It is time to consider athletes’ well-being and performance satisfaction: The roles of authentic leadership and psychological capital

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sport Management Review journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/smr

It is time to consider athletes’ well-being and performance satisfaction: The roles of authentic leadership and psychological capital Minjung Kima,* , Young Do Kimb , Hyun-Woo Leec a b c

The University of Mississippi, United States Elon University, United States Texas A&M University, United States

A R T I C L E I N F O

A B S T R A C T

Article history: Received 18 January 2019 Received in revised form 28 December 2019 Accepted 28 December 2019 Available online xxx

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among coaches’ authentic leadership and athletes’ psychological capital (PsyCap), performance satisfaction, and psychological well-being. The authors recruited 224 athletes participating in intercollegiate athletics in the United States. The results indicated that the authentic leadership of the head coaches positively influenced the athletes’ PsyCap levels. The enhanced PsyCap, in turn, positively influenced both performance satisfaction and psychological well-being. The interaction effect of student development was found in the relationship between authentic leadership and PsyCap. The findings contribute to an improved understanding of a head coach’s authentic behaviors in sport teams, and also illuminate how athletes’ performance satisfaction and psychological well-being can be augmented by PsyCap enhancement. © 2019 Sport Management Association of Australia and New Zealand. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Authentic leadership Psychological capital Performance satisfaction Psychological well-being Intercollegiate sports

1. Introduction Understanding the ways to enhance psychological well-being of sport participants, consumers, and employees has become a critical topic in contemporary sport industries (Doyle, Filo, Lock, Funk, & McDonald, 2016; Kim, Kim, Newman, Ferris, & Perrewé, 2019). A growing line of sport management research has begun to address topics related to the relationship between sport services and well-being outcomes. Competition in the field continue to become intense and such aggravation of environment has confronted various sport contexts with serious challenges such as assault and doping violations (Engelberg, Moston, & Skinner, 2015; Osborne, Sherry, & Nicholson, 2016). Due to pressures to perform well in sport teams, athletes are at risk for mental health issues (e.g., anxiety, depression) in a competitive sport setting (Rice et al., 2018). Intercollegiate sports has become one of the most competitive sport industries in North American society (Kent & Chelladurai, 2001). In Division I institutions, where most exceptional athletes compete under considerable endowments from scholarships, these athletes have exhibited depression symptoms because of significant media attention, fear of failure, and athletic identity issues (Cox, Ross-Stewart, & Foltz, 2017). Many athletes of Division II institutions have experienced anxiety and burnout, although these conditions stem from distinct reasons, such as minimal financial support from a limited

* Corresponding author at: Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, The University of Mississippi, 220 Turner Center, University, MS 38677, United States. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Kim), [email protected] (Y.D. Kim), [email protected] (H.-W. Lee). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2019.12.008 1441-3523/© 2019 Sport Management Association of Australia and New Zealand. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: M. Kim, et al., It is time to consider athletes’ well-being and performance satisfaction: The roles of authentic leadership and psychological capital, Sport Management Review (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j. smr.2019.12.008

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number of scholarships (Judge, Bell, Theodore, Simon, & Bellar, 2012). These practices, violating the National Collegiate Athletic Association’s (NCAA) core amateurism principles of academic success, well-being, and fairness (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2018), prompted a growth in studies on athletes’ well-being beginning in the early 2010s (Nicholls, Polman, & Levy, 2012). Despite this growth, however, the research community has provided few empirical insights into the ways by which to enhance well-being of athletes. In parallel, coaching leadership studies have primarily focused on determining leadership styles that effectively improve athletic performance rather than investigating the well-being of athletes. From the mid-1990s, most leadership studies in sport management and sport psychology have dedicated tremendous efforts to disentangling the roles of transactional, transformational, and charismatic leadership for attaining organizational objectives (Welty Peachey, Damon, Zhou, & Burton, 2015). Recently, sport management scholars began considering follower development constructs as outcomes of coaching leadership (e.g., McDowell, Huang, & Caza, 2018). The behaviors of coaches directly influence the psychological aspects and social–moral attitudes of athletes (Kim, Kim, & Won, 2018). Although other emerging positive leadership styles have recently been adopted in sport domains (e.g., Burton & Welty Peachey, 2013; Burton & Welty Peachey, 2014), sport management scholars have directed minimal empirical research toward authentic leadership. Authentic leadership was introduced as an emerging form of positive leadership that underscores the ethical and moral behaviors of leaders (Hoch, Bommer, Dulebohn, & Wu, 2018; Woolley, Caza, & Levy, 2011). Based on the consensus of considering authenticity as “a root construct in leadership theory” (Avolio & Gardner, 2005, p. 315), a leader’s authenticity can be infused with other leadership theories such as transformational, servant, and spiritual leadership. However, Hoch et al. (2018) differentiated authentic leadership, stating that it plays an important role particularly in predicting affective commitment and trust. Authentic leadership is distinguished from other positive leadership styles in that it advocates showing one’s true self through self-awareness and self-regulated positive behaviors, which in turn, foster self-development among followers (Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2015). In other words, on top of its effect on traditional organizational  outcomes such as satisfaction, performance, and organizational citizenship behavior (Cerne, Dimovski, Mari9 c, Penger, & Škerlavaj, 2014; Clapp-Smith, Vogelgesang, & Avey, 2009), authentic leadership has showed positive relationships with followers’ developmental outcomes, such as creativity (Zubair & Kamal, 2015), psychological capacities (Woolley et al., 2011), and well-being (Ilies, Morgeson, & Nahrgang, 2005). One of the notable initiatives in this regard is that of McDowell et al. (2018), who examined the role of authentic leadership in both athletes’ psychological capital (PsyCap) and their engagement in intercollegiate sports. In support of their results, we endeavored to enhance the understanding of how authentic leadership can lead to increased PsyCap, performance satisfaction, and improved psychological well-being among athletes. As a desirable capability, PsyCap refers to a positive developmental state that favorably affects performance and attitudinal outcomes (Luthans et al., 2015). PsyCap among athletes indicate positive psychological states, which are related to their sense of control, adaptive coping, and agentic goal pursuit in development processes. In a competitive sport environment, the PsyCap of athletes is highly associated with the promotion of positive attitudes in sport teams and augmenting mental well-being in daily life (McDowell et al., 2018). From a positive organizational behavior approach, PsyCap has been regarded not only as an outcome of authentic leadership but also as a predictor for developmental outcomes of followers (e.g., Malik, 2018; Rego, Sousa, Marques, & Cunha, 2012). Heightened PsyCap among athletes, which can be influenced by the authentic behaviors of coaches, has the potential to attenuate stress levels and clear the way for overcoming obstacles to improved performance (McDowell et al., 2018). Given the importance of authentic leadership and PsyCap in the desirable outcomes of collegiate athletes, our study was aimed at empirically examining the relationships between a head coach’s authentic leadership and athletes’ PsyCap, performance satisfaction, and psychological well-being. We also attempted to address the role of student development in the link between the authentic leadership of a coach and the PsyCap enhancement of athletes. 2. Theoretical framework and research hypotheses 2.1. Authentic leadership Authenticity is generally deemed a core concept of Greek philosophy, but it has been actively developed by modern leadership scholars and practitioners (Takos, Murray, & O’Boyle, 2018). Authenticity refers to “one acts in accord with the true self, expressing oneself in ways that are consistent with inner thoughts and feelings” (Harter, 2002, p. 382). One of the first applications of authenticity to leadership emerged within the field of education wherein subordinates’ perceptions of leader authenticity were considered (Henderson & Hoy,1982). On the basis of the positive psychology movement, authentic leadership theory has been refined and applied within a positive organizational behavior approach (Luthans, 2002), wherein authentic leaders are individuals who are “deeply aware of how they think and behave and are perceived by others as being aware of their own and others’ values/moral perspective, knowledge, and strengths” (Avolio, Luthans, & Walumba, 2004, p. 4). Despite a dramatic increase in scholarly attention to authentic leadership, concerns have also arisen as to conceptual overlaps with other leadership theories, especially transformational leadership. Banks, McCauley, Gardner, and Guler (2016) found a large correlation between authentic and transformational leadership through meta-analytic techniques. However, Banks, McCauley, Gardner, and Guler (2016) also highlighted authentic leadership shows dominance in predicting group or organizational performance compared to transformational leadership. In the context of sports, where

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emphasis is placed on team performance, authentic leadership may lead to more positive athletic performance outcomes because beyond focusing on performance, authentic leaders underscore staying true to values and moral principles (Garner et al., 2005). In fact, Banks et al. (2016) could not include outcomes that may help distinguish authentic leadership from transformational leadership in their meta-analysis. Specifically, authentic leadership is more strongly related to followers’ developmental components, such as morality, psychological well-being, creativity, and ethical conduct (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Banks et al., 2016; Michie & Gooty, 2005). Therefore, in the present study’s identification of the potential value of authentic leadership, a meaningful task is to determine how authentic coaches are able to influence athletes’ PsyCap and well-being. Authentic leadership has been proposed as a higher-order construct with four dimensions (Avolio & Gardner, 2005): selfawareness, relational transparency, internalized moral perspective, and balanced processing. The first dimension is selfawareness, which indicates the ability of leaders to not only recognize their strengths, values, knowledge, and weaknesses but also understand how they can influence others (Avolio et al., 2004; Rego et al., 2012). The second dimension is relational transparency, which refers to a leader’s openness and transparent manner to followers (Avolio et al., 2004). The third dimension is internalized moral perspective, which reflects a leader’s high moral standards that are grounded in positive virtues and internal core values (Hoch et al., 2018). The fourth dimension is balanced processing, which is related to a leader’s practice of considering various alternatives, analyzing relevant data sources, and referring to others’ feedback before making decisions (Avolio et al., 2004). 2.2. Authentic leadership in sport management Beginning in the early 1970s, sport leadership scholars have been delving into the effects of leader behaviors on follower perceptions to understand leader influence in sport fields (Welty Peachey et al., 2015). These efforts enabled the adaptation of various leadership styles in sport contexts and the proposal of conceptual models and scales (e.g., leadership scale for sports: Chelladurai & Saleh, 1980). Leadership studies in sport management have been conducted mainly within two areas (Welty Peachey et al., 2015): leadership for administrative positions in conventional off-the-field management (e.g., an athletic director’s leadership) and coaching leadership in field athletic teams (e.g., a head coach’s leadership). Given the importance of a leader’s authenticity and a follower’s positive development, authentic leadership has recently received attention from sport management scholars interested in both administrative leaderships in sport organizations and coaching leadership in sport teams. In the domain of sport governance, Takos et al. (2018) explored board member interactions by using authentic leadership components to unravel the effects of this leadership style on board functioning. The authors suggested that the development of authentic leadership enhances the relationships among board members and thus leads to improved performance. With particular focus on sport organizations, Kim, Perrewé, Kim, and Kim (2017) maintained that the authentic leadership of sport leaders plays a crucial role in enhancing sport employees’ attitudes and creating a healthy workplace. In their conceptual model called Hope, Efficacy, Resilience, and Optimism among Employees in Sport (HEROES), authentic leadership is one of the antecedents for increasing sport employees’ job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, job performance, and psychological well-being through the mechanism of enhanced PsyCap. However, in the empirical study by Kim et al. (2019), no positive relationships were found between an athletic director’s authentic leadership and the PsyCap and psychological well-being of athletic department employees in Division I schools. They justified the insignificant relationships between authentic leadership and follower outcomes by indicating that employees in athletic departments do not directly communicate with their athletic directors. In illuminating the relationships between authentic leadership and its influences in athletes, two key studies have been empirically conducted. First, Kim, Kim, and Reid (2017) recruited 227 assistant coaches working in Division I institutions to inquire into the authentic leadership of head coaches and found that the head coaches’ authentic leadership influenced the assistant coaches’ PsyCap and job–life satisfaction. Second, McDowell et al. (2018) recruited 119 athletes to probe into the relationship between head coaches and athletes. The authors provided empirical evidence of how a head coach’s authentic leadership can increase athletes’ PsyCap and confirmed the positive effects of authentic leadership on athletes’ PsyCap and team engagement through a positive team climate. The current work extends the coverage of previous studies in two ways. First, it meticulously explored the influence of authentic leaders on PsyCap by analyzing the relationship between a head coach and athletes in collegiate sport teams engaging in various sports. Second, in treating psychological well-being as a desirable outcome for athletes in collegiate sport settings, this study can contribute to the sport management literature on authentic coaching leadership. 2.3. Psychological Capital In the developmental sense, PsyCap indicates a means of evolving from the actual self to the possible self (Luthans & Youssef, 2004). The positive organizational behavior approach considers PsyCap a higher-order concept and provides specific standards for the development of related constructs. These standards are the use of valid measurements, a focus on state-like capacities, and a pursuit of performance effects (Luthans, 2002; Luthans, Avolio, Avey, & Norman, 2007). Through theoretical models and empirical tests, Luthans and Youssef (2004) have determined four constructs, namely, hope, efficacy, resilience, and optimism or HERO.

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Hope is the positive motivational state of setting attainable goals and developing specific plans for personal goals rather than a practice of wishful thinking (Luthans et al., 2007). In other words, hopeful individuals set challenging but realistic goals, prompted by goal-directed energy. The hope felt by athletes is positively related to academic achievement (Sellers, 1992), athletic achievement (Curry, Snyder, Cook, Ruby, & Rehm, 1997), and health-promoting behaviors (Hendricks & Hendricks, 2005). In our research context, highly hopeful athletes are likely to be independent thinkers who can develop back-up plans in case of the occurrence of unpredictable hardships. Efficacy pertains to the level of confidence that an individual has regarding his or her ability to complete tasks successfully within a given set of circumstances (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998). Athletic efficacy is one of the principal drivers of athletic performance in sports; it enables athletes to cope with performance pressure and sustain the hard training essential to improving their skills (Jenkins, 2008). Efficacious athletes tend to accept challenges and strive to achieve goals. Resilience points to the positive psychological capacity to not only recover from hardship and failure but also pursue other opportunities (Ryff & Singer, 2003; Youssef & Luthans, 2007). In sport contexts, this attribute has been viewed as a critical component for overcoming losses or slumps (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2012). High-performing athletes experience numerous stressors and failures, to which they respond successfully by utilizing proactive coping strategies intended to balance their sport and daily lives (Galli & González, 2015; Sarkar & Fletcher, 2014). In overcoming these failures (bouncing back), highly resilient athletes learn and correspondingly exhibit positive changes (bouncing forward). Optimistic people attribute positive events to personal and permanent causes and construe negative events as external and situational. In sport psychology studies, optimism has been considered one of the essential aspects for developing both psychological and physical well-being (Brady & Grenville-Cleave, 2017). Optimistic athletes are able to manage unexpected changes (e.g., their coach’s leaving) and find new possibilities from unforeseen events. A head coach’s authentic leadership is one of the most influential leadership styles for the augmentation of athletes’ PsyCap levels and PsyCap components (Luthans et al., 2007; Rego et al., 2012). Because authentic leaders are committed to follower development, they endeavor to create positive and developmental interactions, through which followers obtain personalized and helpful feedback (Gardner, Avolio, Luthans, May, & Walumbwa, 2005). The upshot of this process is the development of followers’ ability to build the willpower and waypower to realize their goals (i.e., hope). A leader’s balanced processing shapes followers into efficacious individuals because they experience a sense of inclusion and acceptance of their opinions (i.e., efficacy) (Rego et al., 2012). The support and attention that an authentic leader offers to his or her followers can encourage them to face and overcome difficulties (i.e., resilience) (Gardner et al., 2005). By identifying with followers and evoking positive emotions, authentic leaders stimulate positivity in their followers (i.e., optimism) (Avolio et al., 2004). McDowell et al. (2018) confirmed the positive impact of a head coach’s authentic leadership on athletes’ PsyCap. Thus, a head coach’s authentic behavior can induce athletes’ PsyCap. Hypothesis 1. A head coach’s authentic leadership behavior positively influences student athletes’ psychological capital. 2.4. Outcomes of Psychological Capital Various studies have been carried out on sport contexts examined the effectiveness of each component of PsyCap in improving athletic performance, but only a few that are underlain by a consideration of PsyCap as a higher-order construct have been conducted. An example is Kim, Kim, and Wells (2017) research, which accounted for the role of assistant coaches’ PsyCap in their job–life satisfaction. A similar initiative is that implemented by Kim et al. (2019), who analyzed sport employees in Division I athletic departments and tested the indirect effect of PsyCap in the job satisfaction and psychological well-being of the employees. With regard to sport teams, McDowell et al. (2018) emphasized the importance of athletes’ PsyCap and explained how PsyCap levels can be increased. Notwithstanding the insights derived from their works, they did not delineate the effects of PsyCap. We therefore focused on the synergistic effects of PsyCap on desirable outcomes for athletes in intercollegiate sport teams. 2.4.1. Performance satisfaction In an organized and competitive sport setting, the satisfaction levels are crucial in determining the effectiveness of sport organizations because ensuring athletic performance based on wins and losses can be unreliable measures of individual perceptions (Riemer & Chelladurai, 1998). Rather than using objective indicators of performance (e.g., team ranking), many sport psychologists advocated for the subjective categorization and assessment of sport performance by the very individuals who engage in sports (e.g., Males & Kerr, 1996). Performance satisfaction has been considered as an aspect of athlete satisfaction, which consists of various facets such as persoanl treatment, training, team task constirbution, team ethics, budget, and academic support services (Riemer & Chelladurai, 1998). A subjective, self-directed rating of performance satisfaction is beneficial in that it advances the identification of the level of performance required from athletes in various sports and positions (Nicholls et al., 2012). Compared to satistfaction with team performance, which receives more attention from the media and coaches, individual satistifaction is related to satisfaction with one’s personal atheltic performance. Accordingly, performance satisfaction is defined in the present study as the level of athletes’ satisfaction with their own athletic performance. Specifically, perceived satisfaction is formed through a consideration of previous performance, optimal performance, and improvement of playing skill (Riemer & Chelladurai, 1998). Subject performance in a sport setting would be associated with the pleasant emotions,

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challenge appraisals, and task-oriented coping of athletes (Nicholls et al., 2012). In regards of a coach-athlete relationship quality, satistifaction with individual performance has been highlited as one of the desire outcomes (e.g., Jowett & Nezlek, 2012). In our research setting, assessing studetn-ahtletes’ satisfiaction with their personal performance would also be meaningful to have a better understading of the coach-athlete relationship. PsyCap constructs synergistically influence individual performance. People with high PsyCap are capable of motivating themselves and persevering to accomplish individual goals. Hopeful individuals, for example, set realistic goals that can be reached through multiple pathways that are based on contingency plans (Luthans et al., 2015). Because efficacious individuals believe in their facility to achieve goals, they are likely to put in corresponding efforts (Newman, Ucbasaran, Zhu, & Hirst, 2014). Considerable resilience and optimism help individuals surmount difficulties and uncover opportunities to improve individual performance (Luthans et al., 2015). Accordingly, athletes who have high levels of PsyCap may show equally high levels of athletic performance and are thereby likely to be satisfied with their accomplishments. Thus, we submit the second hypothesis: Hypothesis 2. Psychological capital of athletes positively influences performance satisfaction. 2.4.2. Psychological well-being As a development within the positive organizational behavior approach, authentic leadership ultimately pursues the enhancement of one’s well-being through positive experiences in organizations (Avey, Luthans, Smith, & Palmer, 2010). As an outcome of the recent theoretical discussion of positive leadership approaches, authenticity on the part of leaders is instrumental in elevating the psychological well-being of followers (Ilies et al., 2005). The concept of well-being has been divided into two broad classifications: hedonic and eudaemonic well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2001). Whereas hedonic well-being points to subjective happiness and pleasure, eudaemonic well-being is a broader notion that encompasses motivational and behavioral aspects (Ryff & Keyes, 1995). These two concepts have been expanded to subject well-being and psychological well-being, respectively (Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002). Revolving around human developmental aspects, psychological well-being includes the overall effectiveness of an individual’s psychological functioning. In a multidimensional model, Ryff (1989) described psychological well-being using six dimensions. First, as one of the central aspects of mental health, self-acceptance is associated with a positive evaluation of and attitudes toward the self despite awareness of personal limitations (Horn, Taris, Schaufeli, & Schreurs, 2004). Second, a positive relationship with others indicates a positive attitude of oneself towards building and maintaining trustworthy relationships (Rogers, 2012). Third, autonomy is related to having a distinct sense of self-dertermination and an internal locus of evaluation (Rogers, 2012). Fourth, environmental mastery is one’s ability to manage lives and surroundings effectively to meet personal needs (Horn et al., 2004). Fifth, purpose in life refers to a consideration of life as purposeful and meaningful, as indicated by a recognition of having something to live for (Ryff, 1989). Finally, personal growth indicates the tendency to continuously develop the personal potential to grow by being open to new experiences and adapting behaviors to different social contexts (Ryff, 1989). Each dimension helps articulate different challenges that people encounter as they strive to function positively in life (Ryff & Keyes, 1995). Enhanced PsyCap can positively contribute to individuals’ psychological well-being via aggregated positive experiences. Individuals with high PsyCap experience meaningful improvements as they pursue different pathways to their goals, seek more opportunities, and build coping mechanisms (Kim et al., 2019). Individual growth and development within a given context augment both psychological functioning and daily life satisfaction (Avey, Reichard, Luthans, & Mhatre, 2011; Culbertson, Fullagar, & Mills, 2010). Playing a sport and being a team member are important life involvements for athletes— favorable experiences that may be closely related to their psychological well-being. In addition to the proposed relationship between authentic leadership and PsyCap, the path from PsyCap to psychological well-being enabled us to build a mechanism with which to verify the indirect effect of PsyCap in the aforementioned relationships. Correspondingly, the next hypothesis is formulated: Hypothesis 3. Psychological capital of athletes positively influences psychological well-being. 2.5. Role of student development Leadership studies have consistently highlighted the observation that the personal values and characteristics of followers affect their attitudes and behaviors (Woolley et al., 2011). In sport contexts, coaching leadership outcomes can be influenced by athletes’ characteristics, such as gender (Lee, Magnusen, & Cho, 2013), demographic similarity (McDowell et al., 2018), and win orientation (Bormann, Schulte-Coerne, Diebig, & Rowold, 2016). In regard to collegiate sports, McDowell et al. (2018) represented how a coach’s authentic leadership behaviors can influence team climate in Division I men’s and women’s basketball by examining the conditional effects of gender and racial similarities between coaches and athletes. In a similar vein, we argue that student development exerts an interaction effect on the relationship between perceived authentic leadership and PsyCap levels. That is, athletes tend to show different expectations, motivations, and behaviors according to their school years (Huml, 2016). An essential requirement, then, is to disentangle the effects of student development on the formation of academic PsyCap.

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School years, either lower class (freshman and sophomore) or upper class (junior and senior) status, are closely related to athletes’ motivational tendencies and interactions with their coaches (Kline, 2016). Across school years, athletes may show different attitudes and behaviors in academics and sports. Upper class athletes are more likely to consider their dual roles as separate functions than are their lower class counterparts (Settles, Sellers, & Damas, 2002). Shin, Chiu, and Lee (2019) found higher associations between perceived social benefits of sporting activities and quality of life in upper class students. With more mature attitudes and understanding of the social benefits, they are likely to interact with peers and create meaningful social networks apart from belonging to their sport teams. This demonstrates how attitudes based on established social identities can serve a social-adjustive function (Antons & Piller, 2015). In contrast, lower class athletes first need to be familiar with campus life and sport teams for successful adjustment (Credé & Niehorster, 2012). During this adaptation period, their advisors, coaches, and teammates can exert a major effect on their attitudes and behaviors. According to Lally and Kerr (2005), lower class athletes tend to prioritize athletics over academics and regard themselves as athletes first. Thus, compared with upper class athletes who value the influence of various groups of people on their careers, their lower class counterparts are strongly influenced by a coach’s behaviors and interactions with them over the course of their individual development. The openness of authentic leaders in sharing information increases the quality of the coach–athlete relationship as this behavior inspires high levels of trust in and commitment to a coach. Overall, we expect the relationship between authentic leadership and PsyCap to be moderated by student development; that is, its effect is stronger among lower class athletes. Hypothesis 4. A head coach’s authentic leadership has a larger positive effect on the psychological capital of lower class athletes. 3. Method 3.1. Procedures and participants To delve into how the authentic leadership of head coaches is beneficial for athletes, we developed an online survey questionnaire using Survey Monkey. Our target population comprised athletes in Divisions I and II universities in the United States. After securing approval of the data collection procedures and questionnaire items from the institutional review board, we recruited participants by contacting the assistant coaches of sport teams or the communication specialists of each athletic department in the target institutions via email. In the email, we briefly introduced the purpose and significance of the research, provided the link to the online survey to enable them to view the consent form and questions, and asked them to share the link with the athletes whom they supervise. Access to the online survey remained open for three weeks, and reminder email messages were sent one week after the initial email was sent to encourage potential participants to complete the survey. Thereafter, we emailed athletes directly after obtaining approval from the athletic departments and extended access to the survey for another three weeks to recruit more participants. A total of 542 athletes initially accessed the link to the online questionnaire, but only 224 completed the survey (41.3%). The preferred sample size of this study was 170 based on Hair et al.’s (2005) suggestion, which is item-toresponse ratio of 1:5. Our sample (n = 224) consisted of 137 females (61.2%) and 87 males (38.8%). Among the participants, 106 (47.3%) and 118 (52.7%) attended Divisions I and II institutions, respectively. The composition by year level was as follows: 38 freshmen (13.4%), 53 sophomores (23.7%), 77 juniors (34.4%), 61 seniors (27.2%), and 3 graduate students (1.3%). Our participants played for various sport teams, such as baseball (n = 15, 6.7%), basketball (n = 4, 1.8%), football (n = 27, 12.1%), soccer (n = 17, 7.6%), softball (n = 41, 18.3%), swimming (n = 12, 5.4%), track/cross-country (n = 52, 23.2%), volleyball (n = 14, 6.3%), and others (n = 42, 18.8%). On average, the athletes had been playing under the current head coaches for 19 months (SD = 12.1). 3.2. Measures To utilize a reliable and valid questionnaire, we conducted an in-depth literature review and modified selected items on the basis of a thorough evaluation of context adequacy by a panel of experts (three sport management scholars, two head coaches from each Division I and II sport team, and two business management scholars). We asked sport management scholars and coaches to check whether the questions were appropriately modified on the basis of the athlete and collegiate sport context given that some of the original measurements were developed for employees in business contexts (e.g., using “playing” and “athletic career” instead of “working” and “job,” respectively). The online survey for the athletes includes 41 questions on the following components: (a) perceptions of their head coach’s authentic leadership; (b) PsyCap; (c) athletic performance satisfaction; (d) psychological well-being; and (d) demographic and athletic information. In terms of demographic and athletic information, we included several items such as sport team, year level, gender, division level, and period of training with the current head coaches. All the items, with the exception of those on demographics and athletic information, were rated by the respondents on a seven-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree). Using the theoretical framework of authentic leadership as basis, Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, and Peterson (2008) initially developed and tested the authentic leadership questionnaire (ALQ), which is a second-order factor model with 16 items under four dimensions. However, Neider and Schriesheim (2011) criticized the content validation of the ALQ,

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particularly toward the subjective judgments in the instrument. They attempted to solve this subjectivity by establishing a more accurate assessment of the ALQ through rigorous content validity assessment methods. These efforts led the author to develop a modified measure of authentic leadership called the Authentic Leadership Inventory (ALI). The 14-item ALI, reflects the refinement and/or replacement of the problematic questionnaire items of the ALQ. It also supports the discriminant validity of authentic leadership with respect to the Transformational Leadership Inventory (TLI). The instrument was then modified by Kim, Kim, and Reid (2017) for sport settings to ensure suitability (e.g., replacing “my leader” with “my head coach”), and this 14-item questionnaire was adapted to measure perceived head coaches’ authentic leadership, and a sample item is “my head coach openly shares information with others.” The first PsyCap questionnaire (PCQ), which was developed by Luthans et al. (2007) for occupational contexts, is composed of six items under each of four sub-constructs and is intended to measure employees’ positive state of development. With a number of samples, Avey, Luthans, and Mhatre (2008) reduced the 24-item PCQ to a 12-item instrument to address practical concerns. This short version had acceptable reliability and support for construct validity. We altered it in accordance with the specific circumstances of athletic contexts (e.g., “working” was changed to “playing,” and “company” was modified to “team”). Example item is “I can think of many ways to reach my current athletic goals.” As higherorder constructs, authentic leadership and PsyCap scales encompass four sub-constructs each, with acceptable internal consistency reliability, construct reliability, and construct validity in sport contexts (Kim, Kim, & Reid, 2017). Riemer and Chelladurai’s (1998) athletic satisfaction questionnaire (ASQ) has been one of the most frequently employed tools for accessing athletes’ perceptions about 15 of the most salient aspects of athletic experiences (Hoffmann & Loughead, 2016). These dimensions cover not only sports issues (e.g., training and instruction) but also academic matters (e.g., academic support services). We used three questions about athletes’ performance satisfaction with reference to Riemer and Chelladurai’s athletic satisfaction questionnaire. A sample statement featuring this measure is “I am satisfied with the degree to which I have reached my performance goals.” To measure one’s subjective and global judgement, Ryff and her colleagues developed a psychological well-being scale (Ryff, 1989; Ryff & Keyes, 1995; Ryff & Singer, 2003) on the basis of an overview of previous theoretical and philosophical attempts to define a good life (e.g., Jahoda, 1958). With these seminal works as guidance, Keyes (2005) designed a six-item scale that we employed to access each athlete’s psychological well-being, including the statement “I am good at managing the responsibilities of daily life.” 3.3. Data preparation To verify the representativeness of our data, we initiated the procedure for handling non-response errors (Lindner, Murphy, & Briers, 2001). First, we divided the responses into two groups: early (the first three-week period) and late (the second three-week period). Second, we compared the early and late responses to questions on eight randomly selected items (two items for each key construct) with the responses to demographic questions. No statistically significant differences between the two groups were found, demonstrating the absence of a threat to external validity. Multivariate skewness and kurtosis were calculated by using Mplus 6.0. The Mardia’s coefficients of multivariate skewness (z = 246.8, SD = 3.4) and kurtosis (z = 1182.0, SD = 5.1) were significant (p < .001), meaning that our data violated the normality assumption. Thus, a maximum likelihood mean-adjusted (MLM) estimator, which is robust to non-normality, was used in the subsequent data analyses. With the Satorra and Bentler’s (1994) scaling, we evaluated the models with other goodness-of-fit-indices such as comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR). CFI and TLI values are equal to or greater than .90 represent an acceptable model fit, while they are greater than .95 indicate a well-fitted model (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2005). RMSEA and SRMR values that are equal to or less than .08 represent an acceptable fit, while they are less than .05 indicate a wellfitted model (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Measurement model was assessed for psychometric properties and direct and indirect paths were estimated by structural equation modeling. 4. Results 4.1. Measurement models To evaluate second-order constructs and the full measurement model, we conducted multiple confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs). For second-order constructs, we evaluated measurement models for authentic leadership (χ2 = 85.6, df = 59, p < .001, CFI = .99, TLI = .99, SRMR = .02, RMSEA = .04) and PsyCap (χ2 = 117.9, df = 48, p < .001, CFI = .96, TLI = .94, SRMR = .04, RMSEA = .08), indicating good and acceptable model fits, respectively. The factor loadings of each item and each subconstruct exceed the cutoff point of .05 (Hair et al., 2005). We evaluated both construct reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE) values for accessing the convergent validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). The CR and AVE values of each latent construct exceed the suggested levels of .70 and .50. The correlations among latent constructs were calculated to check for multi-collinearity or singularity issues, but none of the relationships exceeded the .85 cutoff (Kline, 2005). In the initial full measurement model (χ2 = 1008.9, df = 513, p < .001, CFI = .93, TLI = .92, SRMR = .06, RMSEA = .07), a factor loading for the sixth item of psychological well-being was below than the cutoff point of .5 (Hair et al., 2005). Based on the review by a panel of experts and a low factor loading, this reverse item, “I tend to be influenced by people with strong opinions,” was excluded from further analysis. The modified measurement model exhibited an acceptable model fit

Please cite this article in press as: M. Kim, et al., It is time to consider athletes’ well-being and performance satisfaction: The roles of authentic leadership and psychological capital, Sport Management Review (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j. smr.2019.12.008

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(χ2 = 951.5, df = 483, p < .001, CFI = .93, TLI = .92, SRMR = .06, RMSEA = .07). The factor loading of each item exceeded the cutoff point of .50 (Hair et al., 2005). The CR and AVE values exceeded the suggested levels of .70 and .50, and correlations were not exceeded the .85 cutoff (Table 1), meaning that no extreme multicollinearity or singularity issues were found (Kline, 2005). To provide additional support for discriminant validity in the final measurement model, we also compared squared interconstruct correlation (SCI) values with AVE values for the respective latent constructs. As a result, the AVE values were higher than the SIC values for each construct, confirming the discriminant validity in the final measurement model (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). 4.2. Hypotheses testing A structural equation model was tested to validate the research hypotheses (Model 1). This model includes not only two second-order constructs (i.e., authentic leadership and PsyCap) and outcomes variables, but also direct and indirect paths based on our research hypotheses. Each standardized coefficient of first-order constructs for second-order constructs (i.e., authentic leadership and PsyCap) were calculated and reported in Table 1. Also, the standardized path coefficients among latent variables and R-square values were examined (see Fig. 1). The results showed an acceptable model fit (χ2 = 999.9, df = 483, p < .001, CFI = .93, TLI = .92, SRMR = .06, RMSEA = .07). Given the acceptable fit exhibited by this model (Model 1), another plausible model was compared with the hypothesized model of interest on the basis of the relevant literature. In this plausible model, we added a path from performance satisfaction to psychological well-being (Model 2), as Wright, Cropanzano, and Bonett (2007) indicated that performance and satisfaction are associated with psychological well-being. In our context, athletes’ satisfaction with their athletic performance may lead to augmented psychological well-being. However, the test on Model 2 indicated that the coefficient of the path from performance satisfaction to psychological well-being was negative and non-significant (standardized g = .02, SE = .22, p = .83). Therefore, the more parsimonious model (Model 1) was retained as a final model (Fig.1). The final model (Model 1) was incorporated with three direct paths (Fig. 1), and the individual standardized path coefficients among the variables were calculated. The path from authentic leadership to PsyCap was positive and significant (standardized g = .66, SE = .05), supporting hypothesis 1. The paths from PsyCap to performance satisfaction (standardized g = .70, SE = .04) and psychological well-being (standardized g = .54, SE = .06) were positive and significant, reflecting support for Hypotheses 2 and 3. Based on the direct effects among variables, we conducted supplementary analysis to help in understanding how the mediation chain works in causal inferences (Schwab, 2004). When the direct path is not significant, the significant indirect path is categorized as indirect-only mediation, or full mediation (Schwab, 2004; Zhao, Lynch, & Chen, 2010). In this post hoc full mediation analysis, we used bootstrapping to ascertain the indirect effect of PsyCap, with Mplus mediation testing codes (Stride, Gardner, Catley, & Thomas, 2015) to handle non-normal distributed data. The results indicated that the indirect effect of PsyCap was significant between authentic leadership and performance satisfaction (standardized g = .46, SE = .05), with the 99% confidence interval (CI), which was above zero [.31, .59]. Similarly, the indirect effect of PsyCap between authentic leadership was positive and significant (standardized g = .36, SE = .05), with the 99% CI [.22, .49]. Prior to examining the interaction effect of student development in the model, we created a variable by classifying the status of students into lower class and upper class (freshman or sophomore = 1 and junior or senior = 2). By using Mplus moderation testing codes (Stride et al., 2015) and bootstrapping, the dichotomous moderator (i.e., student development) was tested between authentic leadership and PsyCap to have low, medium, and high moderator values along with simple slopes and intercepts. The results revealed a significant interaction effect of student development (standardized g = –.42, SE = .20) with the 95% CI [–.81, –.02] on the relationship between a head coach’s authentic leadership and athletes’ PsyCap, supporting Hypothesis 4. ModGraph-I (Jose, 2013), which is a software program used to display statistical interactions, was employed to plot and visualize (low and high) obtained from the statistical output in Mplus (Fig. 2). As simplified and displayed in Fig. 2, the positive relationship between authentic leadership and PsyCap is stronger among lower class athletes, compared to Table 1 Factors, Mean, SD, Constructs, Mean, SD, Standardized Coefficients (β), Composite Reliability (CR), AVE, and Correlations. Factors

Mean

SD

CR

AVE

1. Authentic leadership a. Self-awareness b. Relational Transparency c. Internalized moral perspective d. Balanced processing 2. Psychological capital a. Hope b. Efficacy c. Resilience d. Optimism 3. Performance satisfaction 4. Psychological well-being

4.6 4.5 4.8 5.0 4.2 5.5 5.4 5.6 5.5 5.3 5.2 5.8

1.5 1.6 1.8 1.6 1.7 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.2 1.5 1.6 .8

.93 .95 .94 .92 .96 .90 .86 .94 .90 .90 .94 .84

.77 .86 .84 .79 .87 .68 .62 .83 .74 .74 .84 .52

β .90 .87 .87 .86 .97 .79 .69 .83

1 (a) 1 (1) (.79*) (.77*) (.77*) .65* (1) (.78*) (.68*) (.78*) .51* .32*

2 (b)

3 (c)

4 (d)

(1) (.76*) (.76*) 1

(1) (.74*)

(1)

(1) (.51*) (.61*) .69* .55*

(1) (.63*) 1 .37*

(1) 1

SD = standard deviation, CR = construct reliability, AVE = average variance extracted. *p <.001.

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Fig. 1. Final structural model. Note. p* < .05, p** < .001.

Fig. 2. Interaction effect of student development between authentic leadership and PsyCap.

upper class athletes. In contrast, the influence of authentic leadership positive in PsyCap would be weaker when athletes are upper class. 5. Discussion There can be no leaders without followers (Hickman, 2010); it is needless to point out the importance of a coach’s attitude and behavior on athletes. In sport management and psychology disciplines, coaching leadership research has engendered numerous leadership models and examined the influence of each leadership style on a variety of sports since the early 1970s (Welty Peachey et al., 2015). Among several emerging themes of sport leadership research, the ethical and moral development of leaders and how it can bring forth positive follower outcomes in a competitive sport industry have recently been advocated by scholars as worthy of increased attention (Burton & Welty Peachey, 2013; Welty Peachey et al., 2015). Nevertheless, scant sport management studies have uncovered the relationships between authentic leadership and its outcomes, especially in the intercollegiate sport context. To cast light on the process of augmenting the performance satisfaction and psychological well-being of athletes, we foregrounded authentic leadership mechanisms through effects of PsyCap and student development.

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The results indicated that authentic leadership positively influenced the athletes’ PsyCap, supporting Hypothesis 1. This finding is consistent with the conclusion of McDowell et al. (2018), who stated that coach’s authentic leadership contributes to athletes’ PsyCap development. There are various ways for head coaches to enhance the PsyCap of athletes. Kim, Kim, and Reid (2017) specifically articulated that a leader’s authentic behaviors can foster followers’ hope, efficacy, and resilience, among PsyCap sub-constructs. The high standards imposed on authentic leaders’ espousal of moral values can play an important role in reinforcing the quality of the leader–follower relationship, and such a strong bond helps followers focus on their goals and overcome hardships (Kim, Kim, Reid et al., 2017). Furthermore, the openness and willingness of leaders to share their thoughts and opinions aid followers (i.e., athletes) in recognizing their potential and believing in their abilities to complete assigned tasks (Luthans et al., 2007). The results of the current study therefore serve as conclusive evidence of the positive relationship between authentic leadership and PsyCap in collegiate sports. The findings showed a positive impact of athletes’ PsyCap on their satisfaction with athletic performance. The association between PsyCap and job satisfaction has been confirmed in various workplaces, such as manufacturing companies (Larson & Luthans, 2006), schools (Cheung, Tang, & Tang, 2011), and athletic departments (e.g., Kim et al., 2019). In our setting, performance satisfaction is related to perceptions of personal athletic performance (e.g., previous performance, optimal performance, and improvement of playing skill; Riemer & Chelladurai, 1998). Individuals with high PsyCap are motivated to set realistic goals and pursue excellence (Luthans et al., 2007). They also tend to consider negative results as situational and bounce back by learning from failures (i.e., resilience). Thus, such positive attitudes of athletes may not only enable them to cope with performance pressure but may also stimulate gratification with their improved athletic abilities. The relationship between athletes’ PsyCap and psychological well-being was significant in the hypothesized direction, as correctly predicted via Hypothesis 3. On the basis of broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 2001), asserting that one’s positive emotions collectively broaden their thought-action repertories and ultimately enhance psychological well-being, the concept of PsyCap has been developed and considered as one of the strong predictors for the overall effectiveness of individuals’ psychological functioning (Luthans et al., 2007). By adapting positive organizational behavior approach to sport contexts, sport management scholars recently started to explore the role of PsyCap in augmenting psychological well-being conceptually (e.g., Kim et al., 2018; Oja, Kim, Perrewé, & Anagnostopoulos, in press) and empirically (e.g., Kim et al., 2019). In the current research setting, the athletes’ PsyCap, as a higher-order concept that encompasses hope, efficacy, resilience, and optimism, predicted their psychological well-being. Based on three significant direct effects among authentic leadership, PsyCap, performance satisfaction, and psychological well-being, we conducted additional tests to check the mediating role of PsyCap in our final research model. The testing of indirect relationships in the current study underscored the importance of athletes’ PsyCap in explaining the process that underlies a head coach’s authentic leadership and its effects on performance satisfaction and psychological well-being. Under the auspices of coaches who demonstrated authentic behaviors, athletes showed enhanced PsyCap levels, which in turn, increased their satisfaction with their athletic achievements and/or improvements. Similar to our results, those of Kim, Kim, and Reid (2017) articulated a bridge role of PsyCap between the authentic leadership and job–life satisfaction of head and assistant coaches in Division I football teams. The results of this study also reflected that authentic leadership indirectly influences the psychological well-being of athletes through the enhancement of PsyCap. Our findings provide empirical support for Ilies et al.’s (2005) conceptual propositions. Specifically, the authors articulated that leaders who engage in authentic behaviors tend to support follower self-determination and increase intrinsic motivation, which ultimately augment the eudemonic well-being of such subordinates. For athletes, their augmented PsyCap levels are suggested as a necessary component of performance satisfaction and worthiness of their lives in the college athletics setting. We also investigated the moderating effect of student development in the hypothesized model. As shown in Fig. 2, the slope of lower class athletes is larger than that of upper class athletes. For lower class athletes, interactions with coaches and faculty members can be a crucial aspect of college adjustment, which influences their psychological and social development (Melendez, 2006). The interpersonal dynamics that characterizes the coach–athlete relationship is linked to each coach’s leadership style and athletes’ individual development (Kim et al., 2018). Considering authentic leadership behaviors and athletes’ characteristic can generate enhanced explanations of the latter’s interaction effect on performance satisfaction and psychological well-being through PsyCap. Our findings support those of past studies that articulated significant interaction effects of authentic leadership and  follower characteristics on PsyCap enhancement. Cerne et al. (2014), for example, found an interaction effect of congruence between leaders’ and followers’ perceptions of authentic leadership on positive self-development in their study on manufacturing company employees. In sport contexts, McDowell et al. (2018) asserted that the similarity between coaches’ and players’ genders interacts with authentic leadership in the cultivation of team climate, ultimately augmenting players’ PsyCap. Overall, the findings of the current research provide another plausible explanation for the impact of authentic leadership behaviors on followers’ psychological development. 5.1. Practical implications The results of this study present a number of practical implications for coaching leadership and athlete development in the intercollegiate sport setting. Foremost of these is that authentic leadership may be an attractive style to coaches in college sports teams, especially for improving athletic performance. The positive organizational behavior approach highlights state-like positive capacities, meaning that the four PsyCap components are open to development and

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enhancement (Luthans & Youssef, 2004). From this approach, our findings suggest that athletes are likely to set realistic goals, intrinsically motivate themselves, bounce back from slumps, and seek more opportunities when they perceive their coach to be authentic and athlete-oriented even during non-training periods. To enhance athletes’ PsyCap, coaches can use several methods of developing and showing their authentic behaviors as they integrate with their athletes. First, compared with other leadership styles that are grounded in a leader-centered perspective, authentic leadership focuses on the growth and moral development of followers (Hoch et al., 2018). In practice, one of the most important aspects of coaching is the cultivation of a high-quality relationship between a coach and athletes for athletic satisfaction, team cohesion, and athletic performance (Kim et al., 2018). Ethical behaviors can make a head coach a good role model for athletes, and the experiences gained within a beneficial coach–athlete relationship effectively reinforce athletes’ mental health. Especially for lower class athletes, who need more support from coaches, advisors, and other academic professionals for successful college adjustment (Melendez, 2006), the moral values and relational transparency of coaches can serve a crucial function in their responses to their leaders’ authentic leadership behaviors. In particular, we assert that the successful cultivation of PsyCap on the grounds of authentic leadership during the early years of athletes can stimulate more positive attitudes and behaviors in their senior years. Hence, the application of the currently examined PsyCap demands deliberation of long-term strategic efforts for successful team building. Coaches also need to be aware that it is important for them to show their openness to sharing information with freshmen and sophomore athletes, especially during their adaptation period. Therefore, fostering an authentic leadership and culture among the coaching staffs who interact with lowerclassmen is imperative. Ensuring the smooth adjustment of lower class athletes to collegiate sport settings may necessitate the establishment of high-quality relationships through a head coach’s openness and transparent conduct. To ensure the smooth adjustment of lower class athletes to collegiate sport setting, a head coach’s openness and transparent manner can be helpful in building a high relationship quality. Second, it is necessary for head coaches to understand how to increase athletes’ performance satisfaction and well-being by presenting authentic behaviors in coaching. The importance of effective coaching leadership has been emphasized in various levels of sports, from community to professional domains. From a practitioner-oriented approach, detailed assumptions regarding effective coaching leadership were established by Vella, Oades, and Crowe (2010); these are (a) the presence of a developmental process between a coach and an athlete, (b) the role of coach–athlete relationship between coach behaviors and athletic outcomes, (c) a focus on athlete-oriented outcomes (e.g., confidence), and (d) consideration of each coach’s and athlete’s characteristics. With regard to each assumption in our research setting, perceived authentic behaviors enhanced athletes’ PsyCap, which consists of four state-like and developmental constructs (i.e., hope, efficacy, resilience, and optimism). This finding reflected the validity of the first and third assumptions. The supplementary test on the indirect effects of PsyCap indicated that various authentic coaching leadership behaviors collectively elevated PsyCap levels and, ultimately, improved satisfaction levels with individual skills and/or team performance. All in all, these results pointed to a satisfaction of the second and fourth assumptions. Collectively, authentic leadership among head coaches presents valuable insights into coaching skills in competitive intercollegiate sports. Third, for head coaches’ efforts to align with the NCAA’s vision, it is necessary for these leaders to transform into motivators and listeners so that they can understand and strengthen the PsyCap of the athletes which they administer and accordingly guarantee their psychological well-being. Given the importance of athletes’ PsyCap in promoting their mental health, the findings provide managerial implications for coaches and employees of intercollege athletics departments. Recently, various training programs have been designed and implemented for athletes’ mental health in both sport and everyday life (Glass, Spears, Perskaudas, & Kaufman, in press; Van Raalte, Cornelius, Andrews, Diehl, & Brewer, 2015). There is an existing short Web-based training program for PsyCap development (Luthans, Avey, & Patera, 2008), and using such intervention can be a favorable approach to maintaining and enhancing the psychological well-being of athletes. 5.2. Limitations and directions for future research Although we tested the theory-based hypothesized model through a series of data analyses, some limitations are worth noting. On the basis of these limitations, we formulated directions for future research in the sport management discipline. As the current study mainly focused on causal relationships, additional research needs to consider more contextual factors. Although one interaction variable was tested in our research model, there are more potential moderators that can be tested for in-depth explanations of various phenomena and conditions in sport organizations. Specifically, in the relationship between coaching leadership behaviors and athletes’ development, the following contextual effects in intercollegiate sports can be verified: the quality of the coach–athlete relationship, the number of assistant coaches, and types of sports (individual sports versus team sports). On the basis of the potential moderators for PsyCap outcomes, provided by Newman et al. (2014), we encourage researchers to consider including sport-oriented variables as moderators. One example may be team cohesion because the impact of PsyCap on performance satisfaction may increase when athletes in team sports are more collectively united in pursuing excellence in their performance. Researchers can also examine how team cohesion is built between upper-class and lower-class students. On top of this, the research is encumbered by a few sampling issues that should be addressed in future research. Foremost is our recruitment of participants only from Division I and II institutions. Including athletes of Division III institutions would be meaningful as this would translate to a more representative sample of collegiate athletes and would enable researchers to identify a greater number of contextual characteristics that are connected to the relationships investigated in the current

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work. In addition, we used a convenience sampling method, contacting athletes directly in the second stage of data collection to augment the responses. For improved representativeness, other researchers should adopt more rigorous data sampling procedures, such as stratified sampling, which involves selecting particular subgroups within a population (Andrew, Pedersen, & McEvoy, 2011). These methods would be helpful not only in the estimation of parameters for causal relationships in each school division but also in providing a response rate. Also, subjective performance satisfaction was measured by selfreports of athletes’ perceptions. Objective measures of actual performance could be included in future studies to broaden the scope of research. More importantly, we encourage researchers to examine the influence of authentic leadership behaviors on follower development in other sport contexts. For example, coach’s such behaviors may differently affect youth sport participants and professional athletes. Therefore, researchers need to delineate which sport levels will best benefit from authentic leadership behaviors. 5.3. Conclusion This study provided empirical evidence of the relationships among a head coach’s authentic leadership, athletes’ PsyCap, performance satisfaction, and psychological well-being in the collegiate sport context. The results indicated that the coaches’ authentic leadership behaviors positively influenced the athletes’ PsyCap and that student development moderated the aforementioned relationship. In addition, the strengthened PsyCap drove the athletes to be satisfied with their individual performance and increased their psychological well-being in their daily lives. This study contributes to the sport management literature by identifying the conditions and mechanisms that enhance the developmental states of athletes. 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