Knowledge hypermaps and cooperative learning

Computers Educ. Vol . 16, No . 2, pp. 167-173, 1991

0360-1315,'91 $3 .00 + 0 .00 Copyright © 1991 Pergamon Press plc

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KNOWLEDGE HYPERMAPS AND COOPERATIVE LEARNING REYNOLDS,' MICHAEL E . PATTERSON,' LISA P . SKAGGS 2 and DONALD F . DANSEREAU 2 'School of Education and 'Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University, P .O. Box 32925, Fort Worth, TX 76129, U .S .A . SHARON

B.

(Received 10 May 1990, revision received 31 August 1990) Abstract-The effects of scripted cooperation in two types of non-linear, computer-linked presentations (hypermap and hypertext) were investigated to determine differences in recall, reference accuracy and satisfaction among students learning the material . Cooperative scripts with pilot and navigator roles were developed for both environments, with the pilot using the computer presentation (hypermap and hypertext) and the navigator using large sheets of paper on which printouts of the screens (map or text) had been reproduced . No significant overall differences were found in performance on recall and reference tests . Significant differences among navigators were found in favor of the map group, indicating that maps may increase comprehension. Greater satisfaction and lower frustration was expressed by pilots than by navigators . Students using the map format expressed less frustration than those using the text format . The findings suggest a need for further study of the differential effects of hypermap and hypertext on comprehension, and of other forms of scripted cooperation in hypertext and hypermap environments .

The presumed associational nature of memory (e .g . [1]) has prompted educational researchers to pursue ways of converting traditional educational materials to an associational form, in the belief that retention and retrieval of the material will be facilitated . Educational materials presented in associational forms, such as multi-relational semantic maps, appear to have advantages over more traditional presentations [2] . One of the more advanced mapping systems, both in terms of systematic development and evaluation, is the TCU Knowledge Mapping System developed by Dansereau et al. [3] . Links, nodes, spatial configurations, and unit organizations determine the structure of the maps produced . The links, which convey the relational information in the maps, are named, directed by the use of arrowheads, and made visually distinct by using different types of lines . (See Fig . I for a description of the link types .) The naming system is composed of a standard, canonical set of labels that have been found useful in the mapping of most academic and technical domains . (See Fig . 2 for an example of a map constructed using this system .) The appearance of the nodes is used to signal importance and to denote the type of content they contain . The spatial properties of maps are used to clarify the organization of the domain and to provide additional access to sub-categories of information . Knowledge maps have been shown to be more instructionally effective than text in a number of educational situations[4] . Another associational approach to knowledge representation, first envisioned by Bush [5], was an automated database system in which dynamic links could be provided between data items, permitting the person to follow an associative trail . Traditional linear forms of text, in which structure is imposed by the sequence in which the text is written, could be made less rigid by permitting the reader to impose his/her own structure by the associations they choose to follow . Thus the same text database could be made to accommodate various perspectives through these embedded branches . Bush's vision has become reality in the various hypertext systems that have been developed since the advent of the computer made the provision of electronic links viable . Hypertext was defined by Ted Nelson, one of the early pioneers in its development, as "a combination of natural language text with the computer's capacity for interactive branching, or dynamic display . . . of a nonlinear text . . . which cannot be printed conveniently onn a conventional page" [6] . The two notions (knowledge maps and hypertext) were combined into knowledge hypermaps in a previous study by Reynolds and Dansereau[7] . The innovation in that study was to use maps 167



168



SHARON B . REYNOLDS

ei at

LINK TYPES

T = Type of

oodle

P - Part of

hand

C - Characteristic of

f og

D - Definition

Ex - Example

I - Influences

fingers c

bulging eyes

I boat transportation water-based ex retrieve I before, except after ci receive shortages

p Ices

L - Leads to ; results in; studying or has as a consequence

pod grades

open the Insert > > door the key >

N ° Next

Fig. 1. Link types used in the TCU Knowledge Map System.

Associatlonal Nature of Memory ann Bu

or

Multi- relational semantic maps

TCU Knowledge Mapping System

,

L;

V Hypermaps ,

Link types used in th s map L I i

leads to type influences

Fig. 2. An example of a map constructed using the TCU Knowledge Map System .



Hypermaps and cooperation

169

to convey knowledge of the domain as well as for navigation and place-holding, as had been the case in previous hypertext systems . A persistent problem for knowledge maps, hypermaps, and hypertext systems is the trade-off between freedom and structure. The more "at-will branching" a system accommodates, the more likely the user is to become lost . On the one hand, the construction or adaptation of text to one's own purpose is useful . On the other hand, following one's own associations can create such a micro-view that the overall sense of where a particular bit of knowledge fits into the macrostructure is lost . Recent literature has shown that using knowledge maps (represented on large-sized paper) in conjunction with scripted cooperation facilitates the processing of technical information [8,91 . The use of this strategy has resulted in improved processing of visual materials [10,11] . Similar results using simplified scripts and maps have suggested that the interactive impact of scripted cooperation and maps facilitates processing to a greater extent than either strategy alone[12] . This project attempted to determine the effects of scripted cooperation in a hypermap environment . Isomorphic hypermap and hypertext versions of MacStat, a 2-h instructional package in univariate statistics developed in a previous study[7], was used as the learning environment . METHOD Subjects Thirty-eight students recruited from a behavioral research course at Texas Christian University completed the experiment in order to fulfill a course requirement . Instrument MacStat represents a subset of the concepts associated with inferential statistics . Each screen consists of a map with concepts presented in the nodes and nodes connected by links . Links are labeled to specify which one of seven relationships describes the relationship between the concepts in the nodes joined by that link . Nodes and links which can be moused are presented in bold type . Type fonts and the sizes and shapes of nodes are consistent throughout the system . Within the system, frames are interrelated in one of three ways : (1) By mousing a node button, a user can go to a deeper level or to an expansion of the concept in the node . The user can mouse the top node button on a screen to go back to a higher level . (2) Mousing a link results in an explanation and an example of the link type . (3) Where a map is composed of two or more frames, the equivalent of going down a page can be achieved by mousing the bold link at the bottom of the screen . A COMPARE link was developed for MacStat to enable users to make comparisons between analogous tests . Each screen also offers the following options : (a) a HELP button, which is currently limited to offering information about navigating the system itself ; (b) an OVERVIEW button, which allows the user to go to an introductory map (or menu) of the entire domain ; and (c) a GLOSSARY button, which allows the user to find definitions of words . Frames that present analogous information (e .g. t-test for single means and z-test) are presented in analogous maps . The graphic structure is the same and the same concept is presented in the same place in the map for both such domains . For research purposes, the system keeps a complete journal of each user's activity . The user's ID number and date are stored in a journal file . Each time the user mouses anything on the screen, the card ID number, card name, button name and time are recorded in the journal file . Both the hypertext and hypermap versions of the instructional package (MacStat) were developed in HyperCard on the Macintosh SE microcomputer . The maps were developed using the Texas Christian University (TCU) system of multi-dimensional knowledge mapping[4] . The hypertext version of MacStat is isomorphic to the hypermap version . The maps were converted into text alternatives . There were 17 instructional frames in each version . An example of a map screen and the isomorphic text screen is included as Appendix A.



SHARON B . REYNOLDS et at.

1 70

Cooperative scripts with pilot and navigator roles were developed for both the hypermap and hypertext versions of MacStat . The pilot used the hypermap or hypertext environment . His/her responsibilities included : (a) operating the keyboard ; (b) explaining each screen to the navigator ; (c) helping the navigator with his/her tasks by acting as a consultant and "trouble-shooter" ; and (d) selecting the next "screen" to go to, based on the navigator's input . The navigator did not view or operate the computer at any time . Navigators were provided with large sheets of paper on which printouts of MacStat screens (maps or text) had been reproduced . Each screen was numbered in order to provide a common reference point for the on-line and paper versions . The navigators' tasks were to : (a) be in charge of the large paper copy of the statistics information ; (b) use the paper copy to keep track of the present location and the information that had been covered ; (c) help the pilot with the interpretation of the present "screen" by acting as a consultant and trouble-shooter ; (d) use the paper copy to describe similarities and differences between the present "screen" and the information on the previous "screens" ; and (e) use the paper copy to point out possible next screens for the pilot to select . Procedure The experiment was conducted in three sessions of approx . 50 min each . In the first session, the participants completed consent forms and were randomly assigned to one of four treatment conditions : (a) map pilot (n = 9), (b) text pilot (n = 10), (c) map navigator (n = 10), and (d) text navigator (n = 9). Participants were given training on how to use their materials and how to cooperatively interact with their partners according to their assigned role (pilot or navigator) . Instructions for pilots in both the map and text groups were given at the same time . Both groups were led through an on-line hypermap or hypertext example and were taught how to navigate through the system and how to access on-line help . Navigators in both the map and text groups were instructed to keep track of the screens which had already been seen . They helped their partners interpret each screen and described the similarities and differences between the active screen and previous screens . Navigators were instructed to suggest to their partner the screens they might go to next . The second session of the experiment took place 2 days later . Participants were reminded of their specific roles and were then given 40 min to cooperatively study the material . After a 2-day delay, participants completed the final session of the experiment . Participants were given free- (9-min) and cued- (9-min) recall tests, a reference test (6 min) and a 14-item questionnaire that assessed students' reactions to various parts of the experiment . Subjects used paper maps or text to answer the reference questions . RESULTS The two free-recall questions, cued-recall, and reference tests were scored by a trained scorer according to predetermined keys and without knowledge of group affiliation . The two free-recall questions were scored using procedures based on those developed by Meyer[13] and Holley et al.[14] . The scoring key for the free-recall test listed all of the propositions (idea units) relevant for both of the free-recall questions . These were scored on a scale from I to 3 . The cued-recall and reference tests were scored by summing the number of correct responses . Adjusted means and standard deviations of these measures are shown in Tables 1-3 . Table I . Adjusted means (M) and standard deviations (SD) of free-recall questions Pilots M

SD

Navigators M

10,71 13 .28

Map Text

9 .83 4.58

5 .77 532

11 .84 13 75

6.60 6 .70

7 .91 8 .19

3 .13 5AI

Question 2 5 .22 5 .24

Pilots

SD

Question I Map Text

Table 2 . Adjusted means (M) and standard deviations (SD) of cued-recall questions

Map Text

Navigators

M

SD

M

SD

7.51 8.08

3,13 3 .09

5 .86 8 .46

3 .65 2.74

Table 3 . Adjusted means (M) and standard deviations (SD) of reference questions Pilots

Map Text

Navigators

M

SD

M

SD

9.19 7.20

1 .69 3 .38

8 .58 8 .63

3 .31 2 .85



Hypermaps and cooperation

171

0

a c

map e pilots

text

o navigators

Fig . 3. Mean number of propositions in question 2 recalled by students in each of the four conditions .

Participants' scores on an examination they had taken in their class before the experiment were collected as a pre-test and used as a covariate . A preliminary test of the regression slopes of the covariate on the dependent measures indicated that homogeneity was not violated . The two free-recall scores, cued-recall scores, and reference scores were combined in a 2 (role) x 2 (format) Repeated-measures Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) with pre-test scores as the covariate. The results demonstrated that there was a Format x Role interaction that approached significance F(4, 30) = 2 .47, P = 0 .066 . Univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) demonstrated that the role effect on the second free-recall question was nearly significant, F(1, 33) = 3 .87, MS, = 18 .48, P = 0.058 . An analysis of the simple main effects revealed that navigators using a paper map (M = 9.83) performed significantly better on the second free-recall question than navigators using the paper text (M = 4.58), F(1, 16) = 7 .06, MS, = 16 .78, P < 0.05 (see Fig . 3) . There was not a significant difference between pilots using a paper map (M = 7.91) and pilots using a paper text (M = 8.19), F(I, 16) < 1 .0 . No other effects were significant . Satisfaction questionnaire. A questionnaire was used to assess student satisfaction with their role and materials. Principal components analyses were conducted for the purpose of forming composite scores based on the 14 separate questionnaire items that were answered on a scale of 1-10 . Four principal components emerged and were labeled as follows : overall satisfaction, frustration, comparison to partner and role envy . These components accounted for 71% of the variance . Items associated with overall satisfaction loaded on the first principal component with loadings ranging from 0 .46 to 0 .87 . Items associated with frustration loaded on the second component (loadings ranging from 0 .65 to 0.81) . The third component consisted of items associated with self-ratings in comparison to ratings of partner (loadings ranging from 0 .81 to 0 .83) . The item associated with envy of the other role played loaded on the fourth component (loading of 0 .85) . Scores for each of the four components were computed for each participant by averaging the ratings of the items composing each factor using all items loading 0.4 or greater on the derived components . These component scores were used as dependent measures in subsequent analyses . Means and standard deviations of the four components are presented in Table 4 . Table 4. Means ( .N) and standard deviations [SD) of satisfaction questionnaire factors Overall satisfaction Map Pilots Navigators Text Pilots Navigators

M

SD

Frustration M SD

4 .10 4 .19

2 .07 1 .61

4.44 4,60

3 .93 2.46

174 2.20

4.50 6.17

Role satisfaction

Role envy .N SD

M

SD

1 .50 0.65

5 .17 4 .45

1 .20 1 .01

4 .44 6 .30

1 .88 170

1 .34 120

5 .30 5 .06

118 0 .88

4 .90 6 .33

2.56 1 .66



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SHARON B . REYNOLDS et al.

Each of the four component scores was analyzed in a 2 (Role) x 2 (Format) analysis of variance . A significant effect for role, F(l, 34) = 5 .42, MS, = 1 .45, P < 0 .05, and format, F(1, 34) = 5 .42, MS, = 1 .45, P < 0 .05, was found on the component score frustration . Navigators (M = 5 .34, SD = 1 .22) were significantly more frustrated than pilots (M = 4 .47, SD = 1 .38), while participants using the next format (M = 5 .29, SD = 1 .51) were significantly more frustrated than participants using a map format (M=4 .53, SD 1 .10) . There was also a significant effect for role on the component score satisfaction, F(1, 34) = 6 .442, MS, = 3 .98, P < 0 .05, such that navigators (M = 6 .32, SD = .164) were significantly less satisfied with their role than were pilots (M = 4.68, SD = 2 .21) . No other effects were significant . DISCUSSION Although there were no significant differences in the performance measures (recall and reference tests), the results suggest interesting trends for further investigation . The second recall question was a transfer-type question, in which students were asked about hypothesis-testing procedures in general. This was not explicitly presented in any of the materials, so that students answering this question would have to infer the general procedure from study of the specific procedures . The navigators using a paper map performed better than navigators using a paper text . This is particularly interesting in light of the consistent findings in previous map studies [9, 15-17] that maps result in better recall of main ideas, while text results in better recall of details . In terms of satisfaction, pilots were more satisfied and less frustrated than navigators . This may indicate that the hypermap and hypertext systems are easier to use, since they present smaller chunks of information at a time and navigation is automated . The map format was less frustrating than the text . Because text is a much more familiar presentation mode, this is a particularly strong result . It appears that hypermap systems hold promise as cooperative learning environments, both for their effects on satisfaction and their potential for comprehension . Further studies of transfer effects are indicated . It may also be of interest to combine hypermaps and text, using maps to convey the main ideas and relationships, and using text to convey the details . This may capitalize on the best features of both . Future cooperative studies in these environments might include switching roles so that navigators and pilots can see each others' environments, or using different kinds of cooperative scripts . REFERENCES L Anderson J . R ., The Architecture of Cognition . Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass . (1983) . 2 . Lambiotte J . G ., Dansereau D . F ., Cross D . R . and Reynolds S. B ., Multirelational semantic maps . Educ . Psychol. Res . 1, 331-367 (1989) . 3 . Dansereau D. F ., McDonald B . A ., Collins K . W ., Garland J . G ., Holley C . D ., Diekhoff G . and Evans S . H ., Evaluation of a learning strategy system . In Cognitive and Affective Learning Strategies (Edited by O'Neil IT H . F . and Spielberger C . D .), pp. 3-43 . Academic Press, New York (1979) . 4. Dansereau D . F ., O'Donnell A . M . and Lambiotte L G, Concept maps and scripted peer cooperation : interactive tools for improving science and technical education . Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans . La (1988) . 5 . Bush V. . As we may think . Atlanl Month . 176, 101-108 (1945) . 6 . Marchionini G . and Shneiderman B ., Finding facts vs . browsing knowledge in hypertext systems . IEEE Comput . January (1988) . 7 . Reynolds 5. B. and Dansereau D . F ., The knowledge hypermap : an alternative to hypertext . Computers Res . In press . 8 . O'Donnell A . M ., Dansereau D . F ., Lambiotte J . G ., Hall R . H . . Skaggs L . P . . Rewey K . L . and Peel J . L ., Concept mapping impact on text recall and performance . Presentation at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, Atlanta, Ga (1988) . 9 . Rewey K . L ., Dansereau D . F ., Skaggs L . P ., Hall R . H . and Pitre U ., Effects of scripted cooperation and knowledge maps on the processing of technical material J. educ . Psychol. 81, 604-609 (1989) . 10 . Lambiotte 1 . G ., Dansereau D. F ., Hythecker V . I ., O'Donnell A . M ., Young M . D . and Rocklin T . R ., Technical learning strategies : acquisition of structural and functional information. Presentation at the Annual Meeting of the Southwestern Psychological Association, Fort Worth, Tex . (1986) . 11 . Larson C . O . . Dansereau D . F ., Hythecker V. I ., O'Donnell A . M ., Young M . D . . Lambiotte J . G . and Rocklin T . R ., Technical training : an application of a strategy for learning structural and functional information . Contemp . educ . Psychol. 11, 217-228 (1986) . 12 . Darch C . B . . Carnine D . W . and Kameenui E . J ., The role of graphic organizers and social structure in content area instruction . J . Reading Behau . 18, 275-295 (1986) . 13 . Meyer B . J . F ., The Organization of Prose and its Effects on Memos}' . North-Holland . Amsterdam (1975) .



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14 . Holley C. D ., Dansereau D . F., McDonald B . A ., Garland J. C . and Collins K. W ., Evaluation of a hierarchical mapping technique as an aid to prose processing . Contemp . educ. Psycho! . 4, 227-237 (1979) . 15 . Hall R . H ., Skaggs L . P . and Dansereau D . F ., Knowledge maps and the presentation of related information domains . Manuscript submitted for publication . 16 . Rewey K . L., Dansereau D . F . and Peel J . L ., Knowledge maps and information processing strategies . Presentation at the Annual Meeting of the Southwestern Psychological Association, Houston, Tex . (1989) . 17 . Skaggs L . P ., Dansereau D . F . and Hall R . H ., The effect of knowledge maps and pictures on the acquisition of scientific information . Manuscript submitted for publication . APPENDIX A quit

There are 3 kinds oft test : I test for single means LK1711101511 =1 -1111111711=i and It test for matched or correlated groups The letter two are used to test differences between means .

Intro Map

Example of MacStat hypermap

CAE 16/2-0