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Japanese reaction to management problems in Europe: Cultural aspects
JAPANESE REACTION TO MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS IN EUROPE
JapaneseReactionto ManagementProblemsin Europe:CulturalAspects MAGOROH MARUYAMA, University, Tokyo
Professor
of International
When faced with problems with foreign employees, Japanese managers try to avoid discussion and tend to withdraw. This is often interpreted by foreign employees as hostility or contempt, expressed actively. Various explanations are given, such as the Japanese penchant for saving face, but these are too simple. Magoroh Maruyama points to different characteristics of Japanese culture which have not been used in explanation. In the end he recommends using more foreign managers instead of Japanese and avoiding this particular problem altogether.
The Japanese ‘withdrawal’ phenomenon has been explained variously in the past as politeness, avoidance of embarrassment, avoidance of open conflict, facesaving, secretiveness, denial of problems, hostility, contempt, and others. While these explanations may contain some truth depending on the situation, they miss several important cultural aspects of the way Japanese normally interact among themselves. These cultural characteristics are now described.
Business,
Aoyama
Gakuin
(i) Getting Rid of Frustration The Japanese often use discussion to vent frustrations and then feel better afterwards. I have found it very different in Europe. The Danes, for example, use discussion to ‘stroke each other’. Explaining anything is impolite because it assumes the other is ignorant. Asking questions is impolite because the other might not know the answer. It is often considered rude to introduce new ideas or information since it might disturb the familiar old routine exchanges. Old jokes and gossip are preferred. The Danes do not discuss politics or business much, preferring ‘safe’ intellectual topics in music, art or literature, where few disagree. In contrast, in Sweden I have found the main purpose of talking to people is to give new information or express feelings. They prefer to keep silent unless they have something important to say. In Denmark, on the other hand, people chatter, but do not mention serious personal matters. In Japan, one mentions personal problems readily among good friends - it helps to dispel frustration and also to win sympathy. The Japanese listener, on the other hand, is not expected to take any kind of action.
(ii) Appealing for Sympathy Through Behaviour Japanese often try to gain sympathy through non-verbal means. For example, instead of preaching, a Japanese mother will show how sad she is when her children misbehave. The mother wants and expects her children to change. In Japan, this method works better than active persuasion. The Japanese are not used to talking together to smooth frictions.
(iii) Attitudes Matter More Than Actions Japanese students and employees are often evaluated in terms of their attitudes and intentions rather than their performance. When a Japanese makes a mistake it is more important to apologize than to compensate for any damage. It is quite normal to be pardoned by making an apology without being expected to pay compensation. When Toshiba apologized in American newspapers for a EUROPEAN MANAGEMENT JOURNAL Vo19 No 2 June 1991
JAPANESE REACTION TO MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS IN EUROPE
damaging incident, believing it would solve the problem, it unfortunately made matters worse.
(iv) Preconceived Thinking Some concepts which are crucial to foreigners completely escape the Japanese, for example civil rights, or work as an expression of individual creativity. In the United States, inventions are assumed to be produced by inventors acting more or less independently. By contrast, Japanese invention and creativity are interactive. Their attitude mirrors mathematical theory, i.e. interaction between heterogeneous factors is necessary for the creation of new information - this process should not be confused with a new combination of old elements. The notion of Japanese creative interactivity is mathematically correct. The American culture of individual initiative-taking is as invisible to the Japanese as ultraviolet rays.
I
Japanese managers do not supply organized training to their employees
(v) Learning Patterns The Japanese logic of learning is contextual and simultaneous. The European and American logic of learning is classificational and sequential. Fresh university engineering graduates in manufacturing companies in Japan spend their first couple of years working on assembly lines, in workshops and repair units in order to learn by experience how the products which they will help design are put together, used and serviced. They learn the context of these processes and the relations among many elements simultaneously. By contrast, in American firms new employees receive training consisting of sequenced and categorized lessons with verbal explanations. Japanese managers often let new employees undergo experience in their Rrms for a year or two without any organized training Drogramme, and expect foreign employees to similarly earn experientially, contextually and simultaneously. Hence, the Japanese complain that foreign employees do lot learn anything and foreign employees complain that lapanese managers do not teach anything.
Case Studies I developed a technique of ‘surprise visits’ over some 20 years and used it with numerous companies in several countries. The first two case studies are of this type. My first visit was to a German director of a major Japanese company in Germany. His reaction to the mention of problems was positive and straightforward - no avoidance or withdrawal. The second was to a Japanese director of the same company, located in France - he showed extreme avoidance and withdrawal. Neither directors had time to think out or plan their responses. The third case study was not of the ‘surprise’ EUROPEAN MANAGEMENT JOURNAL Vo19 No 2 June 1991
variety. A Japanese vice-president of another major Japanese firm, known to me previously, talked over a lunch in Tokyo. The atmosphere was relaxed and friendly, and the vice-president showed no avoidance or withdrawal, but did show characteristic responses for a Japanese explained in categories (iv) (preconceived thinking) and (v) (learning patterns). These responses, in other Japanese managers, would normally be mixed up with avoidance and withdrawal.
Case Study 1 This visit was unexpected by me also. I expected to visit another company in another country, but when I arrived it was closed, so I took a train to Germany and arrived at a German factory at 4.00 p.m. The visit was not expected by the firm. I explained to the receptionist who I was and that I had dropped by and wondered if I could talk to someone. I spoke to everyone at this factory in German. A secretary appeared and said the German director would see me. She also asked how much time I had in order to see if anyone else might be available. I said I could stay a couple of hours. After talking to the director, the secretary said I could also talk with two engineers. The following is a translation of my talk with the director (M = Maruyama, D = Director): M: D: M:
D: M: D:
Please excuse the suddenness of my dropping in - it is very kind of you to spare me a few minutes. Welcome to Germany and our factory. How can I help you? As a consultant, I am often asked to find solutions1 to multicultural friction problems. For instance, the Japanese ask foreign employees to learn by doing rather than by organized verbal teaching. The foreign employees wonder why the Japanese seem unwilling to teach them; they even suspect that the Japanese are hiding things from them. Whilst in turn, the Japanese are disappointed that the foreigners appear to have learned nothing despite being in the firm for a year or so. Yes, there are cultural differences. Also, the Japanese tend to communicate better among themselves than with foreigners. Yes, we have one German engineer among several Japanese, and he finds it difficult. (After discussing
D:
M: D:
several
other
topics)
We like the system of job-rotation which is also encouraged by our Tokyo headquarters. Are you familiar with the German system of vocational training? Not very well. In this part of Germany secondary school graduates can enter a 50150 job/study programme in which they are job-rotated. These young people have already had some job-rotation experience when they become properly employed, whereas university graduates have no such experience. Many of our older German employees are old-fashioned, but some younger Germans favour job-rotation.
JAPANESE REACTION TO MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS IN EUROPE
In this case study, the German director was well aware of cultural problems and willing to discuss them. We had an hour’s enthusiastic discussion. I subsequently talked with a German engineer who mentioned problems typical with Japanese firms in foreign countries. For instance, Japanese engineers tend to talk down to German engineers. The second engineer was Japanese; we naturally spoke in Japanese. He was relatively open-minded compared to Japanese engineers I had met in other firms. He did not think that he condescended, but admitted he might be interpreted in that way. He didn’t avoid the topic or withdraw, although being younger than me he may have merely agreed to have continued talking out of politeness but not conviction.
J:
M:
J: Case Study 2 This conversation took place in a French factory of the same Japanese firm, with a Japanese director. My method was the same, I dropped in unexpectedly at about 11.30 a.m. and, explaining who I was, asked the receptionist (in French) if there was anyone available I could talk to. She eventually located the Japanese director but said that, while I waited, I could talk to a French office worker. This I did; his responses were stiff and standardized, much like the atmosphere of the office.
Japanese managers show withdrawal and avoidance when faced with conflict Following that, I had a discussion (in Japanese) with the Japanese director. A translation follows (J = Japanese director, M = Maruyama):
7: M:
I: M:
J: M:
J: M:
J: M:
(stiffly) What is it you are interested in knowing? In multicultural management, there tend to be many problems due to cultural difference. Yes. Have you been assigned to many foreign posts? Yes, I was in England for some years before being sent to this post in France. So you already have some experience of cultural differences? Yes. I know many Japanese firms in foreign countries and they seem to share common problems. For instance, foreign employees want to be taught, the Japanese want them to learn by experience. The employees think the Japanese are secretive; the Japanese think the employees are lazy. We have no problems of that sort. I try extremely hard to satisfy my employees and they are happy. But I have known firms in which the Japanese really are trying to satisfy their foreign employees. They’ll take the employee to hospital in a taxi if he falls ill during his training programme. But the foreigners’ real needs may actually be different. They often feel their culture is of no interest to the Japanese; they want to interact with the Japanese
M:
I: M:
I: M:
but are put off. It’s all to do with a misunderstanding - the Japanese are not badly intentioned. Incidentally, Japanese usually avoid discussing this problem, and non-Japanese usually show interest and want to discuss it further, using their own experience. We have no such problems. We work hard on keeping our employees happy, and succeed. Now, I can give you only three minutes more as I have a busy schedule. I didn’t really expect to be lucky enough to talk to someone as senior as you, on a surprise visit. I just wanted to talk with anyone who was interested; an assembly line worker or caretaker would have done. Why on earth do you want to talk to a caretaker? They have their point of view too. I don’t mean they’re necessarily right, but even their misconceptions are worth correcting. They also have busy schedules and can’t take time off to talk to you. It’s lunch-break time now, I could talk to them informally. The food in our cafeteria is poor. I’ll call a taxi to take you to a better place to eat in town. Thank you for giving up your busy time to meet me.
I left the room to visit a toilet. It was spotlessly clean with no graffiti. I also met several French workers there; they were friendly and talked easily with me. Clearly, this Japanese manager showed avoidance and withdrawal. Other Japanese managers might have been more subtle about it. In this case, the manager did not seem to realize that his withdrawal behaviour, breaking the communication, constituted a problem in itself. He really believed it was a solution.
Case Study 3 I lunched with the vice-president firm in Tokyo. The conversation Maruyama, VP = vice-president): M:
VP:
of a major Japanese went as follows (M =
As you know, in most of the factories of Japanese firms located in foreign countries, foreign employees complain the Japanese do not explain or teach anything. Yes, I’ve heard it happens. But these complaints disappear when the employees have got used to us.
This reaction is typical of Japanese executives:It roots in characteristics (i), (iv) and (v) above.
has its
Solution As a consultant to a number of firms, 1 conclude it is practically impossible to eliminate or even reduce avoidance and withdrawal behaviour in Japanese executives and managers when faced with conflict, especially in the case of older men. Reluctantly, I believe it is better to have foreign staff fill the positions of manager and director in foreign EUROPEAN MANAGEMENT JOURNAL Vol9
No 2 June 1991
JAPANESE REACTION TO MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS IN EUROPE
branches, even if it increases the problem of friction between the Japanese HQ and the foreign branch. Some firms already practise this, like the Bank of Tokyo in its overseas branches. IBM-Japan’s personnel in Japan are Japanese from top to bottom. In the long run, competition will weed out managers who avoid and withdraw, but in the short term Japanese firms overseas should face up to this most destructive mode of behaviour by its managers.
EUROPEAN MANAGEMENT JOURNAL Vo19 No 2 June 1991
215
JapaneseReactionto ManagementProblemsin Europe:CulturalAspects MAGOROH MARUYAMA, University, Tokyo
Professor
of International
When faced with problems with foreign employees, Japanese managers try to avoid discussion and tend to withdraw. This is often interpreted by foreign employees as hostility or contempt, expressed actively. Various explanations are given, such as the Japanese penchant for saving face, but these are too simple. Magoroh Maruyama points to different characteristics of Japanese culture which have not been used in explanation. In the end he recommends using more foreign managers instead of Japanese and avoiding this particular problem altogether.
The Japanese ‘withdrawal’ phenomenon has been explained variously in the past as politeness, avoidance of embarrassment, avoidance of open conflict, facesaving, secretiveness, denial of problems, hostility, contempt, and others. While these explanations may contain some truth depending on the situation, they miss several important cultural aspects of the way Japanese normally interact among themselves. These cultural characteristics are now described.
Business,
Aoyama
Gakuin
(i) Getting Rid of Frustration The Japanese often use discussion to vent frustrations and then feel better afterwards. I have found it very different in Europe. The Danes, for example, use discussion to ‘stroke each other’. Explaining anything is impolite because it assumes the other is ignorant. Asking questions is impolite because the other might not know the answer. It is often considered rude to introduce new ideas or information since it might disturb the familiar old routine exchanges. Old jokes and gossip are preferred. The Danes do not discuss politics or business much, preferring ‘safe’ intellectual topics in music, art or literature, where few disagree. In contrast, in Sweden I have found the main purpose of talking to people is to give new information or express feelings. They prefer to keep silent unless they have something important to say. In Denmark, on the other hand, people chatter, but do not mention serious personal matters. In Japan, one mentions personal problems readily among good friends - it helps to dispel frustration and also to win sympathy. The Japanese listener, on the other hand, is not expected to take any kind of action.
(ii) Appealing for Sympathy Through Behaviour Japanese often try to gain sympathy through non-verbal means. For example, instead of preaching, a Japanese mother will show how sad she is when her children misbehave. The mother wants and expects her children to change. In Japan, this method works better than active persuasion. The Japanese are not used to talking together to smooth frictions.
(iii) Attitudes Matter More Than Actions Japanese students and employees are often evaluated in terms of their attitudes and intentions rather than their performance. When a Japanese makes a mistake it is more important to apologize than to compensate for any damage. It is quite normal to be pardoned by making an apology without being expected to pay compensation. When Toshiba apologized in American newspapers for a EUROPEAN MANAGEMENT JOURNAL Vo19 No 2 June 1991
JAPANESE REACTION TO MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS IN EUROPE
damaging incident, believing it would solve the problem, it unfortunately made matters worse.
(iv) Preconceived Thinking Some concepts which are crucial to foreigners completely escape the Japanese, for example civil rights, or work as an expression of individual creativity. In the United States, inventions are assumed to be produced by inventors acting more or less independently. By contrast, Japanese invention and creativity are interactive. Their attitude mirrors mathematical theory, i.e. interaction between heterogeneous factors is necessary for the creation of new information - this process should not be confused with a new combination of old elements. The notion of Japanese creative interactivity is mathematically correct. The American culture of individual initiative-taking is as invisible to the Japanese as ultraviolet rays.
I
Japanese managers do not supply organized training to their employees
(v) Learning Patterns The Japanese logic of learning is contextual and simultaneous. The European and American logic of learning is classificational and sequential. Fresh university engineering graduates in manufacturing companies in Japan spend their first couple of years working on assembly lines, in workshops and repair units in order to learn by experience how the products which they will help design are put together, used and serviced. They learn the context of these processes and the relations among many elements simultaneously. By contrast, in American firms new employees receive training consisting of sequenced and categorized lessons with verbal explanations. Japanese managers often let new employees undergo experience in their Rrms for a year or two without any organized training Drogramme, and expect foreign employees to similarly earn experientially, contextually and simultaneously. Hence, the Japanese complain that foreign employees do lot learn anything and foreign employees complain that lapanese managers do not teach anything.
Case Studies I developed a technique of ‘surprise visits’ over some 20 years and used it with numerous companies in several countries. The first two case studies are of this type. My first visit was to a German director of a major Japanese company in Germany. His reaction to the mention of problems was positive and straightforward - no avoidance or withdrawal. The second was to a Japanese director of the same company, located in France - he showed extreme avoidance and withdrawal. Neither directors had time to think out or plan their responses. The third case study was not of the ‘surprise’ EUROPEAN MANAGEMENT JOURNAL Vo19 No 2 June 1991
variety. A Japanese vice-president of another major Japanese firm, known to me previously, talked over a lunch in Tokyo. The atmosphere was relaxed and friendly, and the vice-president showed no avoidance or withdrawal, but did show characteristic responses for a Japanese explained in categories (iv) (preconceived thinking) and (v) (learning patterns). These responses, in other Japanese managers, would normally be mixed up with avoidance and withdrawal.
Case Study 1 This visit was unexpected by me also. I expected to visit another company in another country, but when I arrived it was closed, so I took a train to Germany and arrived at a German factory at 4.00 p.m. The visit was not expected by the firm. I explained to the receptionist who I was and that I had dropped by and wondered if I could talk to someone. I spoke to everyone at this factory in German. A secretary appeared and said the German director would see me. She also asked how much time I had in order to see if anyone else might be available. I said I could stay a couple of hours. After talking to the director, the secretary said I could also talk with two engineers. The following is a translation of my talk with the director (M = Maruyama, D = Director): M: D: M:
D: M: D:
Please excuse the suddenness of my dropping in - it is very kind of you to spare me a few minutes. Welcome to Germany and our factory. How can I help you? As a consultant, I am often asked to find solutions1 to multicultural friction problems. For instance, the Japanese ask foreign employees to learn by doing rather than by organized verbal teaching. The foreign employees wonder why the Japanese seem unwilling to teach them; they even suspect that the Japanese are hiding things from them. Whilst in turn, the Japanese are disappointed that the foreigners appear to have learned nothing despite being in the firm for a year or so. Yes, there are cultural differences. Also, the Japanese tend to communicate better among themselves than with foreigners. Yes, we have one German engineer among several Japanese, and he finds it difficult. (After discussing
D:
M: D:
several
other
topics)
We like the system of job-rotation which is also encouraged by our Tokyo headquarters. Are you familiar with the German system of vocational training? Not very well. In this part of Germany secondary school graduates can enter a 50150 job/study programme in which they are job-rotated. These young people have already had some job-rotation experience when they become properly employed, whereas university graduates have no such experience. Many of our older German employees are old-fashioned, but some younger Germans favour job-rotation.
JAPANESE REACTION TO MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS IN EUROPE
In this case study, the German director was well aware of cultural problems and willing to discuss them. We had an hour’s enthusiastic discussion. I subsequently talked with a German engineer who mentioned problems typical with Japanese firms in foreign countries. For instance, Japanese engineers tend to talk down to German engineers. The second engineer was Japanese; we naturally spoke in Japanese. He was relatively open-minded compared to Japanese engineers I had met in other firms. He did not think that he condescended, but admitted he might be interpreted in that way. He didn’t avoid the topic or withdraw, although being younger than me he may have merely agreed to have continued talking out of politeness but not conviction.
J:
M:
J: Case Study 2 This conversation took place in a French factory of the same Japanese firm, with a Japanese director. My method was the same, I dropped in unexpectedly at about 11.30 a.m. and, explaining who I was, asked the receptionist (in French) if there was anyone available I could talk to. She eventually located the Japanese director but said that, while I waited, I could talk to a French office worker. This I did; his responses were stiff and standardized, much like the atmosphere of the office.
Japanese managers show withdrawal and avoidance when faced with conflict Following that, I had a discussion (in Japanese) with the Japanese director. A translation follows (J = Japanese director, M = Maruyama):
7: M:
I: M:
J: M:
J: M:
J: M:
(stiffly) What is it you are interested in knowing? In multicultural management, there tend to be many problems due to cultural difference. Yes. Have you been assigned to many foreign posts? Yes, I was in England for some years before being sent to this post in France. So you already have some experience of cultural differences? Yes. I know many Japanese firms in foreign countries and they seem to share common problems. For instance, foreign employees want to be taught, the Japanese want them to learn by experience. The employees think the Japanese are secretive; the Japanese think the employees are lazy. We have no problems of that sort. I try extremely hard to satisfy my employees and they are happy. But I have known firms in which the Japanese really are trying to satisfy their foreign employees. They’ll take the employee to hospital in a taxi if he falls ill during his training programme. But the foreigners’ real needs may actually be different. They often feel their culture is of no interest to the Japanese; they want to interact with the Japanese
M:
I: M:
I: M:
but are put off. It’s all to do with a misunderstanding - the Japanese are not badly intentioned. Incidentally, Japanese usually avoid discussing this problem, and non-Japanese usually show interest and want to discuss it further, using their own experience. We have no such problems. We work hard on keeping our employees happy, and succeed. Now, I can give you only three minutes more as I have a busy schedule. I didn’t really expect to be lucky enough to talk to someone as senior as you, on a surprise visit. I just wanted to talk with anyone who was interested; an assembly line worker or caretaker would have done. Why on earth do you want to talk to a caretaker? They have their point of view too. I don’t mean they’re necessarily right, but even their misconceptions are worth correcting. They also have busy schedules and can’t take time off to talk to you. It’s lunch-break time now, I could talk to them informally. The food in our cafeteria is poor. I’ll call a taxi to take you to a better place to eat in town. Thank you for giving up your busy time to meet me.
I left the room to visit a toilet. It was spotlessly clean with no graffiti. I also met several French workers there; they were friendly and talked easily with me. Clearly, this Japanese manager showed avoidance and withdrawal. Other Japanese managers might have been more subtle about it. In this case, the manager did not seem to realize that his withdrawal behaviour, breaking the communication, constituted a problem in itself. He really believed it was a solution.
Case Study 3 I lunched with the vice-president firm in Tokyo. The conversation Maruyama, VP = vice-president): M:
VP:
of a major Japanese went as follows (M =
As you know, in most of the factories of Japanese firms located in foreign countries, foreign employees complain the Japanese do not explain or teach anything. Yes, I’ve heard it happens. But these complaints disappear when the employees have got used to us.
This reaction is typical of Japanese executives:It roots in characteristics (i), (iv) and (v) above.
has its
Solution As a consultant to a number of firms, 1 conclude it is practically impossible to eliminate or even reduce avoidance and withdrawal behaviour in Japanese executives and managers when faced with conflict, especially in the case of older men. Reluctantly, I believe it is better to have foreign staff fill the positions of manager and director in foreign EUROPEAN MANAGEMENT JOURNAL Vol9
No 2 June 1991
JAPANESE REACTION TO MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS IN EUROPE
branches, even if it increases the problem of friction between the Japanese HQ and the foreign branch. Some firms already practise this, like the Bank of Tokyo in its overseas branches. IBM-Japan’s personnel in Japan are Japanese from top to bottom. In the long run, competition will weed out managers who avoid and withdraw, but in the short term Japanese firms overseas should face up to this most destructive mode of behaviour by its managers.
EUROPEAN MANAGEMENT JOURNAL Vo19 No 2 June 1991
215