, which perhaps does not say anything very new, but often presents the reader with philosophical and moral challenges. With regard to the education of children from minority cultures, clearly much has been achieved but much more remains to be done. As policies have developed, so have attitudes changed. All the authors involved with these three volumes make it clear that they regard the elimination of discrimination and deprivation in this field as essential not just in terms of equity for the children in question, but also for the social and economic well-being of the nation as a whole: in the long term, the best interests of the majority will be served by letting go of those privileged positions to which they have clung so tenaciously. J.R. Loughborough
HOUGH
University
181
Multiple-shift Schooling: for Cost-effectiveness.
Design and Operation
By MARK BRAY. London: The Commonwealth Secretariat, 1989. 105 pp. X4.00 (paper).
THIS BOOK is
intended for national and regional education policy makers and school personnel who run multiple-shift schools. The book describes alternative models of multiple-shift schooling, discusses the economic, educational and social factors which influence the policy on and design of multiple-shift schools, and presents strategies for making multiple-shift schools work. It points out that multiple-shift school systems are aimed at expanding access and minimizing unit costs; but such goals are sometimes achieved at the expense of educational quality. Thus policy makers are often faced with difficult choices in the design of the multiple-shift school system. The contribution of the book consists in exposing the issues and dilemmas which policy makers and practitioners have to face and in the presentation of some options for overcoming the difficulties associated with multiple-shift schooling. The book gives a positive assessment of the cost-effectiveness of multiple-shift schooling, but the empirical evidence it marshals for such an assessment is weak.
MUN C. TSANG Michigan
State University
Are Small Schools the Answer? Cost-effective Strategies for Rural School Provision. By MARK
London: The Commonwealth 1989. 89 pp. X4.00 (paper).
BRAY.
Secretariat,
EDUCATIONpolicy makers in many countries often have to confront the question whether or not small schools are better than large schools in meeting the educational needs of students in rural communities, especially communities which are thinly populated and with low enrollment rates. This book is written primarily for such an audience. The book discusses the social, economic and educational considerations which are relevant in the decision regarding school size. By drawing upon actual experiences from a number of developed and developing countries, it presents both the advantages and disadvantages of small schools versus large schools. The author rightly points out that since circumstances vary widely within and between countries, education policy makers should carefully weigh the advantages against the disadvantages with respect to their own contexts. The book ends with a list of practical suggestions for improving the operation of small rural schools.
MUN C. TSANG Michigan State University
Book Reviews
duction for those not well versed in the area of educational choice, and provides food for thought to those who are familiar with the issues.
DEBRA S. HAAS Texas Education Agency
One
School, Many Cultures. CENTRE FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND INNOVATION. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1989. 79 pp. U.S. $15.00 (Available from Washington, D.C., Office of OECD) (paper). Social Goals and Educational Reform American Schools in the Twentieth Century.
Edited by CHARLESV. WILLIE and INABETH MILLER. Westport: Greenwood Press. 176 pp. U.S. $37.95 (cloth). Issues in the Education of Minorities England and the United States. By GEORGE A.
MALE. Wolfeboro: Longwood Publishing. 101 pp. U.S. $22.50 (cloth), U.S. $15.00 (paper). EDUCATION has often seemed to be directed at those children who come from the majority culture, especially where this is white, but increasingly over the last 30 years or more policy-makers have felt uneasy over the education of minority group children: even if the relative position of the latter was often gradually improving, there was increasing evidence of and publicity regarding deprivation and discrimination, at the same time as expectations were rising. These three books provide much evidence that all is not well in this field and are, in their different ways, challenging and thought-provoking contributions to the literature. One School, Many Cultures has been produced by the respected Centre for Educational Research and Innovation at OECD as a survey of educational programmes in developed countries for the multicultural, multiethnic and multilingual nature of contemporary societies. It seeks to portray general social trends and educational reactions rather than specific programmes of multicultural education and, as would be expected, gives a comprehensive review which brings out the wide diversity of situations and experiences in OECD member countries. Its starting ground is that most educational curricula are ethnocentric and as such are liable to convey notions of superiority of the majority culture, allied to the crucial and complex
question of language teaching. Whilst the survey gives details of the undoubted quickening of developments and the many policy measures introduced over the last 15 years, its general tenor is pessimistic: “At school level, the situation is rather bleak: the available programmes are inadequate for needs, the quality of courses is sometimes dubious and ethnic groups are not all treated in the same way”. Regret is expressed throughout the report that multicultural education is almost everywhere interpreted as being for minority group children, and does not generally form part of the education of all children. Emphasis is placed on the interaction between economic, social and political factors: primarily economic considerations, in terms of employment, job opportunities and labour needs, led to most minority communities being where they are, but more recently social and political factors have played dominant roles in bringing about the growth of multicultural education policies. Not all such minority communities are immigrants, as with the Lapps in north Sweden, the Aborigines in Australia or the Bretons in France, but they all feel threatened by the majority culture -save perhaps in Los Angeles where there is now no one majority culture group. All children will be at a disadvantage if they do not attain high proficiency in the majority language but countries differ widely in their policies for supporting minority languages, from strongly positive in Canada to little if any in the U.K. Typical economists’ approaches, such as cost-benefit studies of teaching children Chinese in Toronto schools on Saturday mornings, would indicate low returns, suggesting that economic considerations are not predominant in such programmes. This survey is sound and generally thorough, with relatively rare lapses, such as when the summary of the position in Canada manages to avoid mentioning Quebec. A useful little volume containing a great deal of relevant information, although perhaps at times, like the proverbial camel, reading like a report put together by a committee. It is also available in French under the title “L’Ecole et les Cultures”. The title of Male’s book Issues in the Education of Minorities - England and the United States is rather misleading in that (a) it focuses almost solely on the situation in England, with only occasional references to the U.S.A. and (b) it has as one of its main themes the development of anti-racist policies for all children rather than solely looking at multicultural issues in respect of children from minority cultures: indeed, the reader is left in little doubt that the author sees the reduction of antiracism on the part of the cultural majority as the principal problem at issue. From the author’s American perspective the U.K. has clearly been doing too little too slowly in this area and the general tenor of the comments is critical, even sometimes suggesting that matters, in an anti-racist sense, are gradually worsening over time. Male is, for example, very critical of the fact that teacher training institutions are producing very few new teachers coming from ethnic minority backgrounds. This book is good on details of legislative and other developments, on actions by Local Education Authorities, and on writings by authors in this field-indeed at times it
Book Reviews reads like an extended book review; but it is weak on local
situations (such as those in Brixton, Bradford or Handsworth) or the views of those concerned with minority education issues in the U.K. There is little evidence of the author having studied his subject at first hand in the U.K. nor even of having spent any time in the U.K. whilst preparing this book. Social Goals and Education Reform -American Schools in the Twentieth Century is a collection of seven essays by
different authors, its stated focus being “the sources and circumstances of contemporary educational concerns”, a very wide remit. At the outset the editors ask how could it be that the National Commission on Excellence in Education described education in the U.S.A. as “a current declining trend” at a time when participation in education by racial and ethnic minorities and by women was steadily increasing. The intervention of the legal system in equal-access matters has been important and uneven and Williams and Willie suggest that if “Brown 1” (requiring equal access to public school education for all) represented the federal government at its best, then “Brown 2” (allowing local authorities to look after the implementation of desegration in their own good time) was the federal government at its worst: 10 years later, nearly 99% of black children were still in segregated schools. The authors make clear that they see equality of access and equity in distribution as the fundamental issues in schooling. Ginsberg and Wimpelberg show, however, that a long series of commissioned reports on educational reform seem to have achieved rather little. Grady and Sandler find the social goals of schools to fall under the four headings of Americanization, economic and technological advancement, equalization and stratification, and the maintenance of diversity, and in respect of each they show how reform goals have, over time, been modified and rearranged by a gradual, osmosis-like process, a key factor in which was the “volatile compound of race and urban poverty”. Essays by Lynch and Chickering on individual enhancement in education and by Thomas on socialization and conformity show how these concepts have ebbed and flowed, and Willie and Miller conclude this volume by portraying America still trying to face up to the question “Who shall be educated?“. A useful book, with a historical and thoughtful perspective, which perhaps does not say anything very new, but often presents the reader with philosophical and moral challenges. With regard to the education of children from minority cultures, clearly much has been achieved but much more remains to be done. As policies have developed, so have attitudes changed. All the authors involved with these three volumes make it clear that they regard the elimination of discrimination and deprivation in this field as essential not just in terms of equity for the children in question, but also for the social and economic well-being of the nation as a whole: in the long term, the best interests of the majority will be served by letting go of those privileged positions to which they have clung so tenaciously. J.R. Loughborough
HOUGH
University
181
Multiple-shift Schooling: for Cost-effectiveness.
Design and Operation
By MARK BRAY. London: The Commonwealth Secretariat, 1989. 105 pp. X4.00 (paper).
THIS BOOK is
intended for national and regional education policy makers and school personnel who run multiple-shift schools. The book describes alternative models of multiple-shift schooling, discusses the economic, educational and social factors which influence the policy on and design of multiple-shift schools, and presents strategies for making multiple-shift schools work. It points out that multiple-shift school systems are aimed at expanding access and minimizing unit costs; but such goals are sometimes achieved at the expense of educational quality. Thus policy makers are often faced with difficult choices in the design of the multiple-shift school system. The contribution of the book consists in exposing the issues and dilemmas which policy makers and practitioners have to face and in the presentation of some options for overcoming the difficulties associated with multiple-shift schooling. The book gives a positive assessment of the cost-effectiveness of multiple-shift schooling, but the empirical evidence it marshals for such an assessment is weak.
MUN C. TSANG Michigan
State University
Are Small Schools the Answer? Cost-effective Strategies for Rural School Provision. By MARK
London: The Commonwealth 1989. 89 pp. X4.00 (paper).
BRAY.
Secretariat,
EDUCATIONpolicy makers in many countries often have to confront the question whether or not small schools are better than large schools in meeting the educational needs of students in rural communities, especially communities which are thinly populated and with low enrollment rates. This book is written primarily for such an audience. The book discusses the social, economic and educational considerations which are relevant in the decision regarding school size. By drawing upon actual experiences from a number of developed and developing countries, it presents both the advantages and disadvantages of small schools versus large schools. The author rightly points out that since circumstances vary widely within and between countries, education policy makers should carefully weigh the advantages against the disadvantages with respect to their own contexts. The book ends with a list of practical suggestions for improving the operation of small rural schools.
MUN C. TSANG Michigan State University