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JAMES BEALL MORRISON:THE VISIONARY WHO REVOLUTIONIZED
CLINICAL
PRACTICE
JAMES BEALL MORRISON:THE VISIONARY WHO REVOLUTIONIZED THE PRACTICE OF DENTISTRY MALVIN E. RING, D.D.S., M.L.S., F.A.C.D.; NEAL HURLEY, PH.D., M.S.
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Background and Overview. For centuries, dental patients sat on makeshift contraptions or modified straight-backed chairs, which took a toll on the health of both patient and dentist. In addition, the lack of a suitable drill retarded the development of restorative dentistry, allowing minimum care for only a tiny segment of the population. One farseeing American dentist, James Beall Morrison, changed all that in the 1870s with his innovative, fully adjustable chair, which made sitdown dentistry possible. Moreover, his monumental invention of the foot-powered drill allowed dentists to place restorations that were theretofore impossible.
A
Midwestern family of highly creative and inventive people added greatly to the comfort and improvement of American life through their many patents for household objects, including a washing machine and an improved automatic door strip to keep the wind out. These were the Morrisons, three of whom became dentists. One of them changed the course and character of dentistry forever. His name was James Beall Morrison; he created the first fully adjustable dental chair, which allowed dentists to treat patients with greater comfort, and thus led the way to sit-down dentistry. However, his more important invention was the foot-treadle drill, which changed the way dentists all over the world practiced. A collection of letters to Morrison from colleagues in England was found recently in the archives of the National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C. They shed light on the development of these important inventions. These letters—which, to our knowledge, have not been analyzed before—also give us insight into the practice of dentistry more than one and one-
Dentists the world over became able to treat patients more comfortably and satisfactorily, and with less stress to themselves. Clinical Implications. A newly discovered collection of letters in the Smithsonian Institution to Morrison from colleagues in London provides insight into how collaboration between inventor and user helped bring about great changes in the way dentistry is practiced. These letters also shed light on what dentistry was like one and onequarter centuries ago, how far dentistry has come and what changes may be forthcoming.
quarter centuries ago, and illustrate how dentists influenced one another. In addition, a great deal of personal information about the illustrious inventor has been garnered by one of us (N.H.), who is a great-great-nephew of James Beall Morrison. MORRISON’S EARLY LIFE
James Beall Morrison was born on Dec. 5, 1829, in East Springfield, Ohio, to John Rickey Morrison and Sara Hammond Morrison. His father was a wagon builder and a manufacturer of agricultural implements, and it was from him, no doubt, that James inherited his strong mechanical bent. In addition, he had an uncle, Henry, who was a watchmaker and who later became a dentist. When James embarked on his career in dentistry, it was at his father’s and his uncle’s shops that he fashioned many of his dental instruments. As a child, he helped his father build their home. He mastered the art of bricklaying as well as that of making bricks that were fashioned and fired right on the spot. When he was only 15 years
JADA, Vol. 131, August 2000 Copyright ©1998-2001 American Dental Association. All rights reserved.
1161
CLINICAL PRACTICE old, Morrison was acknowledged as a master painter and was put in charge of a crew of men. Under his uncle’s guidance, he also became an expert watch repairer. THE STUDY OF DENTISTRY
After completing his elementary education, Morrison attended Jefferson College in Ohio for a time, and at the age of 19 began studying dentistry as a preceptorial student in the office of Drs. Esterly and Sempler in Steubenville, Ohio. Although the first dental school in the world—the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery—had been founded eight years earlier, the common method of preparing for a career in dentistry was through study with an established dentist for a period ranging from six months to several years. After about three years with Drs. Esterly and Sempler, Morrison went to Wheeling, W.Va., for further study with the renowned oral surgeon Dr. Simon Hullihen. In the early 1850s, Morrison became Dr. Esterly’s partner, and together they traveled to many small towns in Ohio that were without a dentist and rendered comprehensive treatment. During this period Morrison became adept at handling gold, and in 1852 he exhibited, at the Ohio State Fair, a gold denture he had constructed; he was awarded first prize.1 Dr. Morrison apparently was married sometime before 1880 because the census of that year listed him as a widower living in his brother William’s home. In 1883, at 54 years of age, he was married for a second time, to Emma Johnson. They had two daughters, and their mar1162
riage lasted for 35 years until his death at the age of 88 in 1917. PRACTICE WITH HIS BROTHER AND ABROAD
Between 1855 and 1857, James established a practice in St. Louis and soon took on his younger brother, William, as a preceptorial student. As determined and persevering as his older brother, William arrived at his brother’s office penniless, having spent his last money to have his boots blackened and his clothes brushed to make a presentable appearance.2 Around 1862, James left his practice in William’s care and
Morrison constructed the first truly adjustable dental chair. embarked for Paris. In the latter part of the 19th century, it was common practice for many American dentists to spend time abroad learning new techniques from their European colleagues. Some, such as the renowned Dr. Thomas Evans, stayed and built lucrative practices. Most, however, came home after a period of learning. In Paris, Morrison became associated with Dr. H.J. McKellops, whom he had known when McKellops was in practice in St. Louis. Dr. McKellops, a highly respected dentist, returned to St. Louis around 1870 and achieved renown as the inventor of the rolled gutta-percha point for filling root canals. He also was regarded as one of the finest dental practitioners, his gold fillings considered to be outstanding.
Morrison remained in Paris for only one year and then moved to London. There, he became an associate of England’s greatest dentist, Sir John Tomes. Morrison later practiced with the notable Dr. Henry John Barrett, who had been president of the Odontological Society in 1869. His longest period of association, however, was with Dr. Edwin Sercombe, who became president of the Odontological Society in 1874. Morrison worked with Dr. Sercombe for about six years, during which time he garnered a wealth of knowledge. After returning to America, he maintained close ties to his former associates. A TRULY ADJUSTABLE CHAIR
Until the middle of the 19th century, dental chairs were very poorly designed. In the early 1600s, the patient sat on the floor while the dentist stood behind him or her, with the patient’s head cradled between the dentist’s knees. During that century, patients began sitting in straight-backed chairs; this practice, which was uncomfortable for both dentist and patient, continued through the 1700s. The first advance in design occurred in 1790, when the noted American dentist Josiah Flagg added a headrest to an ordinary Windsor chair. However, it wasn’t until 1832 that the first chair designed specifically for dental use was constructed by James Snell of London. It was the first chair to have a seat and back that could be minimally adjusted. Over the years, other chairs were marketed, but they all lacked true adjustability.
JADA, Vol. 131, August 2000 Copyright ©1998-2001 American Dental Association. All rights reserved.
CLINICAL PRACTICE Morrison tackled this problem and constructed the first truly adjustable dental chair. The base consisted of a flat, triangular, cast-iron plate. The body was tilted by means of a ball-and-socket arrangement that could be locked in any position by a foot lever. Thus, not only could the chair be tipped back, but also it could be angled to the right and left. Morrison was granted a British patent for the chair on Dec. 7, 1867 (Figure 1). On his return to America, Morrison continued making improvements to the chair, including the substitution of four legs for the flat metal base. For this newly improved chair, he received U.S. patent 82542 on Sept. 29, 1868, and began marketing the chairs in this country and in Europe. His chair met with immediate acclaim. It was one of the first to incorporate a compensating headrest and backrest into the design. Moreover, it had a tremendous range of vertical motion. The seat’s lowest position was a mere 15 inches from the floor; at its highest, it was almost four feet from the floor. Thus, it was the first practical chair that enabled the dentist to operate in a seated position with the patient’s head almost in his lap. The chair set the standard for all future dental chairs, and led to true sit-down dentistry. Morrison sent one of the new chairs to his former associate in London, Dr. Edwin Sercombe. He received the following letter—dated Dec. 23, 1869—from him: “I hope you have been able to turn your chair to a profitable account in the States. I am about getting a second for I like it as much as ever although the faults I thought I detected in it
Figure 1. Dr. Morrison’s first dental chair, introduced in 1867, could be tilted to either side as well as backward. It also had an immense vertical range, from 15 inches to almost four feet above the floor. (Reprinted with permission of the University of Copenhagen, Museum of Medical History, Copenhagen, Denmark.)
I still believe in, yet take it all, it leaves very little to be desired. I find the nutt to tighten the ball and socket frequently wants to be screwed down. I have also had Legran cut the back down as I first proposed to you in order that it might be shorter when the seat is at its lowest. I find this change a great improvement. … I can do away with the crank for raising the seat [and] raise it with a
windlass handle. I have also had the screws altered so that with each turn of the handle the seat rises one inch. I have an assistant who uses it & would not change it for your last or any other chair he has ever seen.”3 Taking into consideration these comments from Sercombe, Morrison made improvements to his chair, and a second U.S. patent (7687)
JADA, Vol. 131, August 2000 Copyright ©1998-2001 American Dental Association. All rights reserved.
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CLINICAL PRACTICE
Figure 2. The famous “ring” drill introduced in 1846 by Amos Westcott.
was issued to him on May 15, 1877, and a third on Aug. 30, 1887 (369295). With the second patent, he arranged to have the chair manufactured by the firm of Claudius Ash and Sons of England, a most reputable company. After the third patent was issued, he sold the rights to the chair to the S.S. White Company of Philadelphia. The chair sold well for half a century, both in this country and abroad, and was admired by dentists everywhere because it allowed them to extract teeth with greater ease. Also, the upper headrest could be removed, which made the chair ideal for treating small children. Its cost compared favorably with that of other chairs of the time; one covered in leather sold for about $100. Attachments to the chair cost extra; a cuspidor, which attached to the side of the chair, cost $8 and a customized headrest added another $25 to the price. A MONUMENTAL DEVELOPMENT: THE POWER DRILL
The lack of an efficient instrument for breaking through the enamel of a tooth held up the development of restorative dentistry more than anything else. Most early drills were cumber1164
some, hand-held devices that were intolerably slow and difficult to work with; in addition, most required that they be held in two hands. (John Greenwood, George Washington’s favorite dentist, was reputed to have made a mechanical drill from his mother’s spinning wheel; however, many authorities are skeptical about this.) Other drills of the day included miniature versions of a carpenter’s drill as well as regular jewelers’ drills. In 1858, John A. Chevalier of New York invented a geared drill with a mechanism somewhat like that of an eggbeater. The advantage of this drill was that it was offset at an angle
The lack of an efficient instrument for breaking through the enamel of a tooth held up the development of restorative dentistry. that allowed better access to the tooth; the disadvantage was that it took two hands to operate. At about the same time, Charles Merry of St. Louis introduced a drill with a flexible shaft, an innovation with which Morrison doubtlessly was familiar and which he ultimately incorporated into his invention. Still, most dentists broke through the enamel with long steel burs that were merely twirled in the fingers. An improvement was the “ring” drill, designed by Amos Westcott in 1846. This drill had a metal cup attached to a ring that was worn on the index fin-
ger. The end of the drill rested in the cup and the shaft was twirled between thumb and forefinger4 (Figure 2). Other drills were introduced over the years, including an English drill run by a clockwork mechanism, but it was heavy and clumsy and ran for less than two minutes before needing rewinding. Even an electric drill was introduced in 1870, but this, too, was unwieldy and was overshadowed by Morrison’s monumental invention. It has been said that before Morrison left Europe to return to America, one of his London friends remarked that the next thing he would hear about him was that he was filling teeth with machinery. This comment was not far from the truth. Morrison’s erstwhile associate in London, Dr. Sercombe, was privy to the knowledge that Morrison was working on just such a machine and, in a letter to Morrison dated Feb. 1, 1871, he wrote, “I am getting quite impatient to know more about your machine. Your promised particulars have not yet turned up. Give me a line as soon as possible and let me know what it is like in form and how it is to be used and what it might be capable of doing.”5 As soon as Morrison returned to St. Louis—and reentered practice with his brother—he began working on his invention. On Aug. 16, 1870, U.S. patent 106498 was granted him for a dental engine, which was driven by an endless belt. Originally, the endless belt turned a gear onto which the handpiece was attached. In an improved design, a flexible shaft connected the gear and handpiece. This first
JADA, Vol. 131, August 2000 Copyright ©1998-2001 American Dental Association. All rights reserved.
CLINICAL PRACTICE engine was to be attached to a bracket that could be fastened to the wall. However, no motive power yet existed that could drive the endless belt. Morrison solved this problem by using a foot treadle to drive the endless belt, an idea he no doubt got from the Singer sewing machine, which had been introduced in the 1850s. Patent 111667 was granted to him on Feb. 7, 1871, for his new engine (Figure 3). Word of the invention got out to the profession even before it was ready for sale. Sercombe wrote to Morrison on March 21, 1871, “I see by the Missouri journal that your Baby is born. I omitted to say in my last letter to you that I wish you to send me one as soon as you possibly can. I have been tempted to buy a machine brought out in England but I much [prefer] the Morrisonian.”6 Sercombe was probably alluding to the aforementioned clockwork drill. Morrison immediately turned manufacture of the drill over to Johnston Brothers, a manufacturing firm in New York City, and the first one was sold at a dental convention in Binghamton, N.Y., on April 17, 1872.7 In the meantime, Morrison received another letter, dated June 13, 1871, from Sercombe, in which he wrote that he was “impatiently waiting for your promised machine. I should advise you to send over half a dozen.”8 THE ENGINE DEMONSTRATED IN ENGLAND
By the winter of 1873, Dr. Sercombe had received one of Morrison’s machines, had used it in his practice, and was enthusiastic about it. He decided to enter it in an internation-
Figure 3. A patent drawing of Dr. Morrison’s first foot-treadle drill dated Feb. 7, 1871. The handpiece was attached directly to a gear, which was turned by an endless belt.
al exhibition to be held that spring in London. On Feb. 24, 1873, he wrote to Morrison that since it had to be entered soon, he would submit the one he was using, which created a hardship for him since it was the only one he had. “As it will have to be there for some months,” he wrote, “you must get Johnston’s people to send one over which I will substitute for mine as soon as I get it, as mine is a daily necessity.”9 Claudius Ash and Sons, the London company that had been
manufacturing Morrison’s chair, apparently was miffed that Morrison had not given it the rights to manufacture his engine.9 (In his haste to bring his new drill to market, Morrison chose Johnston Brothers since it was closer to home. Unfortunately, its work was not always satisfactory.) In a Feb. 24th letter, Dr. Sercombe cautioned Morrison that Claudius Ash and Sons was on the verge of manufacturing another man’s invention and advised him to transfer
JADA, Vol. 131, August 2000 Copyright ©1998-2001 American Dental Association. All rights reserved.
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CLINICAL PRACTICE
Figure 4. Dr. Morrison’s improved drill, introduced in 1875. The handpiece was now attached to a flexible shaft, which allowed greater ease of handling.
manufacture of the engine to Ash. This recommendation was important to the success of Morrison’s invention, for the Ash company was England’s leading and most respected manufacturer and dealer in dental instruments and equipment, with customers throughout the continent. Eventually, Morrison did switch manufacturers, giving the work to Ash. 1166
In the meantime, however, there were serious problems with the way Johnston Brothers was turning out the engines. In the same Feb. 24th letter, Sercombe complained that “the last machine sent to me by Johnston is by no means as good as the first. It is not so silent nor has it the same driving power. It will stick at the slightest pressure.’’9 Drilling machine demonstrated. At the monthly meeting of the Odontological Society in London on March 3, 1873, Sercombe demonstrated his friend’s new drilling machine. He told the group that the engine reached a speed of about 2,000 revolutions per minute. However, he admitted that this blunted the burs— which apparently were poorly manufactured —and led to undue pressure being applied by the operator, with consequent heat generation. Yet, he felt that if the burs were kept in good condition, this problem could be avoided. The president of the society asked Sercombe if there was any increase in pain when the tooth was prepared by means of the new engine, and Sercombe replied that most of his patients were in favor of the apparatus, and that the cavity might be cut with a corundum wheel without any pain at all.7 This latter adaptation was Sercombe’s great contribution to the success of his friend’s machine. The existence of corundum, an oxide of aluminum, had been known for many years. However, it wasn’t until 1813 that the American chemist Benjamin Silliman, founder and first editor of the American Journal of Science and the Arts, showed that the
mineral could be fused by heat. The material was first introduced into dentistry by Robert Arthur, and Sercombe used this knowledge to devise wheels and stones of corundum that worked far better in preparing teeth than the poorly made burs. In a letter to Morrison dated Feb. 11, 1873, Sercome complained that Johnston Brothers sent him burs that were so untrue that they couldn’t be used. However, he added, “the corundum wheels are the greatest fact. I think with them I do wonders.”10 Sercombe was enthusiastic about the Morrison engine and talked it up widely. He wrote to his friend, “I had the opportunity of showing it to several surgeons as it might be turned to valuable use in general surgery for drilling into carious bone or trephining the skull, for example. I have also suggested it as a valuable engine for sculptors. In fact, I don’t know where its use is to end.”11 In this, Sercombe was prescient. On April 7, 1873, a Berlin surgeon named Heinrich Breslauer demonstrated the use of Morrison’s drill for the resection of bone, and stated that his patients judged that “this type of operation with the aid of this machine is completely painless and relatively more pleasant than any other method of resection.”12 Today, the dental drill is used widely in general surgery. In fact, an adaptation of the high-speed drill designed by Pittsburgh oral surgeon Robert Hall is an indispensable tool in brain surgery, where it has cut the time needed to remove the calvarium from 45 minutes to 45 seconds.13
JADA, Vol. 131, August 2000 Copyright ©1998-2001 American Dental Association. All rights reserved.
CLINICAL PRACTICE
Dr. Ring is a former
Dr. Hurley is a
associate professor
retired geologist and
of dental history,
geophysicist in the
School of Dental
petroleum industry.
Medicine, State
He lives in Medford,
University of New
Ore.
York at Buffalo. He is now retired. Address
Improved drill. MorriDrive, Rochester, son introN.Y. 14618. duced an improved model of the drill in 1875. Where the original model had the handpiece attached directly to a gear, which was turned by the endless belt, the new model had a flexible shaft between the handpiece and the belt-driven gear. This allowed for much more flexibility and ease of operation (Figure 4). reprint requests to Dr. Ring, 2 Roby
MORRISON’S LAST YEARS
When Morrison invented the foot-treadle drill, he was deeply in debt, so much so that he sold the rights to his engine for a mere $5,000, which included a bill-of-sale for 100 engines.14 But Dr. Morrison’s fate turned
around, and where so many inventors die in poverty, Morrison died a wealthy man. Although the foot-treadle drill was his greatest contribution, it was his dental chair that brought him substantial royalties for many years. When he sold his interest in the chair to the S.S. White Company in 1887, he received a fairly large sum, which he invested in real estate and built a small fortune. Dr. Morrison was a modest man, and when “Who’s Who” wanted to include him in its listing, he refused to give the publication any information. In his later years, his only contact with the dental profession was his occasional attendance at a dental meeting. He died quietly at his home in Kansas City, Mo., on Dec. 22, 1917, and was buried in Mount Washington Cemetery in Independence, Mo. His survivors included his wife–who followed him in death six years later—and two daughters. He shall long be remembered as one of dentistry’s greatest benefactors. ■
Western Dent J 1897;11:36-9. 3. Letter from Edwin Sercombe, Dec. 23, 1869. Dr. James Beall Morrison Correspondence, 1869-1873. Washington: Archives Center, National Museum of American History. 4. Ring ME. Behind the dentist’s drill. Invention Technol 1995;11:27. 5. Letter from Edwin Sercombe, Feb. 1, 1871. Dr. James Beall Morrison Correspondence, 1869-1873. Washington: Archives Center, National Museum of American History. 6. Letter from Edwin Sercombe, March 21, 1871. Dr. James Beall Morrison Correspondence, 1869-1873. Washington: Archives Center, National Museum of American History. 7. Vinski I. Two hundred and fifty years of rotary instruments in dentistry. Br Dent J 1979;146:217-23. 8. Letter from Edwin Sercombe, June 13, 1871. Dr. James Beall Morrison Correspondence, 1869-1873. Washington: Archives Center, National Museum of American History. 9. Letter from Edwin Sercombe, Feb. 24, 1873. Dr. James Beall Morrison Correspondence, 1869-1873. Washington: Archives Center, National Museum of American History. 10. Letter from Edwin Sercombe, Feb. 11, 1873. Dr. James Beall Morrison Correspondence, 1869-1873. Washington: Archives Center, National Museum of American History. 11. Letter from Edwin Sercombe, May 18, 1873. Dr. James Beall Morrison Correspondence, 1869-1873. Washington: Archives Center, National Museum of American History. 12. Hoffmann-Axthelm W. History of dentistry. Chicago: Quintessence; 1981:305. 13. Ring ME. Dentistry’s contributions to medicine. J Maryland State Dent Assoc 1991;34:12-9. 14. Obituary. Dr. James Beall Morrison. The American Dentist 1918;6:11.
1. Obituary, James Beall Morrison. Dental Cosmos 1918;60:269-70. 2. Obituary. William Newton Morrison.
JADA, Vol. 131, August 2000 Copyright ©1998-2001 American Dental Association. All rights reserved.
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PRACTICE
JAMES BEALL MORRISON:THE VISIONARY WHO REVOLUTIONIZED THE PRACTICE OF DENTISTRY MALVIN E. RING, D.D.S., M.L.S., F.A.C.D.; NEAL HURLEY, PH.D., M.S.
A
B
S
T
R
A
C
T
Background and Overview. For centuries, dental patients sat on makeshift contraptions or modified straight-backed chairs, which took a toll on the health of both patient and dentist. In addition, the lack of a suitable drill retarded the development of restorative dentistry, allowing minimum care for only a tiny segment of the population. One farseeing American dentist, James Beall Morrison, changed all that in the 1870s with his innovative, fully adjustable chair, which made sitdown dentistry possible. Moreover, his monumental invention of the foot-powered drill allowed dentists to place restorations that were theretofore impossible.
A
Midwestern family of highly creative and inventive people added greatly to the comfort and improvement of American life through their many patents for household objects, including a washing machine and an improved automatic door strip to keep the wind out. These were the Morrisons, three of whom became dentists. One of them changed the course and character of dentistry forever. His name was James Beall Morrison; he created the first fully adjustable dental chair, which allowed dentists to treat patients with greater comfort, and thus led the way to sit-down dentistry. However, his more important invention was the foot-treadle drill, which changed the way dentists all over the world practiced. A collection of letters to Morrison from colleagues in England was found recently in the archives of the National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C. They shed light on the development of these important inventions. These letters—which, to our knowledge, have not been analyzed before—also give us insight into the practice of dentistry more than one and one-
Dentists the world over became able to treat patients more comfortably and satisfactorily, and with less stress to themselves. Clinical Implications. A newly discovered collection of letters in the Smithsonian Institution to Morrison from colleagues in London provides insight into how collaboration between inventor and user helped bring about great changes in the way dentistry is practiced. These letters also shed light on what dentistry was like one and onequarter centuries ago, how far dentistry has come and what changes may be forthcoming.
quarter centuries ago, and illustrate how dentists influenced one another. In addition, a great deal of personal information about the illustrious inventor has been garnered by one of us (N.H.), who is a great-great-nephew of James Beall Morrison. MORRISON’S EARLY LIFE
James Beall Morrison was born on Dec. 5, 1829, in East Springfield, Ohio, to John Rickey Morrison and Sara Hammond Morrison. His father was a wagon builder and a manufacturer of agricultural implements, and it was from him, no doubt, that James inherited his strong mechanical bent. In addition, he had an uncle, Henry, who was a watchmaker and who later became a dentist. When James embarked on his career in dentistry, it was at his father’s and his uncle’s shops that he fashioned many of his dental instruments. As a child, he helped his father build their home. He mastered the art of bricklaying as well as that of making bricks that were fashioned and fired right on the spot. When he was only 15 years
JADA, Vol. 131, August 2000 Copyright ©1998-2001 American Dental Association. All rights reserved.
1161
CLINICAL PRACTICE old, Morrison was acknowledged as a master painter and was put in charge of a crew of men. Under his uncle’s guidance, he also became an expert watch repairer. THE STUDY OF DENTISTRY
After completing his elementary education, Morrison attended Jefferson College in Ohio for a time, and at the age of 19 began studying dentistry as a preceptorial student in the office of Drs. Esterly and Sempler in Steubenville, Ohio. Although the first dental school in the world—the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery—had been founded eight years earlier, the common method of preparing for a career in dentistry was through study with an established dentist for a period ranging from six months to several years. After about three years with Drs. Esterly and Sempler, Morrison went to Wheeling, W.Va., for further study with the renowned oral surgeon Dr. Simon Hullihen. In the early 1850s, Morrison became Dr. Esterly’s partner, and together they traveled to many small towns in Ohio that were without a dentist and rendered comprehensive treatment. During this period Morrison became adept at handling gold, and in 1852 he exhibited, at the Ohio State Fair, a gold denture he had constructed; he was awarded first prize.1 Dr. Morrison apparently was married sometime before 1880 because the census of that year listed him as a widower living in his brother William’s home. In 1883, at 54 years of age, he was married for a second time, to Emma Johnson. They had two daughters, and their mar1162
riage lasted for 35 years until his death at the age of 88 in 1917. PRACTICE WITH HIS BROTHER AND ABROAD
Between 1855 and 1857, James established a practice in St. Louis and soon took on his younger brother, William, as a preceptorial student. As determined and persevering as his older brother, William arrived at his brother’s office penniless, having spent his last money to have his boots blackened and his clothes brushed to make a presentable appearance.2 Around 1862, James left his practice in William’s care and
Morrison constructed the first truly adjustable dental chair. embarked for Paris. In the latter part of the 19th century, it was common practice for many American dentists to spend time abroad learning new techniques from their European colleagues. Some, such as the renowned Dr. Thomas Evans, stayed and built lucrative practices. Most, however, came home after a period of learning. In Paris, Morrison became associated with Dr. H.J. McKellops, whom he had known when McKellops was in practice in St. Louis. Dr. McKellops, a highly respected dentist, returned to St. Louis around 1870 and achieved renown as the inventor of the rolled gutta-percha point for filling root canals. He also was regarded as one of the finest dental practitioners, his gold fillings considered to be outstanding.
Morrison remained in Paris for only one year and then moved to London. There, he became an associate of England’s greatest dentist, Sir John Tomes. Morrison later practiced with the notable Dr. Henry John Barrett, who had been president of the Odontological Society in 1869. His longest period of association, however, was with Dr. Edwin Sercombe, who became president of the Odontological Society in 1874. Morrison worked with Dr. Sercombe for about six years, during which time he garnered a wealth of knowledge. After returning to America, he maintained close ties to his former associates. A TRULY ADJUSTABLE CHAIR
Until the middle of the 19th century, dental chairs were very poorly designed. In the early 1600s, the patient sat on the floor while the dentist stood behind him or her, with the patient’s head cradled between the dentist’s knees. During that century, patients began sitting in straight-backed chairs; this practice, which was uncomfortable for both dentist and patient, continued through the 1700s. The first advance in design occurred in 1790, when the noted American dentist Josiah Flagg added a headrest to an ordinary Windsor chair. However, it wasn’t until 1832 that the first chair designed specifically for dental use was constructed by James Snell of London. It was the first chair to have a seat and back that could be minimally adjusted. Over the years, other chairs were marketed, but they all lacked true adjustability.
JADA, Vol. 131, August 2000 Copyright ©1998-2001 American Dental Association. All rights reserved.
CLINICAL PRACTICE Morrison tackled this problem and constructed the first truly adjustable dental chair. The base consisted of a flat, triangular, cast-iron plate. The body was tilted by means of a ball-and-socket arrangement that could be locked in any position by a foot lever. Thus, not only could the chair be tipped back, but also it could be angled to the right and left. Morrison was granted a British patent for the chair on Dec. 7, 1867 (Figure 1). On his return to America, Morrison continued making improvements to the chair, including the substitution of four legs for the flat metal base. For this newly improved chair, he received U.S. patent 82542 on Sept. 29, 1868, and began marketing the chairs in this country and in Europe. His chair met with immediate acclaim. It was one of the first to incorporate a compensating headrest and backrest into the design. Moreover, it had a tremendous range of vertical motion. The seat’s lowest position was a mere 15 inches from the floor; at its highest, it was almost four feet from the floor. Thus, it was the first practical chair that enabled the dentist to operate in a seated position with the patient’s head almost in his lap. The chair set the standard for all future dental chairs, and led to true sit-down dentistry. Morrison sent one of the new chairs to his former associate in London, Dr. Edwin Sercombe. He received the following letter—dated Dec. 23, 1869—from him: “I hope you have been able to turn your chair to a profitable account in the States. I am about getting a second for I like it as much as ever although the faults I thought I detected in it
Figure 1. Dr. Morrison’s first dental chair, introduced in 1867, could be tilted to either side as well as backward. It also had an immense vertical range, from 15 inches to almost four feet above the floor. (Reprinted with permission of the University of Copenhagen, Museum of Medical History, Copenhagen, Denmark.)
I still believe in, yet take it all, it leaves very little to be desired. I find the nutt to tighten the ball and socket frequently wants to be screwed down. I have also had Legran cut the back down as I first proposed to you in order that it might be shorter when the seat is at its lowest. I find this change a great improvement. … I can do away with the crank for raising the seat [and] raise it with a
windlass handle. I have also had the screws altered so that with each turn of the handle the seat rises one inch. I have an assistant who uses it & would not change it for your last or any other chair he has ever seen.”3 Taking into consideration these comments from Sercombe, Morrison made improvements to his chair, and a second U.S. patent (7687)
JADA, Vol. 131, August 2000 Copyright ©1998-2001 American Dental Association. All rights reserved.
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Figure 2. The famous “ring” drill introduced in 1846 by Amos Westcott.
was issued to him on May 15, 1877, and a third on Aug. 30, 1887 (369295). With the second patent, he arranged to have the chair manufactured by the firm of Claudius Ash and Sons of England, a most reputable company. After the third patent was issued, he sold the rights to the chair to the S.S. White Company of Philadelphia. The chair sold well for half a century, both in this country and abroad, and was admired by dentists everywhere because it allowed them to extract teeth with greater ease. Also, the upper headrest could be removed, which made the chair ideal for treating small children. Its cost compared favorably with that of other chairs of the time; one covered in leather sold for about $100. Attachments to the chair cost extra; a cuspidor, which attached to the side of the chair, cost $8 and a customized headrest added another $25 to the price. A MONUMENTAL DEVELOPMENT: THE POWER DRILL
The lack of an efficient instrument for breaking through the enamel of a tooth held up the development of restorative dentistry more than anything else. Most early drills were cumber1164
some, hand-held devices that were intolerably slow and difficult to work with; in addition, most required that they be held in two hands. (John Greenwood, George Washington’s favorite dentist, was reputed to have made a mechanical drill from his mother’s spinning wheel; however, many authorities are skeptical about this.) Other drills of the day included miniature versions of a carpenter’s drill as well as regular jewelers’ drills. In 1858, John A. Chevalier of New York invented a geared drill with a mechanism somewhat like that of an eggbeater. The advantage of this drill was that it was offset at an angle
The lack of an efficient instrument for breaking through the enamel of a tooth held up the development of restorative dentistry. that allowed better access to the tooth; the disadvantage was that it took two hands to operate. At about the same time, Charles Merry of St. Louis introduced a drill with a flexible shaft, an innovation with which Morrison doubtlessly was familiar and which he ultimately incorporated into his invention. Still, most dentists broke through the enamel with long steel burs that were merely twirled in the fingers. An improvement was the “ring” drill, designed by Amos Westcott in 1846. This drill had a metal cup attached to a ring that was worn on the index fin-
ger. The end of the drill rested in the cup and the shaft was twirled between thumb and forefinger4 (Figure 2). Other drills were introduced over the years, including an English drill run by a clockwork mechanism, but it was heavy and clumsy and ran for less than two minutes before needing rewinding. Even an electric drill was introduced in 1870, but this, too, was unwieldy and was overshadowed by Morrison’s monumental invention. It has been said that before Morrison left Europe to return to America, one of his London friends remarked that the next thing he would hear about him was that he was filling teeth with machinery. This comment was not far from the truth. Morrison’s erstwhile associate in London, Dr. Sercombe, was privy to the knowledge that Morrison was working on just such a machine and, in a letter to Morrison dated Feb. 1, 1871, he wrote, “I am getting quite impatient to know more about your machine. Your promised particulars have not yet turned up. Give me a line as soon as possible and let me know what it is like in form and how it is to be used and what it might be capable of doing.”5 As soon as Morrison returned to St. Louis—and reentered practice with his brother—he began working on his invention. On Aug. 16, 1870, U.S. patent 106498 was granted him for a dental engine, which was driven by an endless belt. Originally, the endless belt turned a gear onto which the handpiece was attached. In an improved design, a flexible shaft connected the gear and handpiece. This first
JADA, Vol. 131, August 2000 Copyright ©1998-2001 American Dental Association. All rights reserved.
CLINICAL PRACTICE engine was to be attached to a bracket that could be fastened to the wall. However, no motive power yet existed that could drive the endless belt. Morrison solved this problem by using a foot treadle to drive the endless belt, an idea he no doubt got from the Singer sewing machine, which had been introduced in the 1850s. Patent 111667 was granted to him on Feb. 7, 1871, for his new engine (Figure 3). Word of the invention got out to the profession even before it was ready for sale. Sercombe wrote to Morrison on March 21, 1871, “I see by the Missouri journal that your Baby is born. I omitted to say in my last letter to you that I wish you to send me one as soon as you possibly can. I have been tempted to buy a machine brought out in England but I much [prefer] the Morrisonian.”6 Sercombe was probably alluding to the aforementioned clockwork drill. Morrison immediately turned manufacture of the drill over to Johnston Brothers, a manufacturing firm in New York City, and the first one was sold at a dental convention in Binghamton, N.Y., on April 17, 1872.7 In the meantime, Morrison received another letter, dated June 13, 1871, from Sercombe, in which he wrote that he was “impatiently waiting for your promised machine. I should advise you to send over half a dozen.”8 THE ENGINE DEMONSTRATED IN ENGLAND
By the winter of 1873, Dr. Sercombe had received one of Morrison’s machines, had used it in his practice, and was enthusiastic about it. He decided to enter it in an internation-
Figure 3. A patent drawing of Dr. Morrison’s first foot-treadle drill dated Feb. 7, 1871. The handpiece was attached directly to a gear, which was turned by an endless belt.
al exhibition to be held that spring in London. On Feb. 24, 1873, he wrote to Morrison that since it had to be entered soon, he would submit the one he was using, which created a hardship for him since it was the only one he had. “As it will have to be there for some months,” he wrote, “you must get Johnston’s people to send one over which I will substitute for mine as soon as I get it, as mine is a daily necessity.”9 Claudius Ash and Sons, the London company that had been
manufacturing Morrison’s chair, apparently was miffed that Morrison had not given it the rights to manufacture his engine.9 (In his haste to bring his new drill to market, Morrison chose Johnston Brothers since it was closer to home. Unfortunately, its work was not always satisfactory.) In a Feb. 24th letter, Dr. Sercombe cautioned Morrison that Claudius Ash and Sons was on the verge of manufacturing another man’s invention and advised him to transfer
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Figure 4. Dr. Morrison’s improved drill, introduced in 1875. The handpiece was now attached to a flexible shaft, which allowed greater ease of handling.
manufacture of the engine to Ash. This recommendation was important to the success of Morrison’s invention, for the Ash company was England’s leading and most respected manufacturer and dealer in dental instruments and equipment, with customers throughout the continent. Eventually, Morrison did switch manufacturers, giving the work to Ash. 1166
In the meantime, however, there were serious problems with the way Johnston Brothers was turning out the engines. In the same Feb. 24th letter, Sercombe complained that “the last machine sent to me by Johnston is by no means as good as the first. It is not so silent nor has it the same driving power. It will stick at the slightest pressure.’’9 Drilling machine demonstrated. At the monthly meeting of the Odontological Society in London on March 3, 1873, Sercombe demonstrated his friend’s new drilling machine. He told the group that the engine reached a speed of about 2,000 revolutions per minute. However, he admitted that this blunted the burs— which apparently were poorly manufactured —and led to undue pressure being applied by the operator, with consequent heat generation. Yet, he felt that if the burs were kept in good condition, this problem could be avoided. The president of the society asked Sercombe if there was any increase in pain when the tooth was prepared by means of the new engine, and Sercombe replied that most of his patients were in favor of the apparatus, and that the cavity might be cut with a corundum wheel without any pain at all.7 This latter adaptation was Sercombe’s great contribution to the success of his friend’s machine. The existence of corundum, an oxide of aluminum, had been known for many years. However, it wasn’t until 1813 that the American chemist Benjamin Silliman, founder and first editor of the American Journal of Science and the Arts, showed that the
mineral could be fused by heat. The material was first introduced into dentistry by Robert Arthur, and Sercombe used this knowledge to devise wheels and stones of corundum that worked far better in preparing teeth than the poorly made burs. In a letter to Morrison dated Feb. 11, 1873, Sercome complained that Johnston Brothers sent him burs that were so untrue that they couldn’t be used. However, he added, “the corundum wheels are the greatest fact. I think with them I do wonders.”10 Sercombe was enthusiastic about the Morrison engine and talked it up widely. He wrote to his friend, “I had the opportunity of showing it to several surgeons as it might be turned to valuable use in general surgery for drilling into carious bone or trephining the skull, for example. I have also suggested it as a valuable engine for sculptors. In fact, I don’t know where its use is to end.”11 In this, Sercombe was prescient. On April 7, 1873, a Berlin surgeon named Heinrich Breslauer demonstrated the use of Morrison’s drill for the resection of bone, and stated that his patients judged that “this type of operation with the aid of this machine is completely painless and relatively more pleasant than any other method of resection.”12 Today, the dental drill is used widely in general surgery. In fact, an adaptation of the high-speed drill designed by Pittsburgh oral surgeon Robert Hall is an indispensable tool in brain surgery, where it has cut the time needed to remove the calvarium from 45 minutes to 45 seconds.13
JADA, Vol. 131, August 2000 Copyright ©1998-2001 American Dental Association. All rights reserved.
CLINICAL PRACTICE
Dr. Ring is a former
Dr. Hurley is a
associate professor
retired geologist and
of dental history,
geophysicist in the
School of Dental
petroleum industry.
Medicine, State
He lives in Medford,
University of New
Ore.
York at Buffalo. He is now retired. Address
Improved drill. MorriDrive, Rochester, son introN.Y. 14618. duced an improved model of the drill in 1875. Where the original model had the handpiece attached directly to a gear, which was turned by the endless belt, the new model had a flexible shaft between the handpiece and the belt-driven gear. This allowed for much more flexibility and ease of operation (Figure 4). reprint requests to Dr. Ring, 2 Roby
MORRISON’S LAST YEARS
When Morrison invented the foot-treadle drill, he was deeply in debt, so much so that he sold the rights to his engine for a mere $5,000, which included a bill-of-sale for 100 engines.14 But Dr. Morrison’s fate turned
around, and where so many inventors die in poverty, Morrison died a wealthy man. Although the foot-treadle drill was his greatest contribution, it was his dental chair that brought him substantial royalties for many years. When he sold his interest in the chair to the S.S. White Company in 1887, he received a fairly large sum, which he invested in real estate and built a small fortune. Dr. Morrison was a modest man, and when “Who’s Who” wanted to include him in its listing, he refused to give the publication any information. In his later years, his only contact with the dental profession was his occasional attendance at a dental meeting. He died quietly at his home in Kansas City, Mo., on Dec. 22, 1917, and was buried in Mount Washington Cemetery in Independence, Mo. His survivors included his wife–who followed him in death six years later—and two daughters. He shall long be remembered as one of dentistry’s greatest benefactors. ■
Western Dent J 1897;11:36-9. 3. Letter from Edwin Sercombe, Dec. 23, 1869. Dr. James Beall Morrison Correspondence, 1869-1873. Washington: Archives Center, National Museum of American History. 4. Ring ME. Behind the dentist’s drill. Invention Technol 1995;11:27. 5. Letter from Edwin Sercombe, Feb. 1, 1871. Dr. James Beall Morrison Correspondence, 1869-1873. Washington: Archives Center, National Museum of American History. 6. Letter from Edwin Sercombe, March 21, 1871. Dr. James Beall Morrison Correspondence, 1869-1873. Washington: Archives Center, National Museum of American History. 7. Vinski I. Two hundred and fifty years of rotary instruments in dentistry. Br Dent J 1979;146:217-23. 8. Letter from Edwin Sercombe, June 13, 1871. Dr. James Beall Morrison Correspondence, 1869-1873. Washington: Archives Center, National Museum of American History. 9. Letter from Edwin Sercombe, Feb. 24, 1873. Dr. James Beall Morrison Correspondence, 1869-1873. Washington: Archives Center, National Museum of American History. 10. Letter from Edwin Sercombe, Feb. 11, 1873. Dr. James Beall Morrison Correspondence, 1869-1873. Washington: Archives Center, National Museum of American History. 11. Letter from Edwin Sercombe, May 18, 1873. Dr. James Beall Morrison Correspondence, 1869-1873. Washington: Archives Center, National Museum of American History. 12. Hoffmann-Axthelm W. History of dentistry. Chicago: Quintessence; 1981:305. 13. Ring ME. Dentistry’s contributions to medicine. J Maryland State Dent Assoc 1991;34:12-9. 14. Obituary. Dr. James Beall Morrison. The American Dentist 1918;6:11.
1. Obituary, James Beall Morrison. Dental Cosmos 1918;60:269-70. 2. Obituary. William Newton Morrison.
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