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Jordan: Environmental Status of Water, Soil and Air
Jordan: Environmental Status of Water, Soil and Air FM Howari, Jackson School of Geosciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA HA Ghrefat, College of Science, KSU, Saudi Arabia & 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Abbreviations COD
chemical oxygen demand
Introduction Jordan has a total area of approximately 88 778 km2, and is bordered in the north by Syria, in the northeast by Iraq, in the south-east and south by Saudi Arabia, in the far south-west by the Gulf of Aqaba, and in the west by Palestine and Israel (Figure 1). In Jordan, pollution and scarcity of water resources are some of the most significant challenges. Rainfall patterns, morphological and pedological properties of soil vegetation, and land use determine the extent of land degradation. Over 90% of Jordan receives
less than 200 mm annual rainfall (Figure 2). Rainfall decreases from north to south, from west to east, and from higher to lower altitudes. In the highlands east of the Jordan Valley, precipitation increases from less than 300 mm in the south to more than 500 mm in the north. The Jordan Valley forms a narrow climatic zone that annually receives up to 300 mm of rain in the north and less than 120 mm at the northern edge of the Dead Sea. The thunderstorms, which are characterized by their irregularity in intensity and duration, are responsible for most rainfall in the country. This type of rainfall associated with degraded land condition increases soil erosion and decreases groundwater recharge. Pollution is caused by the arid to semi-arid climate, high population growth, and the lack of sewer systems, which results in the infiltration of wastewater into springs and groundwater resources.
N
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Figure 1
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Location of Jordan.
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Precipitation N
<50 mm 50−100 mm 100−150 mm 150−200 mm 200−250 mm 250−300 mm 300−350 mm 350−400 mm >450 mm
Prime unit/Range department
Figure 2
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Rainfall pattern in Jordan.
Temperatures in the Jordan Valley, Wadi Araba, and Aqaba can rise in the summer to 45 1C with an annual average of 24 1C. In the winter, the temperature reaches a few degrees above zero. Along the highlands, the climate is relatively temperate; cold and wet in winter with temperatures reaching a few degrees below zero during the night, to hot and dry in summer with temperatures reaching 35 1C at noon. A relative humidity of only 15–30% makes the heat more acceptable. During the hot summer, temperatures at night drop to less than 20 1C. The climatic conditions in Jordan do not only affect the amount and distribution of precipitation, but also the potential of evaporation that ranges from about 1600 mm per year in the extreme northwestern edge of the country to more than 4000 mm per year in the Aqaba and Azraq areas. Along the rift valley, the potential evaporation increases from a minimum of 2000 mm per year in the north to some 2500 mm per year in the Dead Sea and to more than 4000 mm per year in Aqaba. This article presents an overview of Jordan’s major environmental problems associated with water, soil, and air resources. These problems inculde insufficient water resources, soil erosion caused by overgrazing of goats and sheep (in addition to deforestation) and air pollution. This article highlights the current threats to soil and water resources that come mainly from natural sources, sewage, herbicides, and pesticides.
Water Resources and Their Qualities Water resources in Jordan consist primarily of surface and groundwater, with treated wastewater being used for irrigation mostly in the Jordan Valley (Table 1). Renewable water resources are estimated at approximately 1035 Mm3 per year, including groundwater at 280 Mm3 per year and surface water at 755 Mm3 per year. An additional 118 Mm3 per year is estimated to be available from nonrenewable groundwater.
Surface Water Surface water resources in Jordan are unevenly distributed among 12 basins (Table 2). The three major surface water resources in Jordan are the Jordan, Zarqa, and Yarmouk rivers (Figure 3). The largest source of external surface water is the Yarmouk River that is located at the border with Syria. The Yarmouk River accounts for 40% of the surface water resources of Jordan. However, these rivers become highly undependable. For the Jordan and Yarmouk rivers, this is due to upstream diversion and overpumping by Syria and Israel. The Zarqa River has been severely affected with water pollution from industries in the Amman–Zarqa area, which includes 70% of Jordanian small–medium-sized industries. Other major basins include Zarqa, Jordan riverside wadis, Mujib, the Dead Sea, Hasa, and Wadi Araba (Table 2 and Figure 3).
Jordan: Environmental Status of Water, Soil and Air Table 1
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Available and consumed water resources (Mm3) in Jordan in 1995 and 2005
Water resources
1995
Renewable groundwater Nonrenewable groundwater Surface water Treated wastewater
2005
Available
Consumed
Available
Consumed
280 118 594 60
359 118 594 60
280 118 755 60
390 118 755 60
Source: Hadadin NA and Tarawneh ZS (2007) Environmental issues in Jordan: Solutions and recommendations. American Journal of Environmental Sciences 3: 30–36.
Table 2 year)
Aquifer and basin water status in Jordan (Mm3 per
Basin
Used
Available
Yarmouk Jordan River tributaries Jordan River plains Amman and Zarqa Dead Sea Diesa North Wadi Araba South Wadi Araba Jaffar Azraq Sarhan Hamad
59 6.3 21.7 153.8 68.6 56 1.75 4 23 32 0.8 1.8
40 15 21 57 57 100 3.5 5.5 27 28 5 8
Source: Hadadin NA and Tarawneh ZS (2007) Environmental issues in Jordan: Solutions and recommendations. American Journal of Environmental Sciences 3: 30–36.
Jordan River
The surface catchment area of the Jordan River is 18.194 km2. The headwaters of the Jordan River originate from three main springs: Hasbani in Lebanon, Dan in Israel, and Banias in Syrian territory occupied by Israel. The total discharge of the Jordan River into the Dead Sea before the implementation of the different water projects in Jordan, Syria, and Israel was 1370 Mm3 per year. The discharge of the Yarmouk River into the Jordan River was around 400 Mm3 per year before the use of the water by the different riparian. In the past few years, this amount has gradually declined to small discharges, only as a result of large floods, which cannot be accommodated by the existing extraction facilities. The other wades and springs on both sides of the Jordan Valley are dammed or captured by other constructions. Water remains runoffs due to rains over areas downstream of water collection constructions, return flows, or saltwater discharges, which then joins the river. The Jordan River is polluted and saline and runs almost dry most of the year. Because it is saline thus not directly suitable for drinking or irrigation. Yarmouk River
Yarmouk River is the largest external surface water in Jordan, accounting for 40% of the surface water
resources of the nation. It is located along the Syrian– Jordanian border and is linked with the Jordan River in the occupied Golan region. The total catchment area of the Yarmouk River is 6790 km2, of which 1160 km2 lies within Jordan upstream of Adasiya and the rest within Syria and in the Jordan River area downstream of Adasiya. The average discharge in recent decades has declined in Al-Adasiya region as a result of increased exploitation of the water for agricultural and industrial purposes and the lack of precipitation. The historical average annual flow of the Yarmouk River was about 438 Mm3 up to 1980. Owing to upstream and downstream uses, the flow has dropped down to about 300 Mm3 per year. This has reduced the diverted water from Yarmouk to the Jordan Valley from 125 Mm3 per year during 1980– 85 to about 100 Mm3 per year in 1999 and 2000. This has reduced the diverted water from Yarmouk River to the Jordan River from 65 to 55 Mm3 per year in years 2001 and 2002, respectively. The catchment area of the Yarmouk River is agrarian, with small types of industries located in the main towns of Jordan and Syria. The small effluents of two wastewater treatment plants reach the Yarmouk River during floods. Moreover, the leachates of El-Ukheider solid waste disposal sites directly reach the river path on days when their liquid loads exceed evaporation and infiltration potentials. The water quality of the Yarmouk River reflects the land uses within the catchment area, which are still restricted to rainfed and some irrigated agriculture. Table 3 summarizes the range of chemical constituents’ concentrations in the Yarmouk River. The concentrations of NO3 and SO4 range from 4.2 to 25.9 and from 15.8 to 20.5 mg l 1, respectively. The concentration of total dissolved solids is o1000 mg l 1. The concentration of most of the heavy metals is o0.5 mg l 1. Khirbet es Samra treated wastewater is being used in irrigation in the Central Jordan Valley. The treated water is collected in King Talal Dam and then mixed with King Abduilah Canal water, which is diverted from the Yarmouk River for further use in agriculture in the Jordan Valley area. This has adversely affected the water quality of Yarmouk River. The concentrations of BOD5, Cl, NH4, and NO3 in the Yarmouk River increased after
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Lebanon
1300
Yarmouk
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1250
her n wad side is
Syria
Hammad
Jordan Valley
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1150
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1100
Mujib
Saudi Arabia
Dead Sea Catchment
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1050
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Hasa
Sirhan
Jafr
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W.Araba S. Disi
850 150
Figure 3
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500
Major surface water basins of Jordan.
mixing of Zarqa River with King Abduilah Canal water. The concentrations of Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, and Zn in Yarmouk River were o1 mg l 1 and are within the guidelines for irrigation water. The results showed that the Yarmouk River water after mixing can be used for irrigation with some restrictions.
Zarqa River
The Zarqa River is the second largest in Jordan. The catchment area of the river is 4025 km2 and extends from the foothills of Jabel Druz to the Jordan River. The river consists of two main branches: Wadi Dhuleil, which drains the eastern part of the catchment area, and SeelZarqa, which drains the western part. Naturally, the eastern branch drains only flood flows as a result of precipitation, whereas the western branch drains flood and base flows. The average annual discharge of Zarqa River at Deir Alla for the years 1950–76 was 64.88 Mm3 per year. After 1976, the natural system of the river was changed by several factors such as construction of the King Talal Dam on the Zarqa River in 1977, import of water into the catchment area for domestic and industrial
Table 3 Range of chemical constituents concentrations (mg l 1) in the Yarmouk River and King Talal Dam Parameter
Yarmouk River
King Talal Dam
TDS NO3 SO4 Zn Cu Mn Cd Cr Pb Co Ni Mo Hg Se AS
633.6–985.6 4.24–25.9 15.8–20.5 o0.5 o0.2 o0.2 0.002–0.015 o0.1 o0.5 o0.05 o0.2 0.02–0.18 0.0002–0.0064 0.0002–0.0036 0.0002–0.0078
710.4–2595.0 6.3–41.38 19.2–253 o0.5 o0.2 o0.2 0.002–0.015 o0.1 o0.5 o0.05 o0.2 0.02–0.05 0.0002–0.0033 0.0002–0.0049 0.0002–0.0067
uses, and discharge of their effluents to the Zarqa River system. King Talal Dam is the biggest dam in Jordan and its main purpose is to supply irrigation water to the Jordan Valley with a capacity of 86 Mm3. The water quality of
Jordan: Environmental Status of Water, Soil and Air
the King Talal Dam, before establishing the treatment plant of Khirbet es Samra in 1985, was good and unpolluted. The subsequent deterioration in water quality was primarily due to failure in treating the wastewater that flowed into the dam. It was polluted from factories that dump untreated waste into the tributaries of reservoir raises salinity and contents of chemicals and metals. Only during the periods of flood does the water quality of both King Talal Dam and Zarqa River improve. The data in Table 3 show that the water quality of King Talal Dam is worse than that of the Yarmouk River. The concentrations of NO3 and SO4 range from 6.3 to 41.4 and from 19.2 to 253 mg l 1, respectively. The concentration of total dissolved solids ranges from 710.4 to 2595.0 mg l 1. The concentration of most of the heavy metals is o0.5 mg l 1. Poor water quality of the dam magnifies the problem of salinity, especially when drip irrigation is applied. Salt accumulations occur on the soil surface within the root zone layer and affect the soil fertility and consequently crop yields. The results demonstrate that the Khirbet es Samra treated water affected the water quality of King Talal Dam. The concentrations of BOD5, Cl, NH4, and NO3 in King Talal Dam water were elevated. The concentrations of Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, and Zn in dam were o1 mg l 1. Groundwater Resources Groundwater resources amount to 54% of the water resources of Jordan and are considered the major source of water in Jordan, and the only source of water in some areas of the country. Twelve groundwater basins have been identified in Jordan; these include two fossil aquifers: Diesa and Jaffar. Some of these basins have more than one aquifer (Table 2 and Figure 3) and are fed and recharged through annual rainfall. These aquifers are under severe pressure from the agricultural sector, which consumes about 70% of the resources, and the rest is used for municipal and industrial consumption. The Yarmouk basin is the largest in the country. The groundwater aquifers in Jordan are classified into three main complexes: the deep, middle, and shallow. The deep aquifer complex is formed from sandstone and it is found as one unit in the south and two units in the north separated by thick limestone and marl layers. The middle complex (the upper and middle cretaceous complex) consists of limestone, dolomite, marl stone, and chert beds. The shallow aquifer complex, the most exploited one, consists of two main systems: the basalt aquifer system and the sedimentary rocks and alluvial deposits of Tertiary and Quaternary ages (Figures 3 and 4). The effect of the Khirbet es Samra wastewater treatment plant on the deterioration of groundwater quality at Seil Zarqa basin has been investigated by Al-Kharabsheh. The chemical and biological analyses of groundwater
327
show a clear difference in groundwater quality between Hanna well in the Khirbet es Samra upstream that is not influenced by wastewater and the other wells in the Khirbet es Samra downstream. The electrical conductivity (EC) increased from 700 ms cm 1 at Hanna well to more than 7000 ms cm 1 at Muawad well in the Khirbet es Samra downstream. Moreover, the concentrations of chemical oxygen demand (COD), and the major cations and anions such as NH4 and NO3, were very high in the groundwater wells adjacent to Khirbet es Samra. In many parts of Jordan high nitrate concentration in groundwater have been identified. The results show that NO3 concentration in groundwater at Al-Hashimiyah area, which is a part of the Amman–Zarqa basin, ranges from 10 to 330 mg l 1, and increased dramatically from the year 2001 to 2006. About 92% of the samples have NO3 concentration greater than 20 mg l 1, indicating the influence of human activities. The great variation in NO3 concentration from well to well was attributed to several factors including hydrogeological regime, depth to groundwater, tapped aquifer unit, pumping rate and regime, and the extent of vicinity to Khirbet es Samra. A strong correlation between the drastic increase in NO3 concentration in some wells and the consequences of the establishment of the Khirbet es Samra has been observed. In addition, NO3 average concentration in groundwater in Dhuleil area increased dramatically by about 12-fold from 1971 to 1997. Groundwater samples from the Wadi Al-Arab wells in North Jordan, representing consecutive wet and dry seasons, were collected by the authors. The results showed marked seasonal changes in the concentrations of most of the chemical constituents. However, some of the chemical constituents, such as Mg, Na, K, and trace elements, showed no significant change during this study. The predominant water type of the wells of the Wadi Al-Arab in the wet season is alkaline earth waters with increased portion of alkalies with prevailing bicarbonate, whereas alkaline earth waters with prevailing bicarbonate water type is the dominant type in the dry season. The upper aquifer of the Azraq basin forms the largest resource of good quality water. However, the current abstraction exceeds both the average recharge and the safe yield of the aquifer, which is overexploited. Although there has been no deterioration in water quality and only minor drawdown, the springs at Azraq have dried up, with severe and undesirable environmental impacts. Total abstraction of 20 106 m3 per year appears to be sustainable and would allow some spring flow, but this leaves a shortfall of 40 106 m3 per year for domestic supply and agriculture. In general, Jordan possesses significant groundwater resources with good quality that varies within an aquifer. However, the quality of groundwater is threatened by overabstraction of the resource, pollution from human settlements with its related activities, and irrigation runoffs.
Jordan: Environmental Status of Water, Soil and Air
n S ea
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36°
rranea
LEBANON
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Taberiya Lake
Risha Area
Irbid
WESTERN BANK
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Al Jafr Depression
Paleozoic
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Basalt Basement Normal fault Aqaba
Strike-slip fault 40 km
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Figure 4
38°
36°
Geology of Jordan.
Wastewater Resources Treated wastewater generated from 16 existing wastewater treatment plants is an important component of water resources of Jordan. The majority of treated wastewater is discharged into various water courses or used directly for irrigation, mostly in the Jordan Valley. About one-third of the municipal water supplied to Amman city returns to the main treatment plant at Khirbet es Samra. Wastewater quantity increases with the increase in population, increase in water use, and development of the sewerage systems.
Water Demand and Possible Solutions for Water Problem in Jordan The demand for water in Jordan exceeds the available resources, and with the passage of time, the gap between both demand and supply is widening. The surface water resources have been developed to a large degree to be primarily used in irrigation. Agriculture accounts for 77.5% of all water consumed, the rest being for domestic and industrial use. Annual growth in demand for water in
Jordan is estimated at 25 Mm3 per year (Figure 5). This growth is related to urbanization and industrial expansion, as well as to increased domestic use, mainly as a result of population growth. Jordan is classified among few countries of the world with limited water resources and it is one of the lowest on a per capita basis. The available water resources per capita are falling as a result of population growth and are projected to fall from 226 m3 per capita per year in 1990 to 120 m3 per capita per year by 2020 (Table 4), putting Jordan in the category of an absolute water shortage. Projections of water resources demonstrate that there will be a persistent shortage. Treated wastewater, water harvesting, importation of water across boundaries, and desalination of brackish and seawater, are possible solutions to overcome water scarcity in Jordan.
Soil Quality Jordan has a variety of soil types; the soil type in the northern part of the country as well as in the Jordan
Jordan: Environmental Status of Water, Soil and Air
329
1200 Water usage (Mm3 per year)
Domestic 1000
Agricultural
800 600 400 200 0 1985
1989
1995
2005
Years
Figure 5
Domestic and agricultural water demand in Jordan.
Table 4 per year)
Population versus per capita water availability (Mm3
Year
Total annual renewable fresh water available (Mm3)
Population (millions)
Per capita water availability (m3)
1955 1990 2020
1331 906 1236
1.447 4.009 10.229
920 226 120
Source: Hadadin NA and Tarawneh ZS (2007) Environmental issues in Jordan: Solutions and recommendations. American Journal of Environmental Sciences 3: 30–36.
Valley are the most favorable for agriculture. In the northern part of the country, the soil types belong to Quaternary alluvium and colluviums parent materials formed mainly on limestone and to a lesser extent on chert. The major part of the country’s soils belongs to the orders Aridisols, Vertisols, and Inceptisols. Along the Jordan Valley, the soil is often deep and level and has good permeability, low salinity, and no to very little clay content. This type of soil is suitable for all types of crop. In other areas, the soil is shallower, less permeable, and slightly more saline. High salinity and low permeability soils, as a result of the impediment offered by its clay layers, also exist in the Jordan Valley, especially the southern part. The sandy and silty nature characterizes the soils in the southern part of the country. Jordan was subjected to several climatic changes during the Quaternary period. The last episode of climatic changes, which prevails at the present time, is responsible for the development of unfavorable soil properties that accelerated the degradation of many plant species, as discussed in the subsequent sections. However, leading causes of land degradation in Jordan are often improper farming practices (such as failure to use contour ploughing or overcultivating the land), overgrazing, and the conversion of rangelands to croplands in
marginal areas where rainfall is not enough to support cropping in the long term, and uncontrolled expansion of urban and rural settlement at the cost of cultivable land. However, the heavy burden placed by livestock on these fragile soils left the soil surface bare and compacted during much of the fallow period and thus highly susceptible to wind and water erosion. Therefore, erosion by wind and water is considered the major cause of land degradation in the area. Another factor affecting the agricultural soil is the continuous growth of the population along with limited natural resources. An average increase in the population of about 3%, plus migration from neighboring countries, caused a population increase from 3 million to 6.2 million in the past 20 years. This has contributed to desertification through urbanization and loss of agricultural land. Therefore, expansion of urban and rural settlements was at the cost of cultivable land. As for the contamination status, Howari et al. analyzed the concentrations of Pb, Zn, Cd, Co, and Ni in soil samples from Jordan Valley in the vicinity of the highways of north Jordan. The average recorded concentrations for these metals were as follows: 40 ppm for Ni, 5 ppm for Cd, 79 ppm for Zn, 79 ppm for Pb, and 25 ppm for Co. These values indicate that the concentrations of Cd, Pb, and Co in north Jordan at the sampling sites were higher than the average natural background values of heavy metals. However, the soil in these areas can be considered uncontaminated with Ni, Zn, and Co and moderately contaminated with Cd and Pb. Another study conducted by Banat et al. on soil samples near Amman city in the vicinity of Cement Factory found that the enrichment factors of the measured heavy metals of Pb, Cd, Zn, Cr, and Hg in the clay fraction (o2 mm) of the collected samples are 3.1, 16.6, 1.5, 0.9, and 4.5, respectively (Figure 6). These values indicate that this location is moderately contaminated with respect to Cd, uncontaminated to moderately
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Jordan: Environmental Status of Water, Soil and Air
15
15
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C
15
15
15 Al-Zahwaa Mountain
15
Al Zahwaa Mountain
FUHEIS
N FUHEIS
Bakaloria School l
Bakaloria School
15
15
Cement Factory
15
15
Hashemite Palace
15
21. 15
Cement Factory
Um-Alia Basin
Um-Alia Basin
22
22.
23
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Hashemit Palac e e
15
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2
25.
26
21. 15
C
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Al-ZahwaaMountain
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FUHEIS
FUHEIS
Bakaloria School
Bakaloria School Cement Factory
Cement Factory
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15 Um-Alia Basin
Um-Alia Basin
15
15 Hashemite Palace
Hashemite Palace
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24.
2
Figure 6 Heavy metal concentrations in Fuheis soil near Amman city. After Banat KM, Howari F, and Al-Hamad AA (2005) Heavy metals in urban soils of central part of Jordan: Should we worry about their environmental risks? Environmental Research 97, 258–273.
Jordan: Environmental Status of Water, Soil and Air
contaminated with respect to Pb, Hg, and Zn, and uncontaminated with respect to Cr. The relatively high concentrations of Cd, Pb, and Hg in the soils of the study area are related to anthropogenic sources such as cement industry, fertilizers, and vehicle exhausts. It was found that Pb, Zn, and Cr are associated mainly with the residual phases and are relatively immobile. However, Cd is enriched in the carbonate phase of the analyzed soil samples. The sequence of mobility for Pb, Zn, Cd, and Cr in the analyzed soil samples is as follows: Cd4Pb4Cr4Zn. Natural radioactive pollution is possible from the Jordan’s uranium deposits. The recently discovered uranium resources in the Pleistocene sediments that are present in the nearby phosphate-bearing horizons pose potential radioactive hazards. The uranium resources in Jordan are present in more than one horizon in north and central Jordan. The first horizon is restricted to Pleistocene and composed primarily of limestone and cherty fragments cemented by soil soft materials. The other three horizons are primarily composed of chalk and marl. In some locations, the total gamma measurements ranges from 500 cps to more than 2000 cps in 30 cm depth count per second, which is much higher than the natural backgrounds. Some of these locations that are near olive farms hold potential risks, especially in Khan Al-Zabeeb area (Figure 7). Batarseh and El-Hasan showed that the U, V, and Hg concentrations in the Jordanian phosphate deposits of El Hisa and Al-Abyad mines were higher compared to the average worldwide phosphate. They also reported that concentrations of U, V, and Cd in Jordanian phosphate deposits were greater than the permissible limits established by the European Community (EC) and World Health Organization (WHO) for growing crops. Finally, Jordanian phosphate deposits show the highest enrichment of Hg and U, thus posing natural radiation hazards.
Air Pollution in Jordan Jordan is not a highly industrialized country, however, the degradation of air quality in Jordan is an emerging problem, especially in Amman, Zarqa, and Aqaba and Fuheis cities. The major sources of air pollution in these cities include stationary sources such as manufacturing plants, refineries, mines, gas stations, and domestic areas; mobile sources such as Jordan’s estimated 400 000 vehicles that use gasoline and diesel oil; and natural sources such as sand and dust storms. The most damaging source, however, is the growing fleet of vehicles that emit high levels of pollutants – poorly maintained vehicles which consume poor quality fuels. The animal, plant, and human population as well as of Jordan are affected by air pollution from these sources.
331
Total gamma count
Olive farms near Khan Al-Zabeeb
Figure 7 A shallow pit in recent sediments and olive farm near recent uranium deposits of Khan Al-Zabeeb, Central Jordan.
Amman, the capital of Jordan, covers an area of around 170 km2. The population of Amman has grown rapidly in the past 10 years. Amman is the commercial, industrial, and administrative center of Jordan. Most of the vehicles in Jordan are of 1990 or earlier and operate on leaded gasoline (0.11 g l 1 for regular gasoline and 0.17 g l 1 for super gasoline). The air quality in the Amman area is affected mainly by the level of road traffic and industrial activities. The high annual averages of total suspended particulates, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides in Amman regularly exceed World Health Organization standards for air quality. Biomonitoring of air quality in Amman city was investigated by analyzing 36 bark samples of cypress tree (Cupressus sempervirens L.) from three sites of different anthropogenic activities at the end of summer season 2001. Variation in Pb, Zn, Mn, Cr, Ni, Cd, and Cu contents between the three sites was observed due to different types of activities. Traffic emissions were found to be the main source of heavy metal pollution in the atmosphere of Amman. Pb content was the highest among the other metals in the high traffic density areas. The study demonstrated that the industrial part of the
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Jordan: Environmental Status of Water, Soil and Air
Amman city is characterized by high contents of Zn, Mn, Cr, Ni, and Co. Jaradat et al. found that Cl, NO3, and SO4 were the major anions of air particulate in Amman. High Pb concentrations were reported in Amman City Center due to the vehicle emission. Momani et al. found that Zn was the major heavy metal pollutant in settleable as well as suspended particulate in the atmosphere of Amman. Fossil fuel combustion during the winter season was the major source of the heavy metals in the atmosphere of Amman. Elevated contents of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heavy metals were detected in the street dust of Amman, due to the vehicular activities. Heavy metal (Pb, Zn, Cd, Fe, Cu, and Ni) concentration was studied in 120 street dust samples collected from industrial, heavy traffic, medium traffic, light traffic, low traffic, and rural localities in Amman. The study revealed that the high concentrations of Pb, Fe, and Zn in the street dust samples were related to industrial sources combined with traffic sources, natural sources. Pb, Zn, Cd, Fe, Cu, and Ni metals were mainly derived from industrial sources, whereas Pb and Zn were additionally derived from traffic sources and their content depends on the traffic density. Concentrations of Cu, Pb, Cd, and Zn were determined in surface soil, plants, and air samples taken from both sides of the major highway connecting Amman with the southern parts of Jordan. Elevated contents of Cu, Pb, Cd, and Zn were found in both soil and plants on the east side and on the west side of the road. The average concentrations of Cu, Cd, and Zn in the soil samples, 1.5 m east of the highway, were 29.7, 0.75, 188.8, and 121.7 mg g 1, respectively. The average concentrations of Cu, Pb, and Zn in the plant samples, 3 m east of the highway, were 31.3, 7.3, and 98.7 mg g 1, respectively, whereas those of these metals in the air were 0.40, 0.94, and 0.26 mg m 3, respectively. The major source of these metals in the roadside environment is automobiles, and the concentration of these metals varies with the traffic density. Most of the manufacturing industries in Jordan are located on the highway between Amman and Zarqa. Zarqa, about 30 km northeast of Amman, hosts approximately 52% of the Jordanian industries. The total number of industrial facilities in Zarqa is approximately 2500, of which 170 are considered medium, 80 large, and 2250 small size industries. Industries in Zarqa cover a wide range of activities, including food, chemicals, construction, textiles, leather, pulp and paper, pharmaceuticals, and the main oil refinery. Heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn, Cr, Fe, and Al), watersoluble anions (F, Cl, Br, NO3, C2O4, and SO4), and cations (Li, Na, K, Mg, and Ca) were determined in indoor dust and outdoor dust fall in the petroleum refinery area in Zarqa city by several researchers. The results of
study showed that there is no correlation between heavy metal concentrations in dust fall and office dust samples. This indicates that the sources of pollution are different. Enrichment factors of Pb, Cd, Cu, and Zn were high in the dust fall samples, whereas those of Fe and Cr were low. In the Aqaba region, port and industrial activities, particularly the loading of phosphate for export, generate pollution that can be expected to increase as Aqaba develops further. Jordan ranks in the top three exporters of phosphate in the world, and is the sixth largest world producer of potash. The Jordan Phosphate Mines Company has two phosphate mines: Ruseifa in the north and Hasa in the south. Both activities produce sharp air pollution. The mean traffic density in the streets of Aqaba with heavy, medium, light, and low traffic was 4500, 300, 150, and o100 vehicles h 1, respectively. Heavy metal (Fe, Zn, Cu, Cr, Pb, Cd, Ni, Mn, and Co) concentration was determined in 140 street dust samples collected from heavy traffic areas, hospital and health centers, and school gardens in Aqaba City. The metal concentrations were the highest in the heavy traffic areas, whereas the lowest was observed in the street dust samples from hospital and health centers and school gardens. The results of factor analysis showed that the major sources of air pollution in Aqaba city are lithogenic, traffic, and industrial sources. The leaves of date palms (Phoenix dactylifera L.) were evaluated as biomonitors of heavy metal contamination in Aqaba city. Samples of unwashed leaves were collected from urban, suburban, industrial, highway, and rural sites. Samples collected from industrial areas were found to have high contents of Fe, Zn, and Cr. Ni, Cu, and Pb concentrations were high in the samples collected from highway sites. The chemical composition of wet atmospheric precipitation was investigated in samples from the Eshidiya area in south Jordan. The samples were analyzed for major ions (Cl, NO3, HCO3, SO4, Na, K, Ca, Mg, and NH4) and trace metals (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Fe, and Ni). The highest concentration of elements was observed at the beginning of the rainfall season. Rainwater samples showed high Ca, HCO3, SO4, Cl, and Mg concentrations. The study revealed that the major sources of trace elements were soil, phosphate mine, and heating activities. Thirty one soil samples were collected from south Jordan around the cement factory in Qadissiya area and were obtained at two depths, 0–10 cm and 10–20 cm. The samples were analyzed for Pb, Zn, Cd, Fe, Cu, and Cr. The results showed that the highest concentrations of Pb, Zn, and Cd were observed in areas close to the cement factory, though the concentration of Cr was low. The relatively high concentrations of Pb, Zn, and Cd in the upper part of the soil were related to anthropogenic sources such as cement industry, agriculture activities,
Jordan: Environmental Status of Water, Soil and Air
and traffic emissions. The possible solutions for air pollution problem in Jordan should include (1) controlling CO2 emissions through the installation of special equipment in factories that can absorb and block these gases before they enter the air, (2) meeting the international standards to reduce air pollution from Pb, and (3) planning for air quality at urban site and outdoor measurements of air pollution.
Conclusion In urban areas of Jordan, the infiltration of wastewater into the groundwater is the main source of groundwater pollution. Pollution is caused by wastewater plants (e.g., Khirbet es Samra), factories that dump untreated waste into the tributaries of reservoir, which raises salinity, and contents of chemicals and metals (e.g., King Talal Dam). High nitrate concentration in groundwater of Jordan has been identified in many parts of the country. For example, NO3 concentration in groundwater at Al-Hashimiyah area, which is a part of the Amman–Zarqa basin, ranges from 10 to 330 mg l 1, and increased dramatically from the year 2001 to 2006. About 92% of the samples have NO3 concentration more than 20 mg l 1, indicating the influence of human activities. In addition, NO3 average concentration in groundwater in the Dhuleil area increased dramatically by about 12-fold during the period 1971–97. In certain areas (e.g., Azraq basin), the environmental situation is still more favorable than the rest. Although there has been no deterioration in water quality – only minor drawdown – in the Azraq basin, the springs at Azraq have dried up, with severe and undesirable environmental impacts. Soil contamination in Jordan needs serious attention in several areas, especially near major roads. For example, soil quality near major roads of north Jordan can be considered uncontaminated with Ni, Zn, and Co and moderately contaminated with Cd and Pb. Soil quality in Fuheis near Amman city indicates that this location is moderately contaminated with respect to Cd; uncontaminated to moderately contaminated with respect to Pb, Hg, and Zn; and uncontaminated with respect to Cr. The relatively high concentrations of Cd, Pb, and Hg in the soils of the study area are related to anthropogenic sources such as cement industry, fertilizers, and vehicle exhausts. Air quality in Jordan is impacted mainly by vehicle exhausts, cement and phosphate mining, and other industries. For example, most of the manufacturing industries in Jordan such as food, chemicals, construction, textiles, leather, pulp and paper, pharmaceuticals, and the main oil refinery are located on the highway between Amman and Zarqa. Thus, this area suffers the most from air pollution problems. Ruseifa and Hasa cities have
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significant air pollution, due to metal and particulate matter, primarily due to phosphate mining activities. See also: Metal-Induced Toxicologic Pathology: Human Exposure and Risk Assessment, Radiological and Depleted Uranium Weapons: Environmental and Health Consequences, Uranium: Environmental Pollution and Health Effects.
Further Reading Abumurad KM and Al-Omari RA (2008) Indoor radon levels in Irbid and health risk from internal doses. Radiation Measurements 43: 389--391. Al-Kharabsheh A (1999) Groundwater quality deterioration in arid areas: A case study of the Zarqa river basin as influenced by Khirbet Es-Samra waste water (Jordan). Journal of Arid Environments 43: 227--239. Al-Kharouf SJ, Al-Hamarneh IF, and Dababneh M (2008) Natural radioactivity, dose assessment and uranium uptake by agricultural crops at Khan Al-Zabeeb, Jordan. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 99: 1192--1199. Al-Khashman OA (2007) The investigation of metal concentrations in street dust samples in Aqaba city, Jordan. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 29: 197--207. Al-Khlaifat AL and Al-Khashman OA (2007) Atmospheric heavy metal pollution in Aqaba city, Jordan, using Phoenix dactylifera L. leaves. Atmospheric Environment 41: 8891--8897. Al-Zu’bi Y (2007) Effect of irrigation water on agricultural soil in Jordan valley: An example from arid area conditions. Journal of Arid Environments 70: 63--79. Banat KM, Howari F, and Al-Hamad AA (2005) Heavy metals in urban soils of central part of Jordan: Should we worry about their environmental risks. Environmental Research 97: 258--273. Banat KM, Howari F, and To’mah MM (2007) Chemical fractionation and heavy metal distribution in agricultural soils, north of Jordan Valley. Soil and Sediment Contamination 16: 89--107. Batarseh M and El-Hasan T (2009) Toxic element levels in the phosphate deposits of central Jordan. Soil and Sediment Contamination 18: 205--215. Dottridge J and Abu Jaber N (1999) Groundwater resources and quality in northeastern Jordan: Safe yield and sustainability. Applied Geography 19: 313--323. El-Hasan T, Al-Omari H, Jiries A, and Al-Nasir F (2002) Cypress tree (Cupressus semervirens L.) bark as an indicator for heavy metal pollution in the atmosphere of Amman city, Jordan. Environment International 28: 513--519. Hadadin NA and Tarawneh ZS (2007) Environmental Issues in Jordan: Solutions and recommendations. American Journal of Environmental Sciences 3: 30--36. Howari F, Abu-Rakah Y, and Goodell PC (2004) Heavy metal pollution of soils along North Shuna–Aqaba Highway, Jordan. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 22: 597--607. Howari F, Abu-Rakah Y, and Shinaq R (2005) Hydrochemical composition of spring waters in North Jordan. Journal of Water Resources 32: 607--616. Howari F and Banat KM (2001) Assessment of Fe, Zn, Cd, Hg, and Pb in the Jordan and Yarmouk River sediments in relation to their physicochemical properties and sequential extraction characterization. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 132: 43--59. Howari F and Banat KM (2002) Hydrochemical characteristics of Jordan and Yarmouk river waters: Effect of natural and human activities. Journal of Hydrology and Hydromechanics 50: 38--50. Jaradat Q, Momani K, Jiries A, El-Alali A, Batarseh M, and Sabri TG (1999) Chemical composition of urban wet deposition in Amman Jordan. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 112: 55--65. Jiries A (2001) Chemical composition of dew in Amman, Jordan. Atmospheric Research 57: 261--268.
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Jordan: Environmental Status of Water, Soil and Air
Khresat SA, Rawajfih Z, and Mohammad M (1998) Land degradation in north-western Jordan: Causes and processes. Journal of Arid Environments 39: 623--629. Mohsen MS (2007) Water strategies and potential of desalination in Jordan. Desalination 203: 27--46. Momani K, Jiries A, and Jaradat Q (2000) Atmospheric deposition of Pb, Zn, Cu and Cd in Amman, Jordan. Turkish Journal of Chemistry 24: 231--237. Nuclear Energy Agency and the International Atomic Energy (IAEA) (2005) Uranium resources, production and demand. A Joint Report
by OECD Nuclear Energy Agency and the International Atomic Energy Agency, NEA No. 6098, 388 pp. Paris: OECD. Pearse KC (1970) Grazing in the Middle East: Past, present, and future. Journal of Range Management 24: 13--16. Rognon P and Williams MAJ (1977) Late Quaternary climatic changes in Australia and North Africa. Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology 21: 285--327. Shatanawi M and Fayyad M (1996) Effect of Khirbet As-Samra treated effluent on the quality of irrigation water in the central Jordan valley. Water Research 30: 2915--2920.
Abbreviations COD
chemical oxygen demand
Introduction Jordan has a total area of approximately 88 778 km2, and is bordered in the north by Syria, in the northeast by Iraq, in the south-east and south by Saudi Arabia, in the far south-west by the Gulf of Aqaba, and in the west by Palestine and Israel (Figure 1). In Jordan, pollution and scarcity of water resources are some of the most significant challenges. Rainfall patterns, morphological and pedological properties of soil vegetation, and land use determine the extent of land degradation. Over 90% of Jordan receives
less than 200 mm annual rainfall (Figure 2). Rainfall decreases from north to south, from west to east, and from higher to lower altitudes. In the highlands east of the Jordan Valley, precipitation increases from less than 300 mm in the south to more than 500 mm in the north. The Jordan Valley forms a narrow climatic zone that annually receives up to 300 mm of rain in the north and less than 120 mm at the northern edge of the Dead Sea. The thunderstorms, which are characterized by their irregularity in intensity and duration, are responsible for most rainfall in the country. This type of rainfall associated with degraded land condition increases soil erosion and decreases groundwater recharge. Pollution is caused by the arid to semi-arid climate, high population growth, and the lack of sewer systems, which results in the infiltration of wastewater into springs and groundwater resources.
N
Jordan
0
Figure 1
50
100
150
Location of Jordan.
323
324
Jordan: Environmental Status of Water, Soil and Air
Precipitation N
<50 mm 50−100 mm 100−150 mm 150−200 mm 200−250 mm 250−300 mm 300−350 mm 350−400 mm >450 mm
Prime unit/Range department
Figure 2
0
50
100
150
Rainfall pattern in Jordan.
Temperatures in the Jordan Valley, Wadi Araba, and Aqaba can rise in the summer to 45 1C with an annual average of 24 1C. In the winter, the temperature reaches a few degrees above zero. Along the highlands, the climate is relatively temperate; cold and wet in winter with temperatures reaching a few degrees below zero during the night, to hot and dry in summer with temperatures reaching 35 1C at noon. A relative humidity of only 15–30% makes the heat more acceptable. During the hot summer, temperatures at night drop to less than 20 1C. The climatic conditions in Jordan do not only affect the amount and distribution of precipitation, but also the potential of evaporation that ranges from about 1600 mm per year in the extreme northwestern edge of the country to more than 4000 mm per year in the Aqaba and Azraq areas. Along the rift valley, the potential evaporation increases from a minimum of 2000 mm per year in the north to some 2500 mm per year in the Dead Sea and to more than 4000 mm per year in Aqaba. This article presents an overview of Jordan’s major environmental problems associated with water, soil, and air resources. These problems inculde insufficient water resources, soil erosion caused by overgrazing of goats and sheep (in addition to deforestation) and air pollution. This article highlights the current threats to soil and water resources that come mainly from natural sources, sewage, herbicides, and pesticides.
Water Resources and Their Qualities Water resources in Jordan consist primarily of surface and groundwater, with treated wastewater being used for irrigation mostly in the Jordan Valley (Table 1). Renewable water resources are estimated at approximately 1035 Mm3 per year, including groundwater at 280 Mm3 per year and surface water at 755 Mm3 per year. An additional 118 Mm3 per year is estimated to be available from nonrenewable groundwater.
Surface Water Surface water resources in Jordan are unevenly distributed among 12 basins (Table 2). The three major surface water resources in Jordan are the Jordan, Zarqa, and Yarmouk rivers (Figure 3). The largest source of external surface water is the Yarmouk River that is located at the border with Syria. The Yarmouk River accounts for 40% of the surface water resources of Jordan. However, these rivers become highly undependable. For the Jordan and Yarmouk rivers, this is due to upstream diversion and overpumping by Syria and Israel. The Zarqa River has been severely affected with water pollution from industries in the Amman–Zarqa area, which includes 70% of Jordanian small–medium-sized industries. Other major basins include Zarqa, Jordan riverside wadis, Mujib, the Dead Sea, Hasa, and Wadi Araba (Table 2 and Figure 3).
Jordan: Environmental Status of Water, Soil and Air Table 1
325
Available and consumed water resources (Mm3) in Jordan in 1995 and 2005
Water resources
1995
Renewable groundwater Nonrenewable groundwater Surface water Treated wastewater
2005
Available
Consumed
Available
Consumed
280 118 594 60
359 118 594 60
280 118 755 60
390 118 755 60
Source: Hadadin NA and Tarawneh ZS (2007) Environmental issues in Jordan: Solutions and recommendations. American Journal of Environmental Sciences 3: 30–36.
Table 2 year)
Aquifer and basin water status in Jordan (Mm3 per
Basin
Used
Available
Yarmouk Jordan River tributaries Jordan River plains Amman and Zarqa Dead Sea Diesa North Wadi Araba South Wadi Araba Jaffar Azraq Sarhan Hamad
59 6.3 21.7 153.8 68.6 56 1.75 4 23 32 0.8 1.8
40 15 21 57 57 100 3.5 5.5 27 28 5 8
Source: Hadadin NA and Tarawneh ZS (2007) Environmental issues in Jordan: Solutions and recommendations. American Journal of Environmental Sciences 3: 30–36.
Jordan River
The surface catchment area of the Jordan River is 18.194 km2. The headwaters of the Jordan River originate from three main springs: Hasbani in Lebanon, Dan in Israel, and Banias in Syrian territory occupied by Israel. The total discharge of the Jordan River into the Dead Sea before the implementation of the different water projects in Jordan, Syria, and Israel was 1370 Mm3 per year. The discharge of the Yarmouk River into the Jordan River was around 400 Mm3 per year before the use of the water by the different riparian. In the past few years, this amount has gradually declined to small discharges, only as a result of large floods, which cannot be accommodated by the existing extraction facilities. The other wades and springs on both sides of the Jordan Valley are dammed or captured by other constructions. Water remains runoffs due to rains over areas downstream of water collection constructions, return flows, or saltwater discharges, which then joins the river. The Jordan River is polluted and saline and runs almost dry most of the year. Because it is saline thus not directly suitable for drinking or irrigation. Yarmouk River
Yarmouk River is the largest external surface water in Jordan, accounting for 40% of the surface water
resources of the nation. It is located along the Syrian– Jordanian border and is linked with the Jordan River in the occupied Golan region. The total catchment area of the Yarmouk River is 6790 km2, of which 1160 km2 lies within Jordan upstream of Adasiya and the rest within Syria and in the Jordan River area downstream of Adasiya. The average discharge in recent decades has declined in Al-Adasiya region as a result of increased exploitation of the water for agricultural and industrial purposes and the lack of precipitation. The historical average annual flow of the Yarmouk River was about 438 Mm3 up to 1980. Owing to upstream and downstream uses, the flow has dropped down to about 300 Mm3 per year. This has reduced the diverted water from Yarmouk to the Jordan Valley from 125 Mm3 per year during 1980– 85 to about 100 Mm3 per year in 1999 and 2000. This has reduced the diverted water from Yarmouk River to the Jordan River from 65 to 55 Mm3 per year in years 2001 and 2002, respectively. The catchment area of the Yarmouk River is agrarian, with small types of industries located in the main towns of Jordan and Syria. The small effluents of two wastewater treatment plants reach the Yarmouk River during floods. Moreover, the leachates of El-Ukheider solid waste disposal sites directly reach the river path on days when their liquid loads exceed evaporation and infiltration potentials. The water quality of the Yarmouk River reflects the land uses within the catchment area, which are still restricted to rainfed and some irrigated agriculture. Table 3 summarizes the range of chemical constituents’ concentrations in the Yarmouk River. The concentrations of NO3 and SO4 range from 4.2 to 25.9 and from 15.8 to 20.5 mg l 1, respectively. The concentration of total dissolved solids is o1000 mg l 1. The concentration of most of the heavy metals is o0.5 mg l 1. Khirbet es Samra treated wastewater is being used in irrigation in the Central Jordan Valley. The treated water is collected in King Talal Dam and then mixed with King Abduilah Canal water, which is diverted from the Yarmouk River for further use in agriculture in the Jordan Valley area. This has adversely affected the water quality of Yarmouk River. The concentrations of BOD5, Cl, NH4, and NO3 in the Yarmouk River increased after
326
Jordan: Environmental Status of Water, Soil and Air
Lebanon
1300
Yarmouk
N or t
1250
her n wad side is
Syria
Hammad
Jordan Valley
1200
1150
Amman-Zarqa Azraq Southern side wadis
1100
Mujib
Saudi Arabia
Dead Sea Catchment
W.Araba N .
1050
1000
Hasa
Sirhan
Jafr
950
N 900
W.Araba S. Disi
850 150
Figure 3
200
250
0
50
300
350
100 400
150 km 450
500
Major surface water basins of Jordan.
mixing of Zarqa River with King Abduilah Canal water. The concentrations of Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, and Zn in Yarmouk River were o1 mg l 1 and are within the guidelines for irrigation water. The results showed that the Yarmouk River water after mixing can be used for irrigation with some restrictions.
Zarqa River
The Zarqa River is the second largest in Jordan. The catchment area of the river is 4025 km2 and extends from the foothills of Jabel Druz to the Jordan River. The river consists of two main branches: Wadi Dhuleil, which drains the eastern part of the catchment area, and SeelZarqa, which drains the western part. Naturally, the eastern branch drains only flood flows as a result of precipitation, whereas the western branch drains flood and base flows. The average annual discharge of Zarqa River at Deir Alla for the years 1950–76 was 64.88 Mm3 per year. After 1976, the natural system of the river was changed by several factors such as construction of the King Talal Dam on the Zarqa River in 1977, import of water into the catchment area for domestic and industrial
Table 3 Range of chemical constituents concentrations (mg l 1) in the Yarmouk River and King Talal Dam Parameter
Yarmouk River
King Talal Dam
TDS NO3 SO4 Zn Cu Mn Cd Cr Pb Co Ni Mo Hg Se AS
633.6–985.6 4.24–25.9 15.8–20.5 o0.5 o0.2 o0.2 0.002–0.015 o0.1 o0.5 o0.05 o0.2 0.02–0.18 0.0002–0.0064 0.0002–0.0036 0.0002–0.0078
710.4–2595.0 6.3–41.38 19.2–253 o0.5 o0.2 o0.2 0.002–0.015 o0.1 o0.5 o0.05 o0.2 0.02–0.05 0.0002–0.0033 0.0002–0.0049 0.0002–0.0067
uses, and discharge of their effluents to the Zarqa River system. King Talal Dam is the biggest dam in Jordan and its main purpose is to supply irrigation water to the Jordan Valley with a capacity of 86 Mm3. The water quality of
Jordan: Environmental Status of Water, Soil and Air
the King Talal Dam, before establishing the treatment plant of Khirbet es Samra in 1985, was good and unpolluted. The subsequent deterioration in water quality was primarily due to failure in treating the wastewater that flowed into the dam. It was polluted from factories that dump untreated waste into the tributaries of reservoir raises salinity and contents of chemicals and metals. Only during the periods of flood does the water quality of both King Talal Dam and Zarqa River improve. The data in Table 3 show that the water quality of King Talal Dam is worse than that of the Yarmouk River. The concentrations of NO3 and SO4 range from 6.3 to 41.4 and from 19.2 to 253 mg l 1, respectively. The concentration of total dissolved solids ranges from 710.4 to 2595.0 mg l 1. The concentration of most of the heavy metals is o0.5 mg l 1. Poor water quality of the dam magnifies the problem of salinity, especially when drip irrigation is applied. Salt accumulations occur on the soil surface within the root zone layer and affect the soil fertility and consequently crop yields. The results demonstrate that the Khirbet es Samra treated water affected the water quality of King Talal Dam. The concentrations of BOD5, Cl, NH4, and NO3 in King Talal Dam water were elevated. The concentrations of Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, and Zn in dam were o1 mg l 1. Groundwater Resources Groundwater resources amount to 54% of the water resources of Jordan and are considered the major source of water in Jordan, and the only source of water in some areas of the country. Twelve groundwater basins have been identified in Jordan; these include two fossil aquifers: Diesa and Jaffar. Some of these basins have more than one aquifer (Table 2 and Figure 3) and are fed and recharged through annual rainfall. These aquifers are under severe pressure from the agricultural sector, which consumes about 70% of the resources, and the rest is used for municipal and industrial consumption. The Yarmouk basin is the largest in the country. The groundwater aquifers in Jordan are classified into three main complexes: the deep, middle, and shallow. The deep aquifer complex is formed from sandstone and it is found as one unit in the south and two units in the north separated by thick limestone and marl layers. The middle complex (the upper and middle cretaceous complex) consists of limestone, dolomite, marl stone, and chert beds. The shallow aquifer complex, the most exploited one, consists of two main systems: the basalt aquifer system and the sedimentary rocks and alluvial deposits of Tertiary and Quaternary ages (Figures 3 and 4). The effect of the Khirbet es Samra wastewater treatment plant on the deterioration of groundwater quality at Seil Zarqa basin has been investigated by Al-Kharabsheh. The chemical and biological analyses of groundwater
327
show a clear difference in groundwater quality between Hanna well in the Khirbet es Samra upstream that is not influenced by wastewater and the other wells in the Khirbet es Samra downstream. The electrical conductivity (EC) increased from 700 ms cm 1 at Hanna well to more than 7000 ms cm 1 at Muawad well in the Khirbet es Samra downstream. Moreover, the concentrations of chemical oxygen demand (COD), and the major cations and anions such as NH4 and NO3, were very high in the groundwater wells adjacent to Khirbet es Samra. In many parts of Jordan high nitrate concentration in groundwater have been identified. The results show that NO3 concentration in groundwater at Al-Hashimiyah area, which is a part of the Amman–Zarqa basin, ranges from 10 to 330 mg l 1, and increased dramatically from the year 2001 to 2006. About 92% of the samples have NO3 concentration greater than 20 mg l 1, indicating the influence of human activities. The great variation in NO3 concentration from well to well was attributed to several factors including hydrogeological regime, depth to groundwater, tapped aquifer unit, pumping rate and regime, and the extent of vicinity to Khirbet es Samra. A strong correlation between the drastic increase in NO3 concentration in some wells and the consequences of the establishment of the Khirbet es Samra has been observed. In addition, NO3 average concentration in groundwater in Dhuleil area increased dramatically by about 12-fold from 1971 to 1997. Groundwater samples from the Wadi Al-Arab wells in North Jordan, representing consecutive wet and dry seasons, were collected by the authors. The results showed marked seasonal changes in the concentrations of most of the chemical constituents. However, some of the chemical constituents, such as Mg, Na, K, and trace elements, showed no significant change during this study. The predominant water type of the wells of the Wadi Al-Arab in the wet season is alkaline earth waters with increased portion of alkalies with prevailing bicarbonate, whereas alkaline earth waters with prevailing bicarbonate water type is the dominant type in the dry season. The upper aquifer of the Azraq basin forms the largest resource of good quality water. However, the current abstraction exceeds both the average recharge and the safe yield of the aquifer, which is overexploited. Although there has been no deterioration in water quality and only minor drawdown, the springs at Azraq have dried up, with severe and undesirable environmental impacts. Total abstraction of 20 106 m3 per year appears to be sustainable and would allow some spring flow, but this leaves a shortfall of 40 106 m3 per year for domestic supply and agriculture. In general, Jordan possesses significant groundwater resources with good quality that varies within an aquifer. However, the quality of groundwater is threatened by overabstraction of the resource, pollution from human settlements with its related activities, and irrigation runoffs.
Jordan: Environmental Status of Water, Soil and Air
n S ea
328
36°
rranea
LEBANON
38° N
Medite
Taberiya Lake
Risha Area
Irbid
WESTERN BANK
32°
IRAQ
S Y R I A
Basalt Plateau
32°
AMMAN
Al-Quds
3 Madaba Dead Sea
an irh Sh
Central Plateau
S A U D I A R A B I A
s es pr De
J O R D A N
n
io
Sirhan Area
Recent Undifferentiated tertiary Cretaceous Triassic/Jurassic
Al Jafr Depression
Paleozoic
30°
Basalt Basement Normal fault Aqaba
Strike-slip fault 40 km
Gulf of Aqaba
Figure 4
38°
36°
Geology of Jordan.
Wastewater Resources Treated wastewater generated from 16 existing wastewater treatment plants is an important component of water resources of Jordan. The majority of treated wastewater is discharged into various water courses or used directly for irrigation, mostly in the Jordan Valley. About one-third of the municipal water supplied to Amman city returns to the main treatment plant at Khirbet es Samra. Wastewater quantity increases with the increase in population, increase in water use, and development of the sewerage systems.
Water Demand and Possible Solutions for Water Problem in Jordan The demand for water in Jordan exceeds the available resources, and with the passage of time, the gap between both demand and supply is widening. The surface water resources have been developed to a large degree to be primarily used in irrigation. Agriculture accounts for 77.5% of all water consumed, the rest being for domestic and industrial use. Annual growth in demand for water in
Jordan is estimated at 25 Mm3 per year (Figure 5). This growth is related to urbanization and industrial expansion, as well as to increased domestic use, mainly as a result of population growth. Jordan is classified among few countries of the world with limited water resources and it is one of the lowest on a per capita basis. The available water resources per capita are falling as a result of population growth and are projected to fall from 226 m3 per capita per year in 1990 to 120 m3 per capita per year by 2020 (Table 4), putting Jordan in the category of an absolute water shortage. Projections of water resources demonstrate that there will be a persistent shortage. Treated wastewater, water harvesting, importation of water across boundaries, and desalination of brackish and seawater, are possible solutions to overcome water scarcity in Jordan.
Soil Quality Jordan has a variety of soil types; the soil type in the northern part of the country as well as in the Jordan
Jordan: Environmental Status of Water, Soil and Air
329
1200 Water usage (Mm3 per year)
Domestic 1000
Agricultural
800 600 400 200 0 1985
1989
1995
2005
Years
Figure 5
Domestic and agricultural water demand in Jordan.
Table 4 per year)
Population versus per capita water availability (Mm3
Year
Total annual renewable fresh water available (Mm3)
Population (millions)
Per capita water availability (m3)
1955 1990 2020
1331 906 1236
1.447 4.009 10.229
920 226 120
Source: Hadadin NA and Tarawneh ZS (2007) Environmental issues in Jordan: Solutions and recommendations. American Journal of Environmental Sciences 3: 30–36.
Valley are the most favorable for agriculture. In the northern part of the country, the soil types belong to Quaternary alluvium and colluviums parent materials formed mainly on limestone and to a lesser extent on chert. The major part of the country’s soils belongs to the orders Aridisols, Vertisols, and Inceptisols. Along the Jordan Valley, the soil is often deep and level and has good permeability, low salinity, and no to very little clay content. This type of soil is suitable for all types of crop. In other areas, the soil is shallower, less permeable, and slightly more saline. High salinity and low permeability soils, as a result of the impediment offered by its clay layers, also exist in the Jordan Valley, especially the southern part. The sandy and silty nature characterizes the soils in the southern part of the country. Jordan was subjected to several climatic changes during the Quaternary period. The last episode of climatic changes, which prevails at the present time, is responsible for the development of unfavorable soil properties that accelerated the degradation of many plant species, as discussed in the subsequent sections. However, leading causes of land degradation in Jordan are often improper farming practices (such as failure to use contour ploughing or overcultivating the land), overgrazing, and the conversion of rangelands to croplands in
marginal areas where rainfall is not enough to support cropping in the long term, and uncontrolled expansion of urban and rural settlement at the cost of cultivable land. However, the heavy burden placed by livestock on these fragile soils left the soil surface bare and compacted during much of the fallow period and thus highly susceptible to wind and water erosion. Therefore, erosion by wind and water is considered the major cause of land degradation in the area. Another factor affecting the agricultural soil is the continuous growth of the population along with limited natural resources. An average increase in the population of about 3%, plus migration from neighboring countries, caused a population increase from 3 million to 6.2 million in the past 20 years. This has contributed to desertification through urbanization and loss of agricultural land. Therefore, expansion of urban and rural settlements was at the cost of cultivable land. As for the contamination status, Howari et al. analyzed the concentrations of Pb, Zn, Cd, Co, and Ni in soil samples from Jordan Valley in the vicinity of the highways of north Jordan. The average recorded concentrations for these metals were as follows: 40 ppm for Ni, 5 ppm for Cd, 79 ppm for Zn, 79 ppm for Pb, and 25 ppm for Co. These values indicate that the concentrations of Cd, Pb, and Co in north Jordan at the sampling sites were higher than the average natural background values of heavy metals. However, the soil in these areas can be considered uncontaminated with Ni, Zn, and Co and moderately contaminated with Cd and Pb. Another study conducted by Banat et al. on soil samples near Amman city in the vicinity of Cement Factory found that the enrichment factors of the measured heavy metals of Pb, Cd, Zn, Cr, and Hg in the clay fraction (o2 mm) of the collected samples are 3.1, 16.6, 1.5, 0.9, and 4.5, respectively (Figure 6). These values indicate that this location is moderately contaminated with respect to Cd, uncontaminated to moderately
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Figure 6 Heavy metal concentrations in Fuheis soil near Amman city. After Banat KM, Howari F, and Al-Hamad AA (2005) Heavy metals in urban soils of central part of Jordan: Should we worry about their environmental risks? Environmental Research 97, 258–273.
Jordan: Environmental Status of Water, Soil and Air
contaminated with respect to Pb, Hg, and Zn, and uncontaminated with respect to Cr. The relatively high concentrations of Cd, Pb, and Hg in the soils of the study area are related to anthropogenic sources such as cement industry, fertilizers, and vehicle exhausts. It was found that Pb, Zn, and Cr are associated mainly with the residual phases and are relatively immobile. However, Cd is enriched in the carbonate phase of the analyzed soil samples. The sequence of mobility for Pb, Zn, Cd, and Cr in the analyzed soil samples is as follows: Cd4Pb4Cr4Zn. Natural radioactive pollution is possible from the Jordan’s uranium deposits. The recently discovered uranium resources in the Pleistocene sediments that are present in the nearby phosphate-bearing horizons pose potential radioactive hazards. The uranium resources in Jordan are present in more than one horizon in north and central Jordan. The first horizon is restricted to Pleistocene and composed primarily of limestone and cherty fragments cemented by soil soft materials. The other three horizons are primarily composed of chalk and marl. In some locations, the total gamma measurements ranges from 500 cps to more than 2000 cps in 30 cm depth count per second, which is much higher than the natural backgrounds. Some of these locations that are near olive farms hold potential risks, especially in Khan Al-Zabeeb area (Figure 7). Batarseh and El-Hasan showed that the U, V, and Hg concentrations in the Jordanian phosphate deposits of El Hisa and Al-Abyad mines were higher compared to the average worldwide phosphate. They also reported that concentrations of U, V, and Cd in Jordanian phosphate deposits were greater than the permissible limits established by the European Community (EC) and World Health Organization (WHO) for growing crops. Finally, Jordanian phosphate deposits show the highest enrichment of Hg and U, thus posing natural radiation hazards.
Air Pollution in Jordan Jordan is not a highly industrialized country, however, the degradation of air quality in Jordan is an emerging problem, especially in Amman, Zarqa, and Aqaba and Fuheis cities. The major sources of air pollution in these cities include stationary sources such as manufacturing plants, refineries, mines, gas stations, and domestic areas; mobile sources such as Jordan’s estimated 400 000 vehicles that use gasoline and diesel oil; and natural sources such as sand and dust storms. The most damaging source, however, is the growing fleet of vehicles that emit high levels of pollutants – poorly maintained vehicles which consume poor quality fuels. The animal, plant, and human population as well as of Jordan are affected by air pollution from these sources.
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Olive farms near Khan Al-Zabeeb
Figure 7 A shallow pit in recent sediments and olive farm near recent uranium deposits of Khan Al-Zabeeb, Central Jordan.
Amman, the capital of Jordan, covers an area of around 170 km2. The population of Amman has grown rapidly in the past 10 years. Amman is the commercial, industrial, and administrative center of Jordan. Most of the vehicles in Jordan are of 1990 or earlier and operate on leaded gasoline (0.11 g l 1 for regular gasoline and 0.17 g l 1 for super gasoline). The air quality in the Amman area is affected mainly by the level of road traffic and industrial activities. The high annual averages of total suspended particulates, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides in Amman regularly exceed World Health Organization standards for air quality. Biomonitoring of air quality in Amman city was investigated by analyzing 36 bark samples of cypress tree (Cupressus sempervirens L.) from three sites of different anthropogenic activities at the end of summer season 2001. Variation in Pb, Zn, Mn, Cr, Ni, Cd, and Cu contents between the three sites was observed due to different types of activities. Traffic emissions were found to be the main source of heavy metal pollution in the atmosphere of Amman. Pb content was the highest among the other metals in the high traffic density areas. The study demonstrated that the industrial part of the
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Amman city is characterized by high contents of Zn, Mn, Cr, Ni, and Co. Jaradat et al. found that Cl, NO3, and SO4 were the major anions of air particulate in Amman. High Pb concentrations were reported in Amman City Center due to the vehicle emission. Momani et al. found that Zn was the major heavy metal pollutant in settleable as well as suspended particulate in the atmosphere of Amman. Fossil fuel combustion during the winter season was the major source of the heavy metals in the atmosphere of Amman. Elevated contents of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heavy metals were detected in the street dust of Amman, due to the vehicular activities. Heavy metal (Pb, Zn, Cd, Fe, Cu, and Ni) concentration was studied in 120 street dust samples collected from industrial, heavy traffic, medium traffic, light traffic, low traffic, and rural localities in Amman. The study revealed that the high concentrations of Pb, Fe, and Zn in the street dust samples were related to industrial sources combined with traffic sources, natural sources. Pb, Zn, Cd, Fe, Cu, and Ni metals were mainly derived from industrial sources, whereas Pb and Zn were additionally derived from traffic sources and their content depends on the traffic density. Concentrations of Cu, Pb, Cd, and Zn were determined in surface soil, plants, and air samples taken from both sides of the major highway connecting Amman with the southern parts of Jordan. Elevated contents of Cu, Pb, Cd, and Zn were found in both soil and plants on the east side and on the west side of the road. The average concentrations of Cu, Cd, and Zn in the soil samples, 1.5 m east of the highway, were 29.7, 0.75, 188.8, and 121.7 mg g 1, respectively. The average concentrations of Cu, Pb, and Zn in the plant samples, 3 m east of the highway, were 31.3, 7.3, and 98.7 mg g 1, respectively, whereas those of these metals in the air were 0.40, 0.94, and 0.26 mg m 3, respectively. The major source of these metals in the roadside environment is automobiles, and the concentration of these metals varies with the traffic density. Most of the manufacturing industries in Jordan are located on the highway between Amman and Zarqa. Zarqa, about 30 km northeast of Amman, hosts approximately 52% of the Jordanian industries. The total number of industrial facilities in Zarqa is approximately 2500, of which 170 are considered medium, 80 large, and 2250 small size industries. Industries in Zarqa cover a wide range of activities, including food, chemicals, construction, textiles, leather, pulp and paper, pharmaceuticals, and the main oil refinery. Heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn, Cr, Fe, and Al), watersoluble anions (F, Cl, Br, NO3, C2O4, and SO4), and cations (Li, Na, K, Mg, and Ca) were determined in indoor dust and outdoor dust fall in the petroleum refinery area in Zarqa city by several researchers. The results of
study showed that there is no correlation between heavy metal concentrations in dust fall and office dust samples. This indicates that the sources of pollution are different. Enrichment factors of Pb, Cd, Cu, and Zn were high in the dust fall samples, whereas those of Fe and Cr were low. In the Aqaba region, port and industrial activities, particularly the loading of phosphate for export, generate pollution that can be expected to increase as Aqaba develops further. Jordan ranks in the top three exporters of phosphate in the world, and is the sixth largest world producer of potash. The Jordan Phosphate Mines Company has two phosphate mines: Ruseifa in the north and Hasa in the south. Both activities produce sharp air pollution. The mean traffic density in the streets of Aqaba with heavy, medium, light, and low traffic was 4500, 300, 150, and o100 vehicles h 1, respectively. Heavy metal (Fe, Zn, Cu, Cr, Pb, Cd, Ni, Mn, and Co) concentration was determined in 140 street dust samples collected from heavy traffic areas, hospital and health centers, and school gardens in Aqaba City. The metal concentrations were the highest in the heavy traffic areas, whereas the lowest was observed in the street dust samples from hospital and health centers and school gardens. The results of factor analysis showed that the major sources of air pollution in Aqaba city are lithogenic, traffic, and industrial sources. The leaves of date palms (Phoenix dactylifera L.) were evaluated as biomonitors of heavy metal contamination in Aqaba city. Samples of unwashed leaves were collected from urban, suburban, industrial, highway, and rural sites. Samples collected from industrial areas were found to have high contents of Fe, Zn, and Cr. Ni, Cu, and Pb concentrations were high in the samples collected from highway sites. The chemical composition of wet atmospheric precipitation was investigated in samples from the Eshidiya area in south Jordan. The samples were analyzed for major ions (Cl, NO3, HCO3, SO4, Na, K, Ca, Mg, and NH4) and trace metals (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Fe, and Ni). The highest concentration of elements was observed at the beginning of the rainfall season. Rainwater samples showed high Ca, HCO3, SO4, Cl, and Mg concentrations. The study revealed that the major sources of trace elements were soil, phosphate mine, and heating activities. Thirty one soil samples were collected from south Jordan around the cement factory in Qadissiya area and were obtained at two depths, 0–10 cm and 10–20 cm. The samples were analyzed for Pb, Zn, Cd, Fe, Cu, and Cr. The results showed that the highest concentrations of Pb, Zn, and Cd were observed in areas close to the cement factory, though the concentration of Cr was low. The relatively high concentrations of Pb, Zn, and Cd in the upper part of the soil were related to anthropogenic sources such as cement industry, agriculture activities,
Jordan: Environmental Status of Water, Soil and Air
and traffic emissions. The possible solutions for air pollution problem in Jordan should include (1) controlling CO2 emissions through the installation of special equipment in factories that can absorb and block these gases before they enter the air, (2) meeting the international standards to reduce air pollution from Pb, and (3) planning for air quality at urban site and outdoor measurements of air pollution.
Conclusion In urban areas of Jordan, the infiltration of wastewater into the groundwater is the main source of groundwater pollution. Pollution is caused by wastewater plants (e.g., Khirbet es Samra), factories that dump untreated waste into the tributaries of reservoir, which raises salinity, and contents of chemicals and metals (e.g., King Talal Dam). High nitrate concentration in groundwater of Jordan has been identified in many parts of the country. For example, NO3 concentration in groundwater at Al-Hashimiyah area, which is a part of the Amman–Zarqa basin, ranges from 10 to 330 mg l 1, and increased dramatically from the year 2001 to 2006. About 92% of the samples have NO3 concentration more than 20 mg l 1, indicating the influence of human activities. In addition, NO3 average concentration in groundwater in the Dhuleil area increased dramatically by about 12-fold during the period 1971–97. In certain areas (e.g., Azraq basin), the environmental situation is still more favorable than the rest. Although there has been no deterioration in water quality – only minor drawdown – in the Azraq basin, the springs at Azraq have dried up, with severe and undesirable environmental impacts. Soil contamination in Jordan needs serious attention in several areas, especially near major roads. For example, soil quality near major roads of north Jordan can be considered uncontaminated with Ni, Zn, and Co and moderately contaminated with Cd and Pb. Soil quality in Fuheis near Amman city indicates that this location is moderately contaminated with respect to Cd; uncontaminated to moderately contaminated with respect to Pb, Hg, and Zn; and uncontaminated with respect to Cr. The relatively high concentrations of Cd, Pb, and Hg in the soils of the study area are related to anthropogenic sources such as cement industry, fertilizers, and vehicle exhausts. Air quality in Jordan is impacted mainly by vehicle exhausts, cement and phosphate mining, and other industries. For example, most of the manufacturing industries in Jordan such as food, chemicals, construction, textiles, leather, pulp and paper, pharmaceuticals, and the main oil refinery are located on the highway between Amman and Zarqa. Thus, this area suffers the most from air pollution problems. Ruseifa and Hasa cities have
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significant air pollution, due to metal and particulate matter, primarily due to phosphate mining activities. See also: Metal-Induced Toxicologic Pathology: Human Exposure and Risk Assessment, Radiological and Depleted Uranium Weapons: Environmental and Health Consequences, Uranium: Environmental Pollution and Health Effects.
Further Reading Abumurad KM and Al-Omari RA (2008) Indoor radon levels in Irbid and health risk from internal doses. Radiation Measurements 43: 389--391. Al-Kharabsheh A (1999) Groundwater quality deterioration in arid areas: A case study of the Zarqa river basin as influenced by Khirbet Es-Samra waste water (Jordan). Journal of Arid Environments 43: 227--239. Al-Kharouf SJ, Al-Hamarneh IF, and Dababneh M (2008) Natural radioactivity, dose assessment and uranium uptake by agricultural crops at Khan Al-Zabeeb, Jordan. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 99: 1192--1199. Al-Khashman OA (2007) The investigation of metal concentrations in street dust samples in Aqaba city, Jordan. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 29: 197--207. Al-Khlaifat AL and Al-Khashman OA (2007) Atmospheric heavy metal pollution in Aqaba city, Jordan, using Phoenix dactylifera L. leaves. Atmospheric Environment 41: 8891--8897. Al-Zu’bi Y (2007) Effect of irrigation water on agricultural soil in Jordan valley: An example from arid area conditions. Journal of Arid Environments 70: 63--79. Banat KM, Howari F, and Al-Hamad AA (2005) Heavy metals in urban soils of central part of Jordan: Should we worry about their environmental risks. Environmental Research 97: 258--273. Banat KM, Howari F, and To’mah MM (2007) Chemical fractionation and heavy metal distribution in agricultural soils, north of Jordan Valley. Soil and Sediment Contamination 16: 89--107. Batarseh M and El-Hasan T (2009) Toxic element levels in the phosphate deposits of central Jordan. Soil and Sediment Contamination 18: 205--215. Dottridge J and Abu Jaber N (1999) Groundwater resources and quality in northeastern Jordan: Safe yield and sustainability. Applied Geography 19: 313--323. El-Hasan T, Al-Omari H, Jiries A, and Al-Nasir F (2002) Cypress tree (Cupressus semervirens L.) bark as an indicator for heavy metal pollution in the atmosphere of Amman city, Jordan. Environment International 28: 513--519. Hadadin NA and Tarawneh ZS (2007) Environmental Issues in Jordan: Solutions and recommendations. American Journal of Environmental Sciences 3: 30--36. Howari F, Abu-Rakah Y, and Goodell PC (2004) Heavy metal pollution of soils along North Shuna–Aqaba Highway, Jordan. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 22: 597--607. Howari F, Abu-Rakah Y, and Shinaq R (2005) Hydrochemical composition of spring waters in North Jordan. Journal of Water Resources 32: 607--616. Howari F and Banat KM (2001) Assessment of Fe, Zn, Cd, Hg, and Pb in the Jordan and Yarmouk River sediments in relation to their physicochemical properties and sequential extraction characterization. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 132: 43--59. Howari F and Banat KM (2002) Hydrochemical characteristics of Jordan and Yarmouk river waters: Effect of natural and human activities. Journal of Hydrology and Hydromechanics 50: 38--50. Jaradat Q, Momani K, Jiries A, El-Alali A, Batarseh M, and Sabri TG (1999) Chemical composition of urban wet deposition in Amman Jordan. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 112: 55--65. Jiries A (2001) Chemical composition of dew in Amman, Jordan. Atmospheric Research 57: 261--268.
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Khresat SA, Rawajfih Z, and Mohammad M (1998) Land degradation in north-western Jordan: Causes and processes. Journal of Arid Environments 39: 623--629. Mohsen MS (2007) Water strategies and potential of desalination in Jordan. Desalination 203: 27--46. Momani K, Jiries A, and Jaradat Q (2000) Atmospheric deposition of Pb, Zn, Cu and Cd in Amman, Jordan. Turkish Journal of Chemistry 24: 231--237. Nuclear Energy Agency and the International Atomic Energy (IAEA) (2005) Uranium resources, production and demand. A Joint Report
by OECD Nuclear Energy Agency and the International Atomic Energy Agency, NEA No. 6098, 388 pp. Paris: OECD. Pearse KC (1970) Grazing in the Middle East: Past, present, and future. Journal of Range Management 24: 13--16. Rognon P and Williams MAJ (1977) Late Quaternary climatic changes in Australia and North Africa. Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology 21: 285--327. Shatanawi M and Fayyad M (1996) Effect of Khirbet As-Samra treated effluent on the quality of irrigation water in the central Jordan valley. Water Research 30: 2915--2920.