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Landscape evolution and deduction of surface deformation in the Soan Dun, NW Himalaya, India
Accepted Manuscript Landscape evolution and deduction of surface deformation in the Soan Dun, NW Himalaya, India Girish Ch Kothyari, Neha Joshi, Ajay Kumar Taloor, Raj Sunil Kandregula, Bahadur Singh Kotlia, Charu C. Pant, Rohit Kumar Singh PII:
S1040-6182(18)30968-6
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2019.02.016
Reference:
JQI 7757
To appear in:
Quaternary International
Received Date: 15 August 2018 Revised Date:
11 January 2019
Accepted Date: 14 February 2019
Please cite this article as: Kothyari, G.C., Joshi, N., Taloor, A.K., Kandregula, R.S., Kotlia, B.S., Pant, C.C., Singh, R.K., Landscape evolution and deduction of surface deformation in the Soan Dun, NW Himalaya, India, Quaternary International (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2019.02.016. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
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Landscape evolution and deduction of surface deformation in the Soan Dun, NW Himalaya, India: Girish Ch Kothyaria*, Neha Joshia, Ajay Kumar Taloorb, Raj Sunil Kandregulaa, Bahadur Singh Kotliac, Charu C Pantc and Rohit Kumar Singhd a
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Institute of Seismological Research, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India Department of Remote Sensing and GIS, University of Jammu, Jammu, India c Department of Geology, Kumaun University, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India d Earth Science Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India *Corresponding author: Girish Ch Kothyari E-mail: [email protected]
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Abstract: The consequence of strain accumulation along various Himalayan thrusts is manifested in
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shaping the topography and present day lanscape features of the Himalaya. Consequently, the strain
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accomodation is attributed to the occurrence of various devastating earthquakes in the Himalayan domain
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including 1905 Kangra earthquake (Mw 7.8) which occurred along the Kangra valley fault. In the present
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study, we analyzed and estimated fault related parameters, gradient-length anomaly (GLA) analysis
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together with Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (In-SAR) measurements to understand the
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landscape evolution and deformation pattern within the Soan dun (piggy back basin) in the northwest
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Himalayan front. We combined the results of geodetic, geological, geomorphology and InSAR to
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constrain the uplift and subsidence between Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) and Main Boundary Thrust
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(MBT) zones. The estimated results of fault parameters reveal that the horizontal shortening of northwest
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Himalaya is higher than the vertical uplift. The computed values of GLA magnitude analysis for the
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uplifted region vary from -9.21 to -0.77, whereas these range from 5.48 to 26.60 for the subsided region.
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The depicted range of vertical deformation observed from the InSAR measurements ranges from -3.13 to
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+3.14 mm/y, where the positive and negative value of phases are correlated with the ground uplift and
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subsidence. The rate of deformation observed from Persistent Scatterer Interferometry (PSI) phase
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velocity and GLA magnitude is positively supported by the chronologically constrained uplift rates as 3.4
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± 0.3 mm/y. The geomorphic evidences such as folded, tilted and truncated alluvial fan surfaces,
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offsetting of channels, fault scarps and displaced sedimentary sequences indicate active nature of the Soan
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dun. The study would be eventually useful for seismic hazard assessment and future infrastructure
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development in the seismotectonically active regions like Soan dun of NW Himalayan front.
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Keywords: Active Tectonics, Geomorphic evidences, Soan Dun (Himachal Pradesh), Northwest
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Himalaya
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1. Introduction 1
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The 2500 km long and ~300 km wide stretch of the Himalayan mountain chain is a result of the inter-
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continental collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates (Molnar and Tapponier, 1975; Bilham and
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Gaur, 2000; Bilham, 2004; Valdiya, 2010). The Himalayan range has witnessed the occurrence of several
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earthquakes in the span of last two hundred years i.e. 1897 Shillong earthquake (Mw ~ 8.7), 1905 Kangra
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earthquake (Mw ~ 7.8), the 1934 Bihar-Nepal earthquake (Mw ~ 8.1), and the 1950 Assam earthquake (Mw
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~ 8.4) (Pandey and Molnar, 1988; Yeast and Thakur, 1998; Ambraseys and Bilham, 2000; Ambraseys
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and Douglas, 2004; Malik and Nakata, 2003; Kumar et al., 2006; Joshi and Thakur, 2016). Most recently,
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the Himalayas were shaken up by the 2015 Gorkha Nepal earthquake (Mw ~ 7.8) and 2015, Afghanistan
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earthquake ( Mw ~ 7.5) (Sahoo and Malik, 2017, Bilham et al., 2017). All these earthquakes are
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considered to have occurred along the Main Himalayan Thrusts (MHT) system (Seeber and Armbruster,
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1981; Yeats and Thakur, 1998; Avouac, 2003; Kumar et al., 2006; Ader et al., 2012; Sapkota et al., 2013).
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The great earthquake of 1905 (Mw ~ 7.8) in Kangra valley in the NW Himalaya was one of the most
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devastating in the history (Pandey and Molnar, 1988; Ambraseys and Bilham, 2000; Ambraseys and
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Douglas, 2004; Kumar et al., 2006; Malik et al., 2015; Szeliga and Bilham, 2017; Fig. 1a). The causes
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and mechanism of these earthquakes had been studied by many researchers. Furthermore, the
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geomorphic, geodetic and paleoseismological studies reveal that several active fault/thrust seems
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responsible for occurrence of a future earthquake (Malik and Nakata 2003; Phillip et al., 2010;
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Jayangondaperumal et al., 2017; Kothyari et al., 2010, 2012; Dumka et al., 2014a,b). Therefore, the
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geomorphic and palaeoseismological mapping of active fault segments play a vital role in evaluating and
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estimating the seismic hazard by synthesizing the surficial evidences of historical earthquakes (Malik and
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Nakata, 2003; Phillip et al., 2010; Jayangondaperumal et al., 2017).
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Conventionally, the fault geometry and amount of offset on the causative fault can be evaluated
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using the surface rupture produced by a large earthquake (Caskey, 1995; Amos et al., 2010; Yang et al.,
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2015) which will aid in evaluating seismic hazard analyses and characterization of faults (Jackson et al.,
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1982; Beanland et al., 1989). The fault geometric parameters have been calculated by estimating down
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dip displacement, throw, heave, scarp height, vertical height and angle between the crest and toe of a fault
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scarp, slope angle of scarp and the original ground surfaces displaced by the fault (Wallace, 1980;
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Caskey, 1995).
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Geomorphic approaches and computational modelling of DEM have frequently been used to
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evaluate the geometry of active faults and deformation zones (Silva et al., 2003; Ganas et al., 2005;
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Dehbozorgi et al., 2010; Figueroa and Knott, 2010; Özkaymak and Sözbilir, 2012; Petrovszki et al., 2012;
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Ambili and Narayana, 2014; Jacques et al., 2014; Žibret and Žibret, 2014; 2017; Kothyari, 2015; Kothyari
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and Luirei, 2016; Kothyari et al., 2017a, b, 2018). The stream length-gradient (SL; steepness (Ks) indices
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are widely used to assess the regional scale tectonic deformation (Hack, 1973; Kirby and Whipple, 2012; 2
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Whipple et al., 2013). However, results of these indices sometimes are not consistent because of the
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impact of regional/local scale rock erodibility/strength, climate and vegetation (Zaprowski et al., 2005;
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Wobus et al., 2006; Whittaker, 2012; Goldrick and Bishop, 2007; Pérez-Peña et al., 2009; Vágó, 2010;
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Žibret and Žibret, 2014, 2017). Therefore, the computational analysis of high resolution DEM becomes an
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important tool to deduce tectonically controlled surface deformation pattern (Cunningham et al., 2006).
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The Gradient-length anomaly (GLA) is an appropriate and independent geomorphic parameter which
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significantly detects surface deformation (uplift/subsidence) caused by an active fault on local and
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regional scale (Žibret and Žibret 2014, 2017). The differential interferometry based studies by the single
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frequency C and L-band SAR data have been frequently used to identify the location of ongoing
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deformation in the tectonically active regions (Stow and Wright, 1997; Perski, 1998a, 2000b; Burgmann
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et al., 2000; Strozzi et al., 2001; Perski and Jura, 2003; Engel Brecht et al., 2011; Gong, 2011; Yue et al.,
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2011; Chatterjee et al., 2015; Yhokha et al., 2015). Recent studies based on space borne X-band SAR data
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combined with C- and L band data have also been used to understand the active surface deformation
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(Satyabala and Bilham, 2006; Walter et al., 2009; Ashrafianfar et al., 2011; Grandin et al., 2012; Wang
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and Wright, 2012). The spatial and temporal base lines of C-band DInSAR data are inadequate to
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evaluate active deformation than L-band DInSAR (Guang et al., 2009; Yue et al., 2011). However, the C-
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band DInSAR is used to deduce minor deformation by using measurement of the velocity subsidence.
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The space-borne InSAR has an inbuilt advance technique for monitoring ongoing active deformations
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(e.g., Chang et al., 2004 a, b; Yen et al., 2007; Hooper et al., 2004; Burgmann et al., 2000) over a wider
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area.
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The geomorphic features are very useful archives to identify the extent of recent crustal
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deformation in local and regional scale (Suppe, 1983; Suppe and Medwedeff, 1990; Erslev, 1991; Lavé
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and Avouac, 2000; Thompson et al., 2002; Hardy and Poblet, 2005; Dolan and Avouac, 2007; Agarwal et
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al., 2009; Caskey 1995; Amos et al., 2010; Thakur et al., 2014). Based on the geomorphology and
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paleoseismology, earlier studies have provided possibilities of the occurrence of earthquakes in the Soan
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dun (Malik and Nakata, 2003; Delcaillau et al., 2006; Phillip et al., 2010; Thakur et al., 2014;
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Jayangondaperumal et al., 2017).
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In this research, we document active fault geomorphology along the Back Thrust (BT) and Soan
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Thrust (ST) within the Soan dun and propose a theoretical evolutionary model to understand the episodes
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of landscape evolution. To delineate wide range deformation pattern parallel and perpendicular to the BT
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and ST, we integrated results of geomorphic, topographic, morphometric and GLA anomalies.
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Addiitionally, we applied two different InSAR techniques such as Persistent Scatterer Interferometry
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(PSI) and Atmospheric Correction InSAR (ACI) for monitoring surface deformation within the Soan dun
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and adjoining areas. 3
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Fig. 1
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2. Geology and tectonic set-up of the area
110 Geologically, the topographic front of the NW Himalaya is occupied by Siwalik sediments (molasse),
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which is bouneded by Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) in the north and Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) in
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the south (Agarwal and Shukla, 2005; Bhattacharya and Agarwal, 2008; Phillip et al., 2010; Valdiya,
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2010; Kotlia et al., 2018). These molasses sediments are predominantly comprise of mudstones and
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siltstones belonging to the lower Siwalik, which is overlain by sandstones of the middle Siwalik followed
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by the boulder conglomerate of the upper Siwalik group of rocks (Johnson et al., 1982; Kumar et al.,
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1991; Wesnousky et al., 1999; Agarwal and Shukla, 2005; Bhattacharya and Agarwal, 2008). These
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sediments are dismembered by many active splays of adjacent major thrust system, forming most active
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mountain chain in the frontal part of the NW Himalaya (Malik and Mohanty, 2007; Malik et al., 2010).
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The two-major thrust systems, i.e., MBT and HFT have displaced the Siwalik sediments and formed the
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delimiting boundary for tectonically controlled elongated piggy back basin called Duns (Fig.1b) (Nakata,
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1972; Wesnousky et al., 1999; Phillip et al., 2010; Valdiya, 2010). In NW Himalaya, the Soan Thrust
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(ST) separates the Lower Siwalik Hills to the north and Soan dun to the south, whereas the Back Thrust is
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defined by the backlimb of the Janauri anticline (Figs. 1 b-c) (Malik et al., 2010; Thakur et al., 2014). The
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Janauri anticline is the youngest foreland fold formed prior to 43ka and separated from Indo-Gangetic
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Plain by the HFT, thus delimiting the southern boundary of the NW sub-Himalaya against to the Ganga
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Plain (Nakata, 1972; Powers et al., 1998; Delcaillau et al., 2006; Malik and Mohanty, 2007; Thakur et al.,
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2014; Joshi and Thakur 2016; Jayangondaperumal et al., 2017). Owing to the presence of various active
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splays of MBT and HFT in NW Himalaya, i.e., Bilaspur Thrust (BpT), Barasar Thrust (BrT), Soan Thrust
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(ST), Back Thrust (BT), the Soan dun is considered as neotectonically active (Malik and Mohanty, 2007)
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(Fig. 1c).
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3. Generalized Geomorphology
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Geomorphologically, the area comprises a NW-SE oriented, 120 km long and 5-17 km wide piggy back
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basin (Soan dun) which occupies an area of ~ 1,193 km2 (Figs. 2a-b) and is surrounded by two active hills
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of Siwalik namely Janauri Anticline (JA) in the south and Kangra reentrant in the north (Figs. 1 b-c). The
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Soan dun lies between the Lower Siwalik hills to its north and the Sub-Himalayan range (Upper Siwalik)
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in the south (Malik et al., 2010; Thakur et al., 2014). Both the ridges are an integral part of the folded
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Siwalik strata (Thakur et al., 2014). The two antecedent rivers, Sutlej and Beas flow through the 4
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northwestern and southeastern fringes of the Soan dun (Fig. 1b). The 40 km long Soan River originates
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from Siwalik Hills, flows towards southeast in the axial part of Soan dun, and ultimately joins the Sutlej
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River near Dasgrain (Fig. 2). Both the rivers pass through the Janauri Anticline before entering into the
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Indo-Gangetic Plain. Fig. 2
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The Late Quaternary deformation and geomorphic development (anticlinal ridge) in the frontal part of
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foreland basin is caused by horizontal shear shortening between HFT and BT. The mechanism which
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earlier workers proposed for the formation of this anticlinal ridge was ‘fault propagated fold’ system of
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active thrust mountain belt (Delcaillau et al., 2006; Malik et al., 2010). The lateral migration of these two
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individual fault segments towards each other led to the folding of sediments in the foreland basin prior to
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43 ka (Delcaillau et al., 2006; Malik and Mohanty, 2007; Malik et al., 2010; Srivastava et al., 2013;
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Thakur et al., 2014). The surface deformation between HFT and MBT had profound influence on the
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drainage system of the area (Delcaillau et al., 2006). The N-S flowing Sutlej River took southeasterly turn
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as Janauri anticlinal ridge emerged approximately 150 m higher with respect to the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
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The central top flat portion (filled with post Siwalik sediments) of Janauri ridge represents paleo water
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gap of the Sutlej River (Delcaillau et al., 2006; Malik and Mohanty, 2007; Malik et al., 2010). The
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emergence of the anticlinal ridge not only affected the drainage system but also led to the formation of a
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wide dun (Malik and Mohanty, 2007) towards the back limb of the anticline, i.e., Soan dun (Fig. 2b). The
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linear NW-SE alignment of mountain front and truncation of alluvial fan surfaces within the Soan dun
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reveals the presence of active deformation along the NW-SE oriented BT and ST. The NE facing slope of
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Janauri anticline, shows a sudden topographic break across the strike of the BT. The neotectonic features,
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such as, strath terraces, diversion of streams, ponding of streams, fault scarps, triangular facets and
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offsetting of alluvial fans are remarkable geomorphic expressions of tectonic activity that has been
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observed throughout the Soan dun.
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4. Methodology
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In the present study, we used CARTOSAT (2.5m resolution) satellite data and analyzed conventional
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geomorphic indices of active tectonics to evaluate the extent of deformation pattern in the NW Himalayan
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region. The geomorphic indices were used as an elementary tool for quantitative analysis of stream
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channels influenced by active tectonics (see Keller and Pinter, 2002). We evaluated stream-length
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gradient index (SL), steepness index (Ks), hypsometric integral (HI) and drainage basin asymmetry (Af)
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for the quantitative study of 111 sub-basins of Beas, Soan and Sutlej rivers. The computed values
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acquired from each parameter were further classified into five classes for evaluating Relative Index of 5
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Active Tectonics (RIAT). The details of each parameter are given in supplementary document and
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illustrated in supplementary Fig. 2b. Further, we evaluated geometric fault parameters for the Soan and
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Back thrust (ST and BT) (Figs. 3-4) using the empirical relationship proposed by Caskey (1995) and
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Yang et al. (2015). In addition, we used a newly developed technique (i.e. GLA magnitude analysis) to
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deduce tectonic deformation along the river courses, as recommended by Žibret and Žibret (2014, 2017).
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Also, we used InSAR technique to appraise regional scale surface deformation between the HFT and
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MBT by acquiring Sentinel-1A data for the period from October 2014 – October 2016. The Sentinel-1A
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data sets of ascending orbit with polarization of VV, Beam Mode IW were processed by persistent
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scattered InSAR (PSI) technique. The details of the method adopted for processing of PSI have provided
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in supplementary Fig.1. The cloud-free and day-and-night land observations were made using an active
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microwave sensor of L-band frequency of the Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR). Depending on the number
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of scans, the SAR is allowed to acquire a wide width of SAR images at the expense of spatial resolution,
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which is three to five times wider than conventional SAR images. We used high-resolution CARTOSAT-
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1 DEM data (downloaded from http://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in/ data/download/index.php) to calculate
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morphometric indices, GLA magnitude analysis, fault related parameters and to delineate the distribution
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of active fault features within the Soan dun. 3D perspective view and shaded relief image was generated
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to observe the stream offset, paleo water gap, linearity of mountain fronts, vertical and lateral offset of
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alluvial fan, and active fault scarps. Further, the field investigations were carried out to map geologic and
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geomorphic features such as alluvial fans, fault scarps and faults to verify the ongoing activity in the Soan
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dun.
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4.1 Gradient Length Analysis (GLA)
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The gradient length analysis (GLA) is a recently developed method to understand the tectonic
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deformation of an active region. The method is statistically modified form of widely used SL and Ks
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analysis. The SL and Ks sometimes fail to deduct the minor tectonic deformation (Goldrick and Bishop,
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2007; Pérez-Peña et al., 2009; Vágó, 2010; Žibret and Žibret, 2014) because of the impact of regional
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scale rock erodibility, climate and vegetation (Zaprowski et al., 2005; Wobus et al., 2006; Whittaker,
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2012). Therefore, the GLA magnitude is an alternative independent geomorphic technique (see Žibret and
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Žibret, 2014, 2017) which is capable of detecting minor disturbance (uplift/subsidence) caused by a
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tectonic movement along the longitudinal course of river channel. In the steady state condition, the river
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profile follows an exponential curve with decreasing trend of elevation along its course (Žibret and Žibret,
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2014, 2017) and the exponential form can be expressed as:
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H= e-KL+n
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where, H is altitude of the trunk stream, L is the distance from the source measured in the downstream
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direction, and k and n are the specific coefficients derived from the best-fit exponent regression curve of
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the river. dH = dLe-KL
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dH/dL = e-KL
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where dH/dL is the gradient of the stream measured for each segment. It is clear from the equation that
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the gradient decreases exponentially and has negative sign. The best-fit approximation of the actual river
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gradient on the river profile is represented by K (e.g, Žibret and Žibret, 2014, 2017). The negative values
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provided by GLA reflect anomalous uplift along the profile and positive values can be correlated with
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subsided areas. The observed negative and positive values of GLA may have association with active
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tectonic movements and climatic factors (enhancing or diminishing erosional effect) and interruptions
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posed by any anthropogenic activity (Žibret and Žibret, 2014, 2017). The negative and positive values
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can be calculated using equations
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GL Lborder = e-KL+nσ
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GL Lborder = e-KL+nσ
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where, σ is the standard deviation computed as the difference between observed and actual values of river
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gradient (Eq. (4-5), (Žibret and Žibret, 2014, 2017). The value of n is selected to obtain the desired best-
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fit curve of the method to delimit the upper and lower limits of GLA. The DIF is the difference between
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the natural logarithm of the absolute and predicted values (Eq. 6) obtained from the river bed gradient,
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i.e., dH/dL (Eq. (7) and imax is the number of river gradient measured along the longitudinal length of river
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course (Žibret and Žibret, 2014, 2017).
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DIF = In (∆h/ ∆l measured – ∆h/ ∆l expected)
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The GL anomalies results, when:
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∆h/ ∆l < GL Lborder GLUborder< ∆h/ ∆l
The final value of the GL-anomaly is given by Eq. (8) (Žibret and Žibret, 2014, 2017)
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(8)
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The GLA analysis was carried out for 196 drainage basins of Soan dun including hinterland and foreland
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areas covering the most significant tectonic lineaments such as HFT, BT, ST and MBT. We have
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observed a good correlation of the results as predicted by Žibret and Žibret, 2014, 2017. The frontal part
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near HFT is extensively deteriorated by agricultural activities and household purposes. Therefore, the
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values in such portions of the basin cannot be estimated properly, but the areas which are unaffected by
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such activities show a good range of GLA anomalies.
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The calculation of fault parameter is to bring out the tectonic and geometric evolution of an active fault
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scarp (Stewart, 1990; Caskey, 1995; Amos et al., 2010; Yang et al., 2015). The parameters such as dip
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slip (DS; horizontal displacement (HD) and vertical displacement (VD; vertical separation (VS) and scarp
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height (SH) (Figs. 4-5) are globally used for calculating the deformation characteristics, active tectonism
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and seismic hazards, generated along an active segment of the fault scarp (Yang et al., 2015) who
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proposed a mathematical relationship among various parameters for reverse as well as normal scarp of
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reverse fault. Further, Caskey, 1995 derived the relationship for normal fault scarp by assuming the
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ground surface of hanging and footwall of a fault are parallel. The vertical component (VD) and
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horizontal component (HD) of dip slip of a fault for normal scarp are expressed by following equations.
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VD = DS sinθ
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= {(x (ms - mf) + bs - bf)/ (sinθ + mfcosθ) + x (mh - ms) + bh-bs)/ (sinθ + mhcosθ)} sinθ
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HD = DS cosθ
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(10)
= {(x (ms-mf) + bs-bf)/ (sinθ + mfcosθ) + x (mh - ms) + bh-bs)/ (sinθ + mhcosθ)} cosθ
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SH = y1-y2
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The vertical separation (VS) or vertical offset of the ground surface lies between the minimum
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(VSmin.) and the maximum vertical separation (VSmax.) which is expressed as
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VSmax = x1(mh – mf) + bh-bf
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VSmin = x2(mh – mf) + bh-bf
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VSmin ≤ VS ≤ VSmax
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Where, x is the absicca of fault tip on scarp face, mf, ms, mh are slope of footwall, scarp face and
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hanging wall respectively, θ is the fault dip angle (Yang et al., 2015) and SH represents scarp
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height, calculated by the difference between the maximum and minimum height of scarp face (Figs.
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4-5).
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Fig. 3
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Fig. 4
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(9)
5. Results
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(12)
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5.1 Relative Index of Active Tectonics (RIAT)
275 We have used the geomorphic indices to evaluate potential area of tectonic activity within the Soan dun
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by evaluating relative index of tectonic activity (RIAT). The quantitative analysis of five morphometric
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parameters for 111 basins in the study area was averaged to estimate the RIAT (El Hamdouni et al.,
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2008). This indices was arbitrarily divided into five classes (Fig. 5c, supplementary Table-1) in the order
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of increasing potential tectonic activity, i.e., class-1 (least active, RIAT< 2.5; class-2 (active, RIAT 2.5 –
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2.75; class-3 (moderately active, RIAT 2.75–3; class-4 (very active, RIAT 3–3.25; and class-5 (extremely
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active RIAT > 3.25). The RIAT class distribution shows about 15% area covering 350 km2 is less active,
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17% area covering 400 km2 is active, 22% area covering 506 km2 is moderately active, 36% are covering
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812 km2 is very active and 10% area covering 210 km2 is extremely active (see Fig. 5c).
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The topographic profiles are obtained across active fault scarps of the ST and BT within the Soan dun
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using high resolution DEM data. The geomorphic data of our field investigations are combined with
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previously published data, to highlight the actual position of the ST and BT on the DEM. We extracted 12
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profiles from the folded fault scarp at various locations within the Dun, i.e., six profiles each across
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normal scarp of the ST (Fig. 3) and BT (Fig. 4) of Janauri anticline. The parameters provide considerable
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variations in the values calculated from the fault scarp profiles of ST and BT (Table 1). In most cases, the
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scarp height (SH) is greater than the vertical separation (VS) and vertical displacement (VD), which
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correlates well with the relationship given by Yang et al. (2015) for normal nature of the scarp i.e., SH ≥
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VS ≥ VD. It was observed that the horizontal displacement (HD) of these fault scarps is much greater that
297
vertical displacement (VD) and is in accordance with studies done by Yeats and Lillie, 1991. For
298
example, along BT, the values of SH range from ~14.7 to 6.7m from northwest to southeast (Table 1, Fig.
299
5a; VD ranges from 13 ± 0.3 to 4.5 ± 1.3 m, and the HD ranges from 30.2 ± 6m to 7.1 ± 2 m. Similarly,
300
values along ST for SH range from 57.6 to 8.4 m, VD ranges from 39.1 ± 7.1 to 7.2 ± 0.5 m, and HD
301
ranges from 39.1 ± 7.1 to 7.2 ± 0.5 m. The published results of GPS observation from the NW Himalaya
302
by Powers et al., 1998; Banerjee and Burgmann, 2002 suggested that the horizontal shortening between
303
HFT and MBT is around 14 ± 1 mm/y, which is consistent all along the NW Himalayan front (Thakur et
304
al., 2014). We plotted each individual measurement of fault geometric parameters against along-strike
305
distance measured from the Beas River at the northwestern termination of the Janauri anticline and
306
Siwalik hills for BT and ST (Figs. 5a-b). Along the strike distance of ST and BT the individual profiles
307
display irregular shape and variations of the maximum displacement.
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Fig. 5
308
Conventionally, in the subsiding sedimentary basin like Soan dun, the sediments are usually
310
subjected to compaction owing to increasing effective stresses, potentially in both the vertical and
311
horizontal directions (see Bjørlykke, 2006). The lateral stress is primarily transmitted through the
312
detachment surface because of southward propagation of thrusts and secondly due to vertical stresses
313
through the compacted sediments of low porosity over large distance (Bjørlykke, 2006). The high
314
horizontal stress within the Soan dun is however, regulated by both the processes, i.e., transmission of
315
stress through detachment surface and compaction of sediments. The vertical stress is driven by the
316
thickness of overburden in the direction of minimum stress without significant shortening in the vertical
317
direction with respect to imposed horizontal compressive stress (Bjørlykke, 2006). However, within the
318
piggy back basin (Duns) increase of the horizontal displacement is only possible because consolidated
319
sediments mechanically produce a significant elastic horizontal strain parallel to the thrusts (see
320
Bjørlykke, 2006). If there is no shortening of the basin due to tectonic activity, the horizontal
321
displacement cannot be greater than the vertical displacement. Therefore, the increase of the horizontal
322
displacement estimated from fault geometric parameter is correlated with the elastic horizontal strain
323
along ST and BT.
324 325
5.3. Gradient Length Analysis (GLA)
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Three major rivers, i.e., Beas, Soan and Sutlej, traversing across four major thrusts, e.g., MBT, ST, BT
328
and HFT were examined for GLA (Fig. 6). These three major river basins collectively consist of 196 sub
329
drainage basins, covering an area of ~23,066 km2. To understand the response of active thrusts, detailed
330
analysis was carried out within the Soan dun and adjoining regions, including the foreland, Soan dun and
331
hinterland basins, located between the HFT and MBT zones (Figs. 6 a-b, Supplementary Fig. 3). We
332
analyzed ~17,670 locations, out of which ~8747 locations gave negative GLA values ranging from -9.21
333
to -0.77 and ~8923 locations showed positive GLA values ranges between 5.48 and 26.60 respectively. A
334
total of about 8182 locations from 23 tributary streams of the Beas River were analyzed, (Supplementary
335
Fig. 3a) out of which 3950 showed and 4232 showed positive values. Within the Soan dun, ~8336 data
336
points were acquired, where the negative values of GLA range from -9.21 to -0.12, and the positive
337
values range between 0.01 and 15.26. The estimated values of GLA for ST zone ranges from -1.91 to -
338
0.02 for uplifted regions and 0.01 to 15.26 for subsided locations. Similarly, for the BT zone, the GLA
339
values lie between -9.21 and -0.01 for uplifts and 0.02 to 10.06 for subsided regions (Fig. 6).
340
Furthermore, towards the foreland region of Janauri anticline, approximately 60 sub-basins were analyzed
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341
to understand the tectonic response, associated with the HFT (Supplementary Fig. 3c). The estimated
342
values of negative GLA range between -0.77 to -0.01 and the positive values vary between 0.01 and 5.5. Fig. 6
343 344
5.4 Crustal deformation and InSAR studies
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345 We used red, green and blue (RGB) color scale patterns to differentiate the Persistent Scattered
347
Interferometry (PSI) phase velocity. The depicted range of vertical deformation in the area varies
348
between -3.13 and +3.14 mm/y (Figs. 7a-b). The positive values of PSI indicate reduction in the base line
349
length of Persistent Scatterer (PS) and points towards the satellite, whereas the negative value indicates an
350
increase of the base line length from the satellite along the radar line-of-sight (LOS). These positive and
351
negative values of phases were correlated with the ground uplift subsidence with respect to the hanging
352
wall and footwall of the thrusted block. Fig. 7a represents estimated range of surface deformation velocity
353
with respect to LOS towards the satellite depicted from PSI investigations. The deformation pattern
354
observed from the phase analysis varies from place to place. A significant amount of deformation (i.e.
355
uplift and subsidence) is observed towards the footwall block of the HFT zone. The observed filtered
356
phases of PSI show subsidence in Dasuya, Garhdiwala, Garhshankar and south of Bholewala, Fatehpur
357
and Kurali locations, whereas Hariana, Hoshiarpur, Mahilpur, Fatehpur, Kurali and surroundings of
358
Chandigarh show a significant amount of uplift (Figs. 7 a-b). A small amount of subsidence and uplift is
359
recorded in the northwestern, central and southeastern parts of Janauri anticline. The hanging wall zone of
360
the HFT and northwestern flank together with the area located between the step over zone of the Janauri
361
and the Chandigarh anticlines shows uplift. The Pinjore Dun area, NE of Chandigarh anticline indicates a
362
significant subsidence, whereas, the Buddi locality in the central portion of Chandigarh anticline reflects
363
surface uplift. There is a linear trend of uplift and subsidence within the BT zone of Janauri anticline.
364
Additionally, the Soan dun area shows uplift towards the northwestern (between Joh and Sansarpur) and
365
southeastern part (Nangal and Kiratpur Sahib whereas, the central part between Nangal and Joh shows
366
subsidence. A large area between hanging wall block of the ST and footwall block of Jwalamukhi thrust
367
(JMT) shows uplift, whereas, the subsidence is deciphered in the central portion (in and around Sujanpur)
368
of the JMT and BpT. The uplift is viewed towards the footwall block of the BpT and hanging wall of the
369
Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) (Figs. 7 a-b). Large areas of subsidence are noticed towards the southern
370
part of the MBT zone, adjacent to Solan, whereas, Shimla and adjoining regions show significant amount
371
of uplift. The unusual mining and landslides are difficult to get identified in the PSI results (Meisina et al.,
372
2008; Yhokha et al., 2015). Hence, the results of PSI suggest negligible amount of surface deformation
373
south of Chandigarh as well as south of Solan (footwall of the MBT) owing to mining and landslide
374
activities. However, the observed surface deformation pattern between the HFT and MBT with respect to
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baseline velocity are considered to have been principally caused by Holocene active fault/thrust
376
movements (Kumar et al., 2001; Malik and Nakata, 2003; Malik and Mohanty, 2007; Philip, 2007; Philip
377
et al., 2006; Malik et al., 2010a, b, 2015; Sahoo and Malik, 2017). The rate of deformation pattern, -3.13
378
to +3.14 mm/y, as deduced by the PSI, can be positively correlated with the palaeoseismic evidences,
379
shown by previous workers (Kumar et al., 2001, 2006; Malik et al., 2010; Jayangondaperumal et al.,
380
2011, 2017; Kumahara and Jayangondaperumal, 2012; Thakur et al., 2014).
381 Fig. 7
382
384
6. Geomorphic evidences/river response to active tectonics
385
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The Soan dun is composed of Quaternary sediments which are deposited in the form of the alluvial fan
387
terraces and valley fill deposits of variable sizes (Fig. 2b) and are dissected by the ST in North and BT in
388
South (Malik and Mohanty, 2007). Geomorphologically, the Soan dun is located between two different
389
domains of the northeast (Siwalik hills of Miocene age) and southwest (Janauri anticline of Late
390
Quaternary age). For detailed geomorphic analysis of the landform, the entire area was divided into six
391
geomorphic windows namely, Sansarpur and Amroha (window-1; Mandwara and Banehra (window-2;
392
Amboa and Amb (window-3; Tatera and Nari (window-4; Nari and Palakhwa (window-5; and the
393
window-6 covering the area between Tahliwal and Palahta localities (Fig. 2a).
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6.1 Sansarpur – Amroh (Window-1)
396
The window-1 occupies an area of 204.9 km2 and marks the northwestern corner of the study area (Figs. 8
398
a-b). Structurally, this window is located between Back Thrust (BT) and Soan Thrust (ST), demarcating
399
the northeastern and southwestern boundaries of the Soan dun. The ST has brought the Middle Siwalik
400
over Upper Siwalik and younger post Siwalik sediments (Powers et al., 1998). The ST, tectonically and
401
physiographically, separates the Middle Siwalik sandstone or the Upper Siwalik conglomerate from the
402
Late Quaternary-Holocene Soan dun sediments (Thakur et al., 2014). The footwall trace of the ST seems
403
to demarcate the recent basin sediments and sub- recent sediments that comprise alluvial fans and fluvial
404
terraces. At Sansarpur village (31.927606°N, 75.924623°E), a single set of strath terraces composed of
405
rounded to well-rounded boulders (Fig. 8c) is well preserved along the northwest flowing Soan Nadi
406
(tributary of Beas River). The terrace sediments rest over ~3m high Lower Siwalik sandstone (Fig. 8d).
407
The southwest flowing Ghagret ki Khad is a major stream flowing across the ST. Within the thrust zone,
408
the rocks of Lower Siwalik sandstone are incised by 10-20 m (Fig. 8e). At near Ranoh, several traces of
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parallel normal faults are observed within the Siwalik sediments. These faults are roughly striking toward
410
NW-SE direction dipping by 46o toward SW (Fig. 8f). The stream flowing across the fault zone shows
411
prominent offset within the fault zone. Within the fault zone, the Siwalik rocks are exposed due to
412
incision and simultaneous uplift of the rock (Fig. 8g) which is manifested in form of the incised V-
413
shaped valley. Presence of ~1.5 km long palaeochannel of Ghagret ki Khad is one of the prominent
414
geomorphic features observed in the area, indicating uplift of the initial valley floor because of tectonic
415
movement (Figs. 8g-h). Besides, near Pragpur (31.886314N, 75.966681E), a small stream flowing across
416
the fault zone is blocked because of vertical tectonic forcing along the fault which manifests in the form
417
of ponding of the stream (Figs. 8g-i). Displaced fluvial strath terraces and development of triangular fault
418
facets are prominent geomorphic expressions associated with tectonic movement in the south of Ranoh
419
locality. The episodic deformation along the fault has vertically displaced fluvial terraces, resulting in
420
stacking of two levels of terraces as illustrated in Fig. 8j. These two levels of fluvial terraces are well
421
preserved within the confluence zone of Ghagret ki Khad and Soan Nadi. Furthermore, towards the
422
northeast facing slope of Janauri anticline, the fluvially modified alluvial fans are the major geomorphic
423
surfaces. These alluvial fan surfaces are truncated along the BT and have formed a back-hill facing fault
424
scarp associated with the thrust (Fig. 8a).
425
Fig. 8
426 6.2. Window-2 (Mandwara- Banehra)
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The most remarkable geomorphic expressions in this window are development of active fault scarp, tilted
430
terraces, deflection of streams, truncation of alluvial fans and sudden changes in the gradient of river
431
(Figs. 9 a-b). Truncation of alluvial fans is the major geomorphic expression exposed in this window.
432
Towards the northeast facing slope of the Janauri anticline near Malwari, alluvial fan surfaces are
433
truncated along inferred trace of the BT (~10m high scarp; which evinces in the form of NW-SE oriented
434
linear fault scarp (Fig. 9c). Meanwhile near Bhatoli (31.830833N, 75.973611E) area and south of Joh, the
435
footwall of the ST exposes vertically stacked ~10 m high gravel beds. Texturally very coarse, the fault
436
scarp of ST consists of rounded to well-rounded gravels of fluvial origin (Figs. 9d-e). The gravel beds are
437
tilted by 15° towards SW and rest over Siwalik sediments, perhaps reflecting the tectonic control of ST.
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In the Joh section, ~ 3m thick fluvial (younger) sediments are resting over the ~7m high alluvial
440
fan sediments (Fig. 9f). The younger fluvial sediments are composed of rounded to well-rounded cross
441
bedded gravels, whereas the fan facies are graded in nature. Presence of younger fluvial sediments ~7m
442
above the present-day river-bed may imply tectonic control. Moreover, the satellite data show that the 13
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south-west flowing stream are diverted to the NW and SE in the axial part of Soan dun along an inferred
444
NW-SE oriented fault plane, named as the Soan Fault (SF) (Fig. 9b inset). The alluvial fan deposits along
445
the inferred trace of fault are truncated and manifested as a 10-15 m high and 15 km long fault scarp (Fig.
446
9g). To show the topographic variations of alluvial fan surfaces, three profiles were constructed at
447
location 1, 2 and 3, as shown in Figs. 9 a-g. Here, the scarp formation is characterized by change in
448
terrace level and sudden drop in elevation. Presence of such scarps within Soan dun marks the influence
449
of inferred SF delineated based on the offset of upper older terraces from lower younger terrace (Fig. 9g).
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450 Fig. 9
451 6.3 Window-3 (Amboa – Amb)
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452 453
The alluvial fans are another remarkable geomorphic marker of tectonic activity and are recognize in the
455
window-3 entirely from satellite data investigations (Figs. 10 a-b). The alluvial fan surface is largely
456
distributed on the northeast and the southwest facing slopes of Soan dun and can be exercised to
457
understand the tectonic scenario of the Soan dun (Figs. 10 a-b). The noteworthy development of active
458
fault scarps of BT and ST facing NE and SW is the surface manifestation of vertical tectonic forces
459
occurring in the area (Fig. 10a). To understand the topographic variations, we constructed various profiles
460
i.e. 4, 5, 6 across ST, 7, 8, 9 across BT and 10, 11, 12 were constructed across the inferred SF (Figs. 10 a-
461
c). From the topographic profiles, it is clear that the ST is surface manifestation of thrusting between
462
Siwalik sandstone and the recent sediments (pf. no, 4, 5, 6, see Fig. 10c). Thakur et al., 2014 concluded
463
that the Middle Siwalik sandstone has over ridden the gravel and sand–silt sediments of the Soan dun
464
owing to southwest propagation of hanging wall of ST around 29 - 23 ka. Further, the geomorphic and
465
geological evidence provided by Thakur et al. (2014) at Amb locality confirms the presence of ST in the
466
area. It was further argued that the thrusting of Siwalik over recent sediments (~10ka) clarifies that the ST
467
was reactivated during early phase of Holocene (Suresh and Kumar, 2009). Similarly, in the northeast
468
facing slope of the Janauri anticline, the Siwalik sediments have over-ridden the recent alluvial sediments
469
along the BT (pf. no, 7, 8, 9, Fig. 10c). The alluvial fan surfaces are quite distinct towards the central
470
portion of the basin and appear to be truncated along the inferred SF (pf. no, 10, 11, and 12, see Fig. 10c).
471
These topographic profiles evidently show development of 12-20 m high escarpment within the central
472
portion of the basin (Fig. 10c), that is correlated with the activity associated along the inferred SF.
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Fig. 10
473 474
6.4 Window-4 (Tatera – Nari)
475
14
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The prominent geomorphic features associated with tectonic movement from this window are obtained
477
from detailed satellite imagery investigation (Figs. 11 a-b). In order to understand scarp geomorphology,
478
we constructed topographic profiles 13, 14, 15 along ST, 16, 17, 18 along BT and 19, 20, 21 across the
479
inferred fault SF (Fig. 11a). The topographic profile of ST and BT clearly shows the development of NE
480
and SW facing active fault scarp (Fig. 11c). From the topographic profiles, it is obvious that the Siwalik
481
sandstone has over-ridden the recent sediments which hints towards the active nature of the ST and BT.
482
Within the ST zone, the Siwalik sediments are vertically displaced and resulted in approximately 12 m
483
high and 15 km long NW-SE oriented scarp (Fig. 11c). However, towards the northeast facing slopes of
484
the Janauri anticline, two levels of vertically offset alluvial fan surfaces are clearly visible. The vertical
485
offset between upper and lower alluvial fan surfaces is defined as a boundary of the BT (Fig. 11c). In the
486
central portion of the basin, linear NW-SE oriented 10 to 35m high topographic break separates older
487
terrace surfaces from younger terraces as shown in topographic profiles 19, 20, and 22 (Fig. 11c).
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Fig. 11
488 489
6.5 Window-5 (Nari – Palakhwa)
490
The development of fault scarp, triangular fault facets, tilting of terraces, truncation of alluvial fans and
492
straight mountain front are the major geomorphic makers of active tectonics that were observed in
493
window-5 (Fig. 12). These features are recognized using satellite data investigation and geomorphic
494
analysis of landforms. Towards the southwest facing slope within Soan dun, huge fluvially modified
495
alluvial fan deposits are distinctly visible (Figs. 12 a-b). Along the straight course of Soan River, these
496
alluvial fans are truncated and have formed ~30 km long and 14-15 m high NW-SE oriented rectangular
497
escarpment parallel to inferred fault SF (Figs. 12 c-d). Closer examination of the composition of these
498
escarpments revealed that they were composed of fluvially deposited sand, interbedded with rounded to
499
well-rounded gravel and tilted towards northeast. Similarly, towards the NE facing slope of Janauri, ~12m
500
thick fluvially modified alluvial terraces have been observed (Figs. 12 e-f). Here, the BT seems to
501
propagate into mid fan surface and separates T1 (older fan surface) from T2 (younger fan surface) (Figs.
502
12e-f) and have formed ~5 km long NE facing fault scarp trending NW- SE direction. Moving further SE
503
in the vicinity of the village Palakhwa (31° 23.883'N, 76° 14.633'E; a nearly 15 m high fluvial section
504
was exposed with alternating sand and well-rounded gravel beds (Figs. 12 g-h). These fluvial deposits are
505
tilted by ~13° towards the northeast (Fig. 12g) because of the hanging wall motion of BT. Furthermore, in
506
the central portion of the basin, younger and older terrace surfaces are vertically separated along NW-SE
507
oriented inferred fault. To understand scarp topography and vertical separation, we constructed five
508
topographic profiles (23-27) across the inferred trace of SF (Fig. 12i). The topographic profiles clearly
509
indicate that the upper older terraces are vertical separated from younger terraces by 30 m at Saluri, 20 m
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510
at Nari, 15 m at Una, 15 m at Kuthar Kalan, 20 m at Fatehpur, and 5 m at Dayapur, respectively (Fig.
511
12i), which is correlated with the recent activity of SF.
512 Fig. 12
513
515
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514 6.6 Window-6 (Tahliwal- Palahta)
516
The window-6 in the study area (Fig. 13) is considered to be one of the most active segments in the area.
518
Towards the forelimb of the JA, the Siwalik sandstone strata dip 25°–35° towards SW, whereas towards
519
the back limb, the sandstone beds are dipping by 30°–20° due NE (Thakur et al., 2014). A broad, open,
520
symmetric and an upright fold with flat hinge zone with both limbs dipping gently in opposite direction
521
observed between Tahliwal and Samundari. The flat hinge zone of JA occupies an area ~10 × 5 sq. km on
522
the top (Thakur et al., 2014) and is covered by fluvial sediments comprising horizontal stratified sand, silt
523
and gravel (Figs. 13 a-n). These fluvial sediments are deposited and aggraded by Paleo-Sutlej River
524
which used to flow across the anticlinal axis in NE and SW directions prior to the uplift of the anticline
525
around 43 ka (Malik et al., 2010, Thakur et al., 2014) (Fig. 13b). However, the optical chronology of
526
younger alluvial sediments resting on the forelimb and back limb of the anticline is dated to 12 and 17 ka
527
(Thakur et al., 2014). A wide range of deformed zones were observed in the form of faulting, folding and
528
tilting of sediments toward the back limb of the Janauri anticline (Figs. 13 c-m). At the Khera Kalmot
529
locality, the BT is well propagated within the recent sediments (Fig. 13c). The sediments resting on the
530
hanging wall of BT are tilted and folded in nature (Figs. 13 d-e) and displaced by 2.5m along BT. Here
531
the fault plane of BT dips by an amount of 25° towards SW direction as the thrust propagated out to the
532
surface the dip angle changed from 25° to 5° towards SW. The gravels are highly deformed/rotated and
533
are aligned parallel to the thrust plane (Figs. 13 d-e).
535 536
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Fig. 13
537
The fluvial sand resting on the footwall block of the thrust shows small scale micro faulting parallel to
538
the thrust plane. At the crest of fold axis, a zone of NE-SW oriented normal faults dips with an amount of
539
55° towards NW and have net displacement of ~65 cm within the fluvial sediments (Figs. 13 f--h). On the
540
northeastern limb of the anticline, the thickly bedded Siwalik sandstone abuts against the fluvial sediment
541
and formed ~5-7 m high scarp in front of Soan dun between Samundari and Tahliwal (Figs. 13 j-k). The
542
fluvial sediments comprising stratified sand, silt, and gravel on the basal parts of the back limb of the
543
Janauri anticline between Palakhwa and Palahta (Fig. 13 m). These fluvial sediments are tilted by 14° SW 16
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and 25°NE direction owing to horizontal compression generated between BT and HFT (Fig. 13l). Further,
545
to understand topographic variations along inferred SF we constructed six topographic profiles (28-32)
546
across the inferred fault (Fig. 13n). The topographic profiles clearly show that the upper older terraces are
547
vertically separated from younger terraces by 10 m at Fatehpur, 15 m at Sehjowal, 6 m at Bhanam, 12 m
548
at Dasgrain, 8m at Mahain, and 8m at Anandpur Sahib, respectively (Fig. 13n). These vertical separation
549
of terraces is correlated with the recent activity of inferred SF.
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550 551
7. Discussion
552
The northwestern Indian Himalaya, witnessed the occurrence of several destructive earthquakes in the
554
historic past i.e. A.D. 1555, A.D. 1828, and A.D. 1885 earthquakes (Oldham, 1883; Iyengar and Sharma,
555
1996; Iyengar et al., 1999; Bilham et al., 2010; Ambraseys and Jackson, 2003; Ambraseys and Douglas,
556
2004; Bamzai, 1962; Lawrence, 1895) and the 1905 Kangra earthquake (Mw 7.8) (Middlemiss, 1910;
557
Ambraseys and Bilham, 2000; Hough et al., 2005; Negi, 1963; Wallace et al., 2005; Thakur et al., 2000;
558
Kumar et al., 2009; Malik et al., 2015). Evidence suggests that during the 1905 Kangra (Mw 7.8)
559
earthquake, approximately 100 x 55 km2 area was ruptured within the zone of MBT and HFT (Thakur et
560
al., 2014; Joshi and Thakur, 2016; Wallace et al., 2005). However, in the central Himalaya including
561
Garhwal-Kumaun and Nepal, the microseismicity belt lies ~100 km north of the HFT (Arora et al., 2012;
562
Jouanne et al., 2004; Thakur et al., 2014). The surface rupture was generated by the Bihar-Nepal
563
earthquake (1934, Mw 8.2), is located within the similar seismogenic zone of the HFT (Sapkota et al.,
564
2013; Thakur et al., 2014). However, unlike the Bihar-Nepal earthquake, the Kashmir earthquake (2005,
565
Mw 7.6) produced an approximately 75 km long surface rupture that lies far north from the HFT in the
566
hinterland (Kaneda et al., 2008; Hussain et al., 2009). The recurrence of microseismicity is thus
567
interpreted as a consequence of stress accumulation within the locked part of the Main Himalayan Thrust
568
(MHT) affected by brittle-ductile creep beneath the Higher Himalayan topographic front (Thakur et al.,
569
2014).
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The HFT is considered as the most active thrust in the Himalaya where convergence rates are
571
comparatively higher than rest of the Himalaya (Banerjee and Burgmann, 2002). The estimated
572
shortening rates 21 ± 1.5 mm/y of HFT have been inferred from folded fluvial terraces by Lave´ and
573
Avouac, 2000 and is being advocated that the lesser amount of convergence across the central Himalayan
574
region is accommodated by other thrusts located to the north of HFT (Banerjee and Burgmann, 2002).
575
Geodetic observations (Bilham et al., 1997; Larson et al., 1999; Bettinelli et al., 2006) across the central
576
part of Himalaya (100 km wide zone) suggest that 18–20 mm/y slip is accommodated by the subducting
577
decollement towards north. Similarly, observations made from northwestern part of Himalaya shows 17
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shortening rates of 14 ± 2 mm/y for Kangra reentrant and 11 ± 5 mm/y east of Dehra Dun between HFT
579
and MBT (Powers et al., 1998; Banerjee and Burgmann, 2002). However, geomorphic and paleoseismic
580
records along HFT shows Holocene slip rate 13.8 ± 3.6 mm/y and 9.6 ±7.0/-3.5 mm/y, respectively
581
(Wesnousky et al., 1999; Kumar et al., 2001). Further the paleoseismic trench investigation near Kala
582
Amb (Black Mango) area by Kumar et al., 2001; near Chandigarh by Malik and Nakata, 2003 provides
583
slip rate of 6.3±2 mm/y. The Holocene slip rate 21±1.5 mm/y of the HFT estimated from folded fluvial
584
strath terraces by Lave´ and Avouac, 2000 in the central Nepal suggests that the entire slip is
585
accommodated by HFT.
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The observations from the 10 km wide zone of HFT in the Arunachal Himalaya (eastern segment)
587
shows cumulative shortening rate of 23.4±6.2 mm/y, which is distributed along Bhalukpong thrust (8.4
588
mm/y) Ballipara anticline (10 mm/y), and 5 mm/y on the Nimeri thrust (Burges et al., 2012; Thakur et al.,
589
2014). The estimated long term Late Quaternary convergence rates across Himalayan Frontal Thrust
590
(HFT; Back Thrust (BT), Soan Thrust (ST), and Jwalamukhi Thrust (JMT) are 6.0 mm/y over 42 ka, 3.0
591
mm/y over 29 ka, and 3.5–4.2 mm/y over 32–30 ka, respectively (Thakur et al., 2014). Based on folded
592
and tilted terraces, Dey et al., (2016) estimated 44 m of differential uplift within the zone of JMT and
593
concluded that the Holocene activity within this zone owe to strain partitioning along the Himalayan
594
wedge. Further, their estimate shows shortening rate during the last 10 ka ranges from 5.6±0.8 to 7.5±1.1
595
mm/y along the JMT. Based on shortening rates, Dey et al., 2016 concluded that the Sub-Himalayan
596
region of the Kangra reentrant accommodates about 40 to 60% shortening of the entire NW Himalaya.
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Previous studies show-decreasing trend of shortening/slip rates from central to northwestern
598
Himalaya region, whereas it increases in the central and eastern Himalayan region. For example, 9–14
599
mm/y across the Potwar foreland of the Pakistan (Baker et al., 1988), 1.4–4.1 mm/y across the Balakot-
600
Bagh fault in the Kashmir Himalaya (Kaneda et al., 2008) and 12 ± 3 mm/y in the Garhwal Himalaya
601
(Wesnousky et al., 1999). However, the convergence rate of India with respect to the Tibet increases from
602
west to east respectively (Bettinelli et al., 2006; Molnar and Stock, 2009). Recently studied data reveals
603
that the convergence of India and Asia is perpendicular to the Himalayan arc and is decreasing from the
604
central to the northwest Himalaya because of right lateral slip in the NW Himalaya (Li and Yin, 2008).
605
The northwestern Himalaya, which is located in the vicinity of the western Himalayan syntaxis shows a
606
component of the right-lateral slip, may be due to oblique slip convergence (McCaffrey and Nabelek,
607
1998; Jouanne et al., 1999).
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Based on the observations mentioned above, we propose a five-stage conceptual model for the
609
tectonic evolution of the Soan dun (Fig. 14). The modelled topography clearly shows that prior to 43 ka,
610
the Indo Gangetic Plain was extended approximately 20 km north of the present position and the initial
611
uplift of Siwalik to the south of the Lesser Himalaya took place along the Soan Thrust (ST). As the 18
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convergence proceeds along ST and MBT, the Siwalik attained higher topography which led to increased
613
erosional activity towards the elevated regions and contributed considerably to fan aggradation process
614
within the valley. The post Siwalik sediments were eroded from the uplifted regions and deposited in the
615
initially formed piedmont zone between HFT (Foreland Thrust) and ST (Fig. 14a). These sediments were
616
started deforming and vertically uplifted because of horizontal compressive force generated between HFT
617
and ST. The back thrusting (BT) began and propagated opposite to the direction of HFT around 43 ka
618
because of the layer parallel horizontal shortening or locking of fore thrust below the sediments in the
619
foreland region (Fig. 14b). The horizontal N-S to NNE-SSW compressive forces generated between HFT
620
and back thrust around 43 and 36 ka resulted anticlinal folding (growth of Janauri anticline) and uplift of
621
Siwalik sediments (Thakur et al., 2014). The simultaneous progressive compression between HFT and ST
622
resulted in the formation of piggy back basin (Soan dun) towards the footwall of ST and back limb of
623
anticlinal ridge (Fig. 14c). The geological evidences suggest that because of growth of NW-SE anticlinal
624
ridge the Beas River shifted towards NW and the southwest flowing Sutlej River changed its course to the
625
SE direction. The continuous growth of NW-SE oriented frontal anticlinal ridge (Janauri anticline) and
626
uplift of hinterland thrusts (ST and MBT) caused huge amount of sediments to erode and get deposited
627
within the newly formed piggy back basin (Soan dun) in the form of alluvial fan (Fig. 14 d-e). These
628
alluvial fan surfaces later cut by active trace of Back thrust and Soan thrust and develops NW-SE oriented
629
active fault scarp in the area.
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Fig. 14
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The optical chronology of alluvial fan surfaces dated from back limb of Janauri anticline and footwall
633
block of ST suggests that there was a continuous sedimentation within the basin until around 12 ka
634
(Thakur et al., 2014). After deposition of sediments around 12 ka an intra basinal faulting (Soan Fault)
635
took place within the Soan dun (Fig. 14d; which is evident from the truncation of alluvial fan sediments
636
between Amroh to the NW (window-1) and Nangal in the SE (window-6) for approximately 70 km in
637
NW-SE direction. The horizontal shortening between HFT and BT resulted in the development of ~ 500
638
m high 120 km long and 5-12 km wide Janauri anticline between 43 ka and 12 ka (Thakur et al., 2014)
639
and has been interpreted as a fault propagation fold over the HFT with steeper, 45° SW, dipping forelimb
640
and gentler, 30°NE, dipping back limb (Powers et al., 1998). Structurally, the back limb of anticline is
641
characterized by a back thrust (BT) (Thakur et al., 2014). The deformation along BT is
642
geomorphologically manifested by development of ~5-15 m high fault scarp and folding of fan sediments
643
as shown in Fig. 14e. Studies shows that the sediments resting on the top of Janauri anticline are uplifted
644
against Indo Gangetic plain by 150 m during late Quaternary (Delcaillau et al., 2006). The
645
chronologically constrained uplift rates of the Janauri anticline suggest that it was uplifted at a rate of 3.4
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19
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± 0.3 mm/y over the period between 43 and 12 ka (Thakur et al., 2014). Thakur et al., 2014 estimated
647
shortening and slip rate of the HFT, BT, ST and MBT. The estimate of Thakur et al., 2014 shows that the
648
shortening and slip rate of HFT is 6.0 ± 0.5 and 6.9 ± 0.5 mm/y (Fig. 14e). The trench investigation along
649
HFT shows that the Holocene slip rate 6.3 ± 2 mm/y and shortening rates 6.9 ±1.4 mm/ y (Malik et al.,
650
2010b). The estimates show that the shortening and slip rate of back thrust are 2.0 ± 0.17 and 2.2 ± 0.18
651
mm/y. The obtained value indicates that the area accommodated 8.0 mm/y shortening for the formation of
652
JA during last 43 to 12 ka (Thakur et al., 2014). The estimated convergence and slip rate along ST are 3.4
653
± 0.3 and 3.4 ± 0.3 mm/y. The available rates indicated that the area between ST and BT accommodated
654
5.4 mm/y horizontal shortening for the formation of Soan dun (piggy back basin) towards the footwall
655
block of ST. Similarly, the shortening and slip rates of MBT are 3.5 ± 0.4 and 3.4 ± 0.3 mm/y,
656
respectively (Thakur et al., 2014, Fig. 14e). The observed slip and shortening rates for MBT and ST are
657
similar, which indicates that both the thrusts deforming at the same speed. The GPS driven crustal
658
shortening rates of Banerjee and Burgmann, 2002 and rate estimated from balance section by Powers et
659
al., (1998) suggests that the area between HFT and MBT is 14 ± 2 mm/y, which is well corroborated with
660
the chronological constraints shortening rates of Thakur et al., 2014. Further, based on chronological
661
results of Thakur et al., 2014 it has been argued that the area of horizontal shortening between HFT and
662
BT is ~8 mm/y, between BT and ST is 5.4 mm/y, and between ST and MBT is 6.9 mm/y respectively.
663
The cumulative shortening rate is ~ 20.3 mm/y, which is comparatively higher side of observed
664
shortening rates of GPS 14 ± 2 mm/y. This further indicates that the 6.3 mm/y shortening is
665
accommodated by Soan dun area which is reflected in the form of deformation of geomorphic surfaces as
666
discussed in windows 1 to 6. The rates of horizontal shortening between different thrust systems are
667
higher than the vertical displacement, which is obvious for the region where vertical displacement is less
668
than horizontal displacement.
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The results of geomorphic mapping, topographic surveying, and available rates of deformation
670
were combined to calculate fault geometric parameters for deformed geomorphic surfaces along the BT
671
and ST zones of Soan dun. The results obtained for fault displacement parameters along BT and ST are
672
estimated from the fault scarp and folded terrace profiles. These profiles were generated where the
673
alluvial fan terraces are continuous and displaced vertically over the surface traces of BT and ST. The
674
values so obtained in the BT zone reveals that VD ranges from 13 ± 0.3 to 4.5 ± 1.3 m and HD ranges
675
from 30.2 ± 6 to 7.1 ± 2 m whereas the SH varies between ~14.5m - 6.5m, respectively (Fig. 5a, Table-1).
676
Similarly, for ST zone the SH ranges between 57.6 and 8.4 m, the VD varies from 39.1 ± 7.1 to 7.2 ± 0.5
677
m, and the HD 39.1 ± 7.1 to 7.2 ± 0.5 m respectively (Fig. 5b, Table-1. Our estimates reveal that for each
678
thrust Scarp Height (SH) is greater than Vertical Separation (VS) and Vertical Displacement (VD) which
679
is in coordination with the theoretical relationship SH ≥ VS ≥ VD, adopted by Amos et al., 2010 and
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Yang et al., 2015. Our results are well corroborating with chronological constrained rates of horizontal
681
shortening and slip rates of the NW region of the Himalaya, where horizontal shortening between HFT
682
and BT is 8 mm/y and vertical uplift is 3 mm/y. Similarly, in the ST zone, horizontal shortening is 5.5
683
mm/y and the vertical uplift is 3.4 mm/y (Thakur et al., 2014).
684
An area of ~23,066 km2 was studied to estimate GLA magnitude to understand the response of active
685
surface deformation between HFT and MBT zones. The n factor is determined from the Eq. 4 and 5 to
686
predict anomalies along the river gradient in the form of negative and positive anomalies. A total of 8747
687
locations of uplift were determined out of 17670, with the values ranging from -9.21 to -0.77 (negative)
688
and ~8,923 locations of subsidence with the GLA values ranging from 5.48 to 26.60 by using the (Eq. 8).
689
Although the trend of GLA anomaly as shown in Fig. 6 and supplementary Fig. 3 is not as strong in case
690
of the negative (uplift). The experimental results of Žibret and Žibret, 2017 clearly show that the
691
abnormal GLA might have occurred because of changes in lithology and changes in rock resistant caused
692
by erosional activity. The negative and positive anomalies of GLA are also controlled by high
693
precipitation and strong active deformation (Žibret and Žibret, 2017). The regions of surface deformation
694
(uplift and subsidence) identified using GLA magnitude are well corroborated with InSAR, phase
695
velocity. Theoretically, the values of uplift and subsidence obtained from GLA magnitude correspond to
696
approximately 0.1 mm/y (Žibret and Žibret, 2017). Similarly, the depicted range of deformation from PSI
697
phases in the area ranges between -3.13 to +3.14 mm/y. The negative PSI phase represents subsidence,
698
and the positive values are correlated with uplift of the area. The depicted range of deformation (vertical
699
and horizontal) is well corroborated by published chronological results of Thakur et al., 2014, Malik et
700
al., 2010b. The chronological constraints result shows that the Janauri anticline is uplifting at the rate of
701
3.4 ± 0.3 mm/y over the period between 43 and 12 ka (Thakur et al., 2014). The Holocene shortening and
702
slip rate of HFT are 6.0 ± 0.5 and 6.9 ± 0.5 mm/y (Malik et al., 2010b). The estimates show that the
703
shortening and slip rate of BT are 2.0 ± 0.17 and 2.2 ± 0.18 mm/y and for the ST are 3.4 ± 0.3 and 3.4 ±
704
0.3 mm/y (Thakur et al., 2014). Formerly, the PSI phases have been used to deduce surface deformation
705
by many other researchers (e.g., Chang et al., 2004 a, b; Hooper et al., 2004; Yen et al., 2007; Chang et
706
al., 2010; Yhokha et al., 2015). Moreover, our observations augment the results of previous geomorphic,
707
palaeoseismic and field based morphotectonic investigations, clearly showing that all the faults of the
708
study area are tectonically active (Powers et al., 1998; Philip et al., 2006, 2011; Thakur et al., 2014; Malik
709
et al., 2010 a, b; Malik et al., 2003, 2015; Malik and Nakata., 2003; Malik and Mohanty, 2007; Kumar et
710
al., 2006; Delcaillau et al., 2006; Suresh and Kumar, 2009; Joshi and Thakur, 2016; Sahoo and Malik,
711
2017; Jayangondaperumal et al., 2011, 2017).
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Furthermore, the surface deformation obtained from GLA and InSAR studies are correlate with
713
the field and morphometric parameters. In the NW part of Sub-Himalayan region where rocks are highly
714
weathered and less resistant to erosion, may allow changes in river gradient and steepness. Therefore, the
715
SL and Ks analysis allow us to deduce the gradient changes due to tectonic movement. The results of SL
716
and Ks clearly shows that there is a linear change in gradient parallel to the major tectonic boundaries as
717
shown in Supplementary Fig. 2. The relative index of active tectonics (RIAT) distribution pattern allows
718
us to categorize deformation pattern of the area. The RIAT distribution pattern shows that within the Soan
719
dun which covers 2100 km2, 350 km2 (15%) are least active, 400 km2 (17%) are active, 506 km2 (22%) is
720
moderately active, 812 km2 (36%) area is very active, and 210 km2 (10%) are extremely active. Our
721
estimates are well supported with field observations and present seismic pattern. The class-4 and class-5
722
represents segmental reactivation of thrusts/faults, which may be attributed to gradual changes in stress
723
distribution along different fault segments.
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Recent morphotectonic investigations and our field observations in the area have also shown that
725
all the faults of the study area are tectonically active and show distinct geomorphic signatures such as
726
folding and tilting of terraces, development of strath terraces, triangular fault facets, drainage anomalies,
727
surface gradient anomalies, faults scarps, displacement of ridges, and growth of anticlines. Based on our
728
geomorphic results, field investigations and previous studies (Powers et al., 1998; Philip et al., 2006,
729
2011; Thakur et al., 2014; Malik et al., 2010a, b; Malik et al., 2003, 2015; Malik and Nakata, 2003, Malik
730
and Mohanty, 2007; Kumar et al., 2006; Suresh and Kumar, 2009; Sahoo and Malik, 2017; Joshi and
731
Thakur, 2016; Jayangondaperumal et al., 2011, 2016, 2017; Delcaillau et al., 2006), we present a model to
732
summarize the tectonic movements in the area since last 43 ka leading to the development of Soan dun
733
(Fig. 14). The balanced cross sections drawn through the Ganga Plain and Kangra reentrants (covering the
734
northwestern part of the study area) by Powers et al., 1998 reveal that the MBT branch off the gently
735
(~2.5º), northward dipping basal detachment, at a depth of 23 km but steeper 6° toward the southeastern
736
part of the study area (Powers et al., 1998). (Fig. 1c). The horizontal compression along these longitudinal
737
thrusts resulted in the successive development of Soan, and Pinjore dun piggy-back basins in the western
738
part of the study area. The Faults/Thrusts are presently active in different segments and inducing surface
739
deformations to variable extents in the area.
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741
Conclusions:
742
On the basis of geomorphic and morphotectonic investigations following conclusions have been drawn.
22
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743
•
The ongoing active deformation within the epicentral zone of 1905 Kangra earthquake of NW Sub-
744
Himalaya is manifested by the presence of duns (piggy back basins) and anticlines within the
745
imbricated thrusts zones of MBT and HFT at the Himalayan front.
746
•
The study suggests that the prior to 43 ka the foreland basin extended approximately 20 km northward from the present position. The initial uplift (growth of Janauri anticline) within the
748
foreland region took place around 43 ka and horizontal compression N-S to NNE-SSW generated
749
between HFT and MBT deformed the post Siwalik sediments. The horizontal shortening and locking
750
of foreland thrust (northward dipping, HFT) consequently, caused the initiation of back thrust in
751
opposite direction of HFT (southward dipping, BT) around 43 to 36 ka. Simultaneously, these
752
compressional forces resulted in the formation of elongated piggyback basin (i.e. Soan dun) toward
753
the hinterland of Janauri anticline, which generated accommodation space for the deposition of post
754
Siwalik alluvial fan and recent sediments in the sub Himalayan region of NW Himalaya.
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•
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747
Within the Soan dun (piggy back basin) deformation of well-preserved Post-Siwalik and Holocene
756
terraces indicates tectonic activity along the Soan Thrust (ST) and Back Thrust (BT). The present day
757
geomorphic features such as folded, tilted and uplifted terraces, truncation of alluvial fans, offset of
758
channels, fault scarp and displacement of fluvial sediments suggests active nature of ST and BT.
759
•
The geometric analysis of fault scarp morphology suggests that the horizontal displacement along ST and BT is higher than vertical displacement because of increase in horizontal elastic strain parallel to
761
the thrusted blocks within the Himalayan front.
762
•
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760
The present study demonstrates the successful application of GLA magnitude technique in determining the active surface deformation in the Himalayan region. The method is found suitable for
764
the deduction of surface deformation along the river valleys of the NW sub-Himalaya, which is a
765
reliable alternative to the InSAR studies.
766
•
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763
The PSI phase velocity results suggest that the epicentral zone of the Kangra earthquake in the northwestern part of the Himalaya is uplifting at the rate of ± 3.14 mm/y, which is very well
768
corroborated with chronologically constraints uplift rates 3.4±0.3 mm/y estimated from Janauri
769
anticline.
770 771
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Acknowledgements
772 773
The authors are grateful to the Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India (MoES/P.O.(Seismo)
774
/1(271)/AFM/2015) for financial support under the active fault mapping program. We are thankful to Dr.
775
M. Ravikumar, Director General, and Dr. Sumer Chopra, Director, Institute of Seismological Research
776
for giving permission to carry out this work. BSK is thankful for partial assistance to MoES, New Delhi 23
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
777
(P.O./ Geosci/43/2015). CCP and NJ are thankful to Prof. A. K. Sharma, Head Department of Geology,
778
Kumaun University, Nainital for support.
779 Additional Information
781
All the authors have made equal contribution in this manuscript. There is no conflict of interest between
782
all co-authors.
783
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Vágó, J.Á.N.O.S., 2010. Stream gradient investigation in the Bükkalja using interpolated surfaces. Acta Geographica Debrecina Landscape and Environment. 4(1), 23-36. Valdiya, K.S., 2010. The making of India, geodynamic evolution. Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-3-31925029-8
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Wallace, R.E., 1980. Discussion—Nomograms for estimating components of fault displacement from
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measured height of fault scarp. Bulletin of the Association of Engineering Geologists 17(1), 39-45. 34
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Wallace, K., Bilham, R., Blume, F., Gaur, V.K. and Gahalaut, V., 2005. Surface deformation in the region
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Letters 32(15). doi:10.1029/2005GL022906. Walter, D., Wegm¨Uller, U., Spreckels, V., Hannemann, W., Busch, W., 2009. Interferometric
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Wesnousky, S.G., Kumar, S., Mohindra, R., Thakur, V.C., 1999. Uplift and convergence along the Himalayan Frontal Thrust of India. Tectonics 18, 967–976.
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Whipple, K.X., Dibiase, R.A., Crosby, B.T., 2013. Bedrock Rivers. Shroder, J. (Editor in Chief), Wohl, E. (Ed.), Treatise on Geomorphology. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, 9, 550–573. Whittaker, A.C., Cowie, P.A., Attal, M., Tucker, G.E., Roberts, G.P., 2007. Bedrock channel adjustment
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Whittaker, A.C., Cowie, P.A., Attal, M., Tucker, G.E., Roberts, G.P., 2007. Contrasting transient and
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1179 1180 1181 1182
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Figure Captions
1185
Fig 1. (a) Structural map of NW Himalaya showing isoseismic lines of 1905 Kangra earthquake modified
1186
from Middlemiss (1910; Hough et al., (2005) and Singh et al., (2012). (b) Regional geological
1187
map of Kangra reentrant NW Himalaya (after Thakur et al., 2014) (c) Balanced cross-section
1188
across Kangra reentrant showing major structures, estimated shortening and slip rates on the
1189
thrust faults (modified after Thakur et al., 2014 and Powers et al., 1998).
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Fig 2. (a) Landsat image overlay onto the CARTOSAT DEM shows major tectonic landform
1191
development between BT and ST zone. A sharp truncation observed in the central portion of the
1192
basin is marked by black dotted line. The windows described in the text are highlighted here. (b)
1193
Detailed Geomorphic map of the Soan dun area of NW Himalaya. The area has been divided into
1194
6 windows for detailed investigation. The inferred fault is highlighted by black dotted line in the
1195
central part of geomorphic map.
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Fig 3. Diagrammatic sketches of calculation of the fault parameters across various locations of Soan
1197
Thrust (ST) scarp. VS: Vertical separation of ground surface, VS min: minimum vertical
1198
separation of ground surface, VS max: maximum vertical separation of ground surface, SH: scarp
1199
height, DS: dip slip of fault, HD: horizontal displacement of fault, VD: vertical displacement of
1200
fault.
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Fig 4. Diagrammatic sketches of calculation of the fault parameters across various locations of Back
1202
Thrust (BT) scarp. VS: Vertical separation of ground surface, VS min: minimum vertical
1203
separation of ground surface, VS max: maximum vertical separation of ground surface, SH: scarp
36
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1204
height, DS: dip slip of fault, HD: horizontal displacement of fault, VD: vertical displacement of
1205
fault. Fig 5. Displacement profiles measured from fault scarp and folded terraces. The calculated parameters for
1207
both the thrusts BT and ST from fault scarp are shown here, (a) across the Back Thrust (BT) and
1208
(b) across the Soan Thrust measured along the strike distance measured from Beas River. The
1209
fault parameters show that the horizontal displacement is greater than vertical displacement and
1210
vertical separation for both the thrusts. The chronological constraints, convergence, slip and uplift
1211
rates (Thakur et al., 2014 and Jayangondaperumal et al., 2014) for both the thrusts are shown with
1212
horizontal displacement. (c) Relative Index of Active Tectonics (RIAT) distribution map of the
1213
study area. Higher class represents higher activity.
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Fig 6. GLA magnitude analysis of Soan dun showing (a) negative GLA magnitude anomaly marked by green triangles and (b) positive GLA anomalies marked by red triangles.
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Fig 7. (a) PSI velocity results in Kangra Reentrant of NW Himalaya. (b) Overlay of the PSI results onto
1217
the shaded relief topography DEM from CARTOSAT-1 and some major geological structures of
1218
the area. Mean Line of Sight (LOS) Velocity (MLV) in mm/y.
Fig 8. (a-b) Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and detailed geomorphic map of window-1 showing
1220
development of major geomorphic units, (c-d) development of fluvial terraces on the hanging
1221
wall of ST near Sansarpur. (e) Incision of Lower Siwalik rocks within the ST zone. These Siwalik
1222
beds are displaced by (f) Normal faulting parallel to ST. (g) satellite view of Parapur and Ranoh
1223
area showing offset of drainage pattern and vertically uplifted fluvial terraces and trace of paleo
1224
channel are observed within the faulted zone. Within the offset zone streams flowing across the
1225
fault zone. A trace of ~1.7 km long paleochannel of Ghagret ki Khad is clearly visible in the
1226
satellite image. (h) Field photograph of paleochannel. (I) shows ponding of the stream. (j) Sketch
1227
of two levels of vertically uplifted terraces observed near Ranoh locality. (k) Development of SW
1228
facing bedrock scarp has been observed near Ranoh locality.
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Fig 9. (a-b) Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and detailed geomorphic map of window-2 showing
1230
development of major geomorphic units. The inset shows NW and SE deflection of drainage
1231
towards the SW facing slope. Small solid black lines 1, 2, and 3 are the directions of topographic
1232
profiles. (c) Development of ~10 m high fault scarp of BT near Malwari, (d-e) two levels of
1233
fluvially modified fan terraces resting over the Siwalik sandstone observed at the footwall of ST,
1234
south of Joh locality. These terraces are tilted by 15° towards SW. (F) An uplifted ~10 m high
1235
section has been well exposed near Dangoh area where younger fluvial sediments overlying the
1236
older alluvial fan shows sharp aggradational contact. (g) Topographic profile constructed along 1,
1237
2, and 3 across inferred traces of fault shows development of fault scarp.
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1238
Fig 10. (a-b) Digital elevation model (DEM) and detailed geomorphic map of window-3 showing development of major geomorphic features.
(c) Variations in topographic profiles 4, 5, 6
1240
constructed along ST, profiles 7, 8, and 9 were constructed along BT, and profiles 10, 11 and 12
1241
were constructed along inferred fault. The position of all these profiles are shown in DEM. The
1242
topographic profile clearly shows that the Siwalik sediments along ST and BT are ridded over the
1243
younger fluvial sediments, whereas a sharp elevation drop has been observed in the central part of
1244
the basin along inferred SF. The fault/Thrusts are marked based on sudden elevation changes
1245
within the topographic profiles.
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Fig 11. (a-b) Digital elevation model (DEM) and detailed geomorphic map of window-4 showing
1247
development of major geomorphic features. (c) Variations in topographic profiles 13, 14, 15
1248
constructed along ST, profiles 16, 17, and 18 constructed along BT, and profiles 19, 20 and 21
1249
were constructed along inferred fault. The position of all these profiles are shown in DEM. The
1250
topographic profile clearly shows that the Siwaliks sediments along ST and BT are ridded over
1251
the younger fluvial sediments, whereas a sharp elevation drop has been observed in the central
1252
part of the basin along Inferred SF. The fault/Thrusts are marked based on sudden elevation
1253
changes within the topographic profiles.
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Fig 12. (a-b) Digital elevation model (DEM) and detailed geomorphic map of window-5 showing
1255
development of major geomorphic features. (c-d) Development of ~10 m high fluvial scarp along
1256
inferred SF. (e-f) Development of 12 m high NE heading alluvial fan terraces in the BT zone, and
1257
(g-h) presence of 15 m high tilted terraces near Palakhwa within the BT zone. These terraces are
1258
tilted by 13° toward NE. To understand topographic variations profiles 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, and 27
1259
are constructed along inferred trace of the fault. The topographic profiles clearly show that the
1260
upper older terraces are vertically separated from lower younger terraces along the trace of fault.
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Fig 13. (a-b) Digital elevation model (DEM) and detailed geomorphic map of window-6 showing
1262
development of major geomorphic features. Inset shows post folding NE-SW cross section of
1263
Janauri anticline, where folded strata are marked by black broken lines, Siwalik sediments are
1264
shown by yellow, older sediments are shown by light blue and the truncated fan sediments are
1265
shown by pink color. The respective ages of sediments are given in the inset (Modified after
1266
Thakur et al., 2014). The flat surface on the top of Janauri anticline is highlighted by green dotted
1267
polygon. Sutlej River is marked by thick black arrow curved line in Fig. 16b. Near Kalmot
1268
locality ~30 m high fault scarp of BT is well exposed. The fluvial sediments within section are (c)
1269
displaced by 2.5 m along BT. The sediments within the faulted block are highly deformed, (d-e)
1270
field photo showing deformation of sediments within the BT zone. (f, g, h, i) Field photographs
1271
shows displacement of sediments along the normal fault. Net 63 cm displacement has been
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observed within the faulted zone. (j, k) field photo shows development of ~5 m high fault scarp
1273
near Palahta with the BT zone. (l) Towards the back limb of Janauri anticline ~20 m high folded
1274
and tilted fluvial terraces has been observed on the hanging wall of BT. These terrace sediments
1275
are tilted by 25° toward NE (m) horizontally stratified gravel beds has been observed on the hinge
1276
zone of Janauri anticline. (n) Topographic profile 28-33 constricted across the inferred fault
1277
shows vertical offset of terraces in the central portion of the basin.
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Fig 14. Five stage evolutionary model of Soan dun represents (a) Foreland topography prior to 43 ka, (b)
1279
Development of back thrust around 43 ka which lead to upliftment of post Siwalik sediments. (c)
1280
formation of piggyback basin and development of Janauri anticline started around 43-36ka,
1281
leading to eastward migration of Sutlej river. (d) Progressive growth of anticline leading to the
1282
formation Soan dun until around 24 ka and the dun was filled by post Siwalik alluvial fan
1283
sediments. (e) The present day topography of Soan dun evolved after 12 ka.
1284
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Supplementary Fig.
1286
Supplementary Fig 1. Processing flowchart for Persistent Scattered InSAR (PSI) analysis adopted from
1287
European space agency SAR processing
1288
Supplementary Fig 2. (a-b) SL and Ks class contour of Soan dun area. The higher activity is represented
1289
by higher color order. Position of ST and BT is marked based on sharp linear changes in observed in the
1290
contour lines. Insets shows SL and KS class cross sections.
1291
Supplementary Fig 3. (a) GLA contour anomaly of Hinterland between BT and MBT, (b) GLA anomaly
1292
of Soan dun between BT and ST, and (c) GLA anomaly of HFT and foreland basin. The uplifted regions
1293
are highlighted by negative GLA, where the positive GLA indicates subsidence of the area.
1294
Supplementary Fig 4. Fig. depicts GLA anomaly magnitude analysis of hinterland and foreland areas
1295
with respect to Soan dun shows (a) Negative and positive GLA magnitude distribution between BT and
1296
MBT (Hinterland; (b) negative and positive anomaly of GLA between BT and HFT and adjoining areas
1297
of foreland region.
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Table 1: Calculated Fault Geometric parameter for Back Thrust (BT), Soan Thrust (ST) and inferred Soan Fault
BABEHAR AMBOA SAGHNAI OYAL TATERA
DS (m)
Fault parameter of Back Thrust HD (m) VD (m) VS (m)
PANDOGA
BT 1 BT 2 BT 3 BT 4 BT 5 BT 6
as (°) 35 35 35 35 35 35
8.7±2.3 22.5±2.3 32.1±6.3 15.8±0.4 9.7±1.6 29.11±11.5
NAKROH
ST1
30
51.6± 4.9
Fault Parameter of Soan Thrust 44.7 ± 4.3 19.8 ± 4.5 22.4± 3.8
MATAUNAGAR
ST2
30
104.4± 0.1
90.4±0.08
33.1±0.6
34.8± 0.5
AMB KHARIALA GHUNGRALA
ST3
30
32.3 ± 0.4
28. ± 0.4
16.2 ± 0.2
ST4 ST5 ST6
30 30 30
14.346 ± 1.1 78.1 ± 14.5 39.7 ± 18.4
12.4±0.9 67.6± 12.4 34.4± 15.9
7.2 ± 0.5 39.1 ± 7.1 19.8 ± 9.2
SF1
JOH
SCARP TYPE
30.5
SH>VS>VD
N SCARP
HD>VD
SH>VS>VD
N SCARP
HD>VD
18.4± 0.2
51.1 22.9
SH>VS>VD
N SCARP
7.5± 0.4 44.7± 5.6 24.1± 9.4
8.4 57.6 45.2
SH>VS>VD SH>VS>VD SH>VS>VD
N SCARP N SCARP N SCARP
HD>VD HD>VD HD>VD
45
20.6 ± 1.2
Fault Parameter of Soan Fault 14.6 ± 0.8 14.6 ± 0.8 14.4 ± 0.6
11.5
VD>VS>SH
R SCARP
HD=VD
SF2
45
16.6 ± 0.7
12.4 ± 0.6
11.1 ± 0.5
8.9 ± 1.5
11.4
SH>VD>VS
N SCARP
HD>VD
PRITHIPUR
SF3
45
5.6 ± 0.7
4.2 ± 0.5
3.7 ± 0.4
3.2
2.8
VD>VS>SH
R SCARP
HD>VD
DANGOH
SF4
45
6.3 ± 2.1
4.5 ± 1.5
4.5 ± 1.5
2.8 ± 0.1
2.69
VD>VS>SH
R SCARP
HD=VD
MUBARIKPUR
SF5
45
29.6 ± 6.9
21.9 ± 5.2
19.8 ± 4.6
14.9 ± 0.2
14.9
VD>VS>SH
R SCARP
HD>VD
JINDBAR
SF6
45
44.8 ± 10.4
33.3 ± 7.7
30 ± 6.9
19.4 ± 2.8
24.1
VD>SH>VS
R SCARP
HD>VD
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SC
HD>VD HD>VD HD>VD HD>VD HD>VD
12.7
N. SCARP R SCARP N SCARP N SCARP N SCARP N SCARP
BRICKSITE
5.2 ± 1.2 12.4± 0.9 11.9± 1.7 9± 0.1 5.6 ± 0.8 10±3
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4.5±1.3 13± .3 11±2.1 9 ± 0.2 5.6± 0.9 10±3.5
RESULTS SH>VS>VD VD>VS>SH SH>VS>VD SH>VS>VD SH>VS>VD SH>VS>VD
DHATWARA
7.1 ± 2 18.4 ± 2 30.2 ± 6 12.9 ± 0.3 7.9 ± 1.3 27.4± 10.9
SH (m) 9.05 10.7 14.7 10.7 6.7
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FAULT
EP
LOCALITY
HD>VD
HD>VD
SF7
45
12.3 ± 1.4
27.6 ±11.3
20.5 ± 8.4
18.5 ± 7.5
10.2
VD>VS>SH
R SCARP
HD>VD
SALURI
SF8
45
37 ± 5.9
27.5 ± 4.4
24.7± 3.9
18.4 ± 1.8
22
VD>SH>VS
R SCARP
HD>VD
NARI
SF9
45
19.1 ± 0.4
14.2 ± 0.3
12.7± 0.3
13.7 ± 0.2
18.6
SH>VS>VD
N SCARP
HD>VD
JHALERA
SF10
45
23.1 ± 10.3
17.2 ± 7.6
15.4 ± 6.8
8.5 ± 0.6
11.2
VD>SH>VS
R SCARP
HD>VD
KUTHARKLAN
SF11
45
31.8± 5.1
23.6 ± 3.7
21.3 ± 3.4
16.7± 0.9
18.3
VD>SH>VS
R SCARP
HD>VD
FATEHPUR
SF12
45
21.9 ± 4.7
16.3 ± 3.5
14.7 ± 3.1
10.1 ± 0.8
VD>SH>VS
R SCARP
HD>VD
SH>VD>VS
N SCARP
HD>VD
VD>VS>SH
R SCARP
HD=VD
VD>SH>VS
R SCARP
HD=VD
SH>VD>VS
N SCARP
HD>VD
SH>VS>VD
N SCARP
HD>VD
VD>VS>SH
R SCARP
HD>VD
VD>SH>VS
R SCARP
HD>VD
RI PT
BADAUN
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SF15
UNA BHANAM DASGRAIN MAHAIN ANANDPUR SAHIB
SF16 SF17 SF18 SF19
45 45 45 45 45 45
12.6± 0.8 7.6 ± 2.1 16.7± 4.5 2.3 ± 0.2 7.2 ± 1.3 11.6 ± 1.9 14.5 ± 3.9
9.4 ± 0.6 5.3 ± 1.4 11.8 ± 3.2 1.7± 0.1
8.4 ± 0.5 5.3 ± 1.5
11.8 ± 3.2 1.6 ± 0.1
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SF14
45
5.3 ± 1
8.6 ± 1.4
EP
DAYAPUR
SF13
10.8 ± 2.9
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SEHJOWAL
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13.9
4.8 ± 0.9 7.8 ± 1.3
6.1 ± 1.5
9.4
3.7 ± 0.2
3.2
8.8 ± 0.2
8.9
1.2 ± 0.2
2.2 4.9 ± 1.1
5.8 6.3± 0.1
5.2 9.7 ± 2.6
7.5± 0.6
8.5
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S1040-6182(18)30968-6
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2019.02.016
Reference:
JQI 7757
To appear in:
Quaternary International
Received Date: 15 August 2018 Revised Date:
11 January 2019
Accepted Date: 14 February 2019
Please cite this article as: Kothyari, G.C., Joshi, N., Taloor, A.K., Kandregula, R.S., Kotlia, B.S., Pant, C.C., Singh, R.K., Landscape evolution and deduction of surface deformation in the Soan Dun, NW Himalaya, India, Quaternary International (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2019.02.016. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Landscape evolution and deduction of surface deformation in the Soan Dun, NW Himalaya, India: Girish Ch Kothyaria*, Neha Joshia, Ajay Kumar Taloorb, Raj Sunil Kandregulaa, Bahadur Singh Kotliac, Charu C Pantc and Rohit Kumar Singhd a
b
Institute of Seismological Research, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India Department of Remote Sensing and GIS, University of Jammu, Jammu, India c Department of Geology, Kumaun University, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India d Earth Science Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India *Corresponding author: Girish Ch Kothyari E-mail: [email protected]
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Abstract: The consequence of strain accumulation along various Himalayan thrusts is manifested in
15
shaping the topography and present day lanscape features of the Himalaya. Consequently, the strain
16
accomodation is attributed to the occurrence of various devastating earthquakes in the Himalayan domain
17
including 1905 Kangra earthquake (Mw 7.8) which occurred along the Kangra valley fault. In the present
18
study, we analyzed and estimated fault related parameters, gradient-length anomaly (GLA) analysis
19
together with Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (In-SAR) measurements to understand the
20
landscape evolution and deformation pattern within the Soan dun (piggy back basin) in the northwest
21
Himalayan front. We combined the results of geodetic, geological, geomorphology and InSAR to
22
constrain the uplift and subsidence between Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) and Main Boundary Thrust
23
(MBT) zones. The estimated results of fault parameters reveal that the horizontal shortening of northwest
24
Himalaya is higher than the vertical uplift. The computed values of GLA magnitude analysis for the
25
uplifted region vary from -9.21 to -0.77, whereas these range from 5.48 to 26.60 for the subsided region.
26
The depicted range of vertical deformation observed from the InSAR measurements ranges from -3.13 to
27
+3.14 mm/y, where the positive and negative value of phases are correlated with the ground uplift and
28
subsidence. The rate of deformation observed from Persistent Scatterer Interferometry (PSI) phase
29
velocity and GLA magnitude is positively supported by the chronologically constrained uplift rates as 3.4
30
± 0.3 mm/y. The geomorphic evidences such as folded, tilted and truncated alluvial fan surfaces,
31
offsetting of channels, fault scarps and displaced sedimentary sequences indicate active nature of the Soan
32
dun. The study would be eventually useful for seismic hazard assessment and future infrastructure
33
development in the seismotectonically active regions like Soan dun of NW Himalayan front.
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Keywords: Active Tectonics, Geomorphic evidences, Soan Dun (Himachal Pradesh), Northwest
36
Himalaya
37 38
1. Introduction 1
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The 2500 km long and ~300 km wide stretch of the Himalayan mountain chain is a result of the inter-
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continental collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates (Molnar and Tapponier, 1975; Bilham and
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Gaur, 2000; Bilham, 2004; Valdiya, 2010). The Himalayan range has witnessed the occurrence of several
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earthquakes in the span of last two hundred years i.e. 1897 Shillong earthquake (Mw ~ 8.7), 1905 Kangra
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earthquake (Mw ~ 7.8), the 1934 Bihar-Nepal earthquake (Mw ~ 8.1), and the 1950 Assam earthquake (Mw
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~ 8.4) (Pandey and Molnar, 1988; Yeast and Thakur, 1998; Ambraseys and Bilham, 2000; Ambraseys
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and Douglas, 2004; Malik and Nakata, 2003; Kumar et al., 2006; Joshi and Thakur, 2016). Most recently,
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the Himalayas were shaken up by the 2015 Gorkha Nepal earthquake (Mw ~ 7.8) and 2015, Afghanistan
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earthquake ( Mw ~ 7.5) (Sahoo and Malik, 2017, Bilham et al., 2017). All these earthquakes are
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considered to have occurred along the Main Himalayan Thrusts (MHT) system (Seeber and Armbruster,
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1981; Yeats and Thakur, 1998; Avouac, 2003; Kumar et al., 2006; Ader et al., 2012; Sapkota et al., 2013).
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The great earthquake of 1905 (Mw ~ 7.8) in Kangra valley in the NW Himalaya was one of the most
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devastating in the history (Pandey and Molnar, 1988; Ambraseys and Bilham, 2000; Ambraseys and
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Douglas, 2004; Kumar et al., 2006; Malik et al., 2015; Szeliga and Bilham, 2017; Fig. 1a). The causes
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and mechanism of these earthquakes had been studied by many researchers. Furthermore, the
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geomorphic, geodetic and paleoseismological studies reveal that several active fault/thrust seems
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responsible for occurrence of a future earthquake (Malik and Nakata 2003; Phillip et al., 2010;
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Jayangondaperumal et al., 2017; Kothyari et al., 2010, 2012; Dumka et al., 2014a,b). Therefore, the
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geomorphic and palaeoseismological mapping of active fault segments play a vital role in evaluating and
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estimating the seismic hazard by synthesizing the surficial evidences of historical earthquakes (Malik and
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Nakata, 2003; Phillip et al., 2010; Jayangondaperumal et al., 2017).
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Conventionally, the fault geometry and amount of offset on the causative fault can be evaluated
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using the surface rupture produced by a large earthquake (Caskey, 1995; Amos et al., 2010; Yang et al.,
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2015) which will aid in evaluating seismic hazard analyses and characterization of faults (Jackson et al.,
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1982; Beanland et al., 1989). The fault geometric parameters have been calculated by estimating down
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dip displacement, throw, heave, scarp height, vertical height and angle between the crest and toe of a fault
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scarp, slope angle of scarp and the original ground surfaces displaced by the fault (Wallace, 1980;
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Caskey, 1995).
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Geomorphic approaches and computational modelling of DEM have frequently been used to
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evaluate the geometry of active faults and deformation zones (Silva et al., 2003; Ganas et al., 2005;
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Dehbozorgi et al., 2010; Figueroa and Knott, 2010; Özkaymak and Sözbilir, 2012; Petrovszki et al., 2012;
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Ambili and Narayana, 2014; Jacques et al., 2014; Žibret and Žibret, 2014; 2017; Kothyari, 2015; Kothyari
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and Luirei, 2016; Kothyari et al., 2017a, b, 2018). The stream length-gradient (SL; steepness (Ks) indices
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are widely used to assess the regional scale tectonic deformation (Hack, 1973; Kirby and Whipple, 2012; 2
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Whipple et al., 2013). However, results of these indices sometimes are not consistent because of the
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impact of regional/local scale rock erodibility/strength, climate and vegetation (Zaprowski et al., 2005;
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Wobus et al., 2006; Whittaker, 2012; Goldrick and Bishop, 2007; Pérez-Peña et al., 2009; Vágó, 2010;
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Žibret and Žibret, 2014, 2017). Therefore, the computational analysis of high resolution DEM becomes an
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important tool to deduce tectonically controlled surface deformation pattern (Cunningham et al., 2006).
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The Gradient-length anomaly (GLA) is an appropriate and independent geomorphic parameter which
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significantly detects surface deformation (uplift/subsidence) caused by an active fault on local and
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regional scale (Žibret and Žibret 2014, 2017). The differential interferometry based studies by the single
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frequency C and L-band SAR data have been frequently used to identify the location of ongoing
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deformation in the tectonically active regions (Stow and Wright, 1997; Perski, 1998a, 2000b; Burgmann
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et al., 2000; Strozzi et al., 2001; Perski and Jura, 2003; Engel Brecht et al., 2011; Gong, 2011; Yue et al.,
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2011; Chatterjee et al., 2015; Yhokha et al., 2015). Recent studies based on space borne X-band SAR data
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combined with C- and L band data have also been used to understand the active surface deformation
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(Satyabala and Bilham, 2006; Walter et al., 2009; Ashrafianfar et al., 2011; Grandin et al., 2012; Wang
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and Wright, 2012). The spatial and temporal base lines of C-band DInSAR data are inadequate to
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evaluate active deformation than L-band DInSAR (Guang et al., 2009; Yue et al., 2011). However, the C-
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band DInSAR is used to deduce minor deformation by using measurement of the velocity subsidence.
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The space-borne InSAR has an inbuilt advance technique for monitoring ongoing active deformations
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(e.g., Chang et al., 2004 a, b; Yen et al., 2007; Hooper et al., 2004; Burgmann et al., 2000) over a wider
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area.
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The geomorphic features are very useful archives to identify the extent of recent crustal
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deformation in local and regional scale (Suppe, 1983; Suppe and Medwedeff, 1990; Erslev, 1991; Lavé
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and Avouac, 2000; Thompson et al., 2002; Hardy and Poblet, 2005; Dolan and Avouac, 2007; Agarwal et
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al., 2009; Caskey 1995; Amos et al., 2010; Thakur et al., 2014). Based on the geomorphology and
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paleoseismology, earlier studies have provided possibilities of the occurrence of earthquakes in the Soan
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dun (Malik and Nakata, 2003; Delcaillau et al., 2006; Phillip et al., 2010; Thakur et al., 2014;
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Jayangondaperumal et al., 2017).
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In this research, we document active fault geomorphology along the Back Thrust (BT) and Soan
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Thrust (ST) within the Soan dun and propose a theoretical evolutionary model to understand the episodes
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of landscape evolution. To delineate wide range deformation pattern parallel and perpendicular to the BT
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and ST, we integrated results of geomorphic, topographic, morphometric and GLA anomalies.
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Addiitionally, we applied two different InSAR techniques such as Persistent Scatterer Interferometry
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(PSI) and Atmospheric Correction InSAR (ACI) for monitoring surface deformation within the Soan dun
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and adjoining areas. 3
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Fig. 1
107 108 109
2. Geology and tectonic set-up of the area
110 Geologically, the topographic front of the NW Himalaya is occupied by Siwalik sediments (molasse),
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which is bouneded by Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) in the north and Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) in
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the south (Agarwal and Shukla, 2005; Bhattacharya and Agarwal, 2008; Phillip et al., 2010; Valdiya,
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2010; Kotlia et al., 2018). These molasses sediments are predominantly comprise of mudstones and
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siltstones belonging to the lower Siwalik, which is overlain by sandstones of the middle Siwalik followed
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by the boulder conglomerate of the upper Siwalik group of rocks (Johnson et al., 1982; Kumar et al.,
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1991; Wesnousky et al., 1999; Agarwal and Shukla, 2005; Bhattacharya and Agarwal, 2008). These
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sediments are dismembered by many active splays of adjacent major thrust system, forming most active
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mountain chain in the frontal part of the NW Himalaya (Malik and Mohanty, 2007; Malik et al., 2010).
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The two-major thrust systems, i.e., MBT and HFT have displaced the Siwalik sediments and formed the
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delimiting boundary for tectonically controlled elongated piggy back basin called Duns (Fig.1b) (Nakata,
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1972; Wesnousky et al., 1999; Phillip et al., 2010; Valdiya, 2010). In NW Himalaya, the Soan Thrust
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(ST) separates the Lower Siwalik Hills to the north and Soan dun to the south, whereas the Back Thrust is
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defined by the backlimb of the Janauri anticline (Figs. 1 b-c) (Malik et al., 2010; Thakur et al., 2014). The
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Janauri anticline is the youngest foreland fold formed prior to 43ka and separated from Indo-Gangetic
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Plain by the HFT, thus delimiting the southern boundary of the NW sub-Himalaya against to the Ganga
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Plain (Nakata, 1972; Powers et al., 1998; Delcaillau et al., 2006; Malik and Mohanty, 2007; Thakur et al.,
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2014; Joshi and Thakur 2016; Jayangondaperumal et al., 2017). Owing to the presence of various active
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splays of MBT and HFT in NW Himalaya, i.e., Bilaspur Thrust (BpT), Barasar Thrust (BrT), Soan Thrust
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(ST), Back Thrust (BT), the Soan dun is considered as neotectonically active (Malik and Mohanty, 2007)
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(Fig. 1c).
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3. Generalized Geomorphology
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Geomorphologically, the area comprises a NW-SE oriented, 120 km long and 5-17 km wide piggy back
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basin (Soan dun) which occupies an area of ~ 1,193 km2 (Figs. 2a-b) and is surrounded by two active hills
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of Siwalik namely Janauri Anticline (JA) in the south and Kangra reentrant in the north (Figs. 1 b-c). The
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Soan dun lies between the Lower Siwalik hills to its north and the Sub-Himalayan range (Upper Siwalik)
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in the south (Malik et al., 2010; Thakur et al., 2014). Both the ridges are an integral part of the folded
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Siwalik strata (Thakur et al., 2014). The two antecedent rivers, Sutlej and Beas flow through the 4
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northwestern and southeastern fringes of the Soan dun (Fig. 1b). The 40 km long Soan River originates
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from Siwalik Hills, flows towards southeast in the axial part of Soan dun, and ultimately joins the Sutlej
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River near Dasgrain (Fig. 2). Both the rivers pass through the Janauri Anticline before entering into the
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Indo-Gangetic Plain. Fig. 2
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The Late Quaternary deformation and geomorphic development (anticlinal ridge) in the frontal part of
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foreland basin is caused by horizontal shear shortening between HFT and BT. The mechanism which
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earlier workers proposed for the formation of this anticlinal ridge was ‘fault propagated fold’ system of
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active thrust mountain belt (Delcaillau et al., 2006; Malik et al., 2010). The lateral migration of these two
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individual fault segments towards each other led to the folding of sediments in the foreland basin prior to
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43 ka (Delcaillau et al., 2006; Malik and Mohanty, 2007; Malik et al., 2010; Srivastava et al., 2013;
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Thakur et al., 2014). The surface deformation between HFT and MBT had profound influence on the
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drainage system of the area (Delcaillau et al., 2006). The N-S flowing Sutlej River took southeasterly turn
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as Janauri anticlinal ridge emerged approximately 150 m higher with respect to the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
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The central top flat portion (filled with post Siwalik sediments) of Janauri ridge represents paleo water
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gap of the Sutlej River (Delcaillau et al., 2006; Malik and Mohanty, 2007; Malik et al., 2010). The
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emergence of the anticlinal ridge not only affected the drainage system but also led to the formation of a
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wide dun (Malik and Mohanty, 2007) towards the back limb of the anticline, i.e., Soan dun (Fig. 2b). The
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linear NW-SE alignment of mountain front and truncation of alluvial fan surfaces within the Soan dun
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reveals the presence of active deformation along the NW-SE oriented BT and ST. The NE facing slope of
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Janauri anticline, shows a sudden topographic break across the strike of the BT. The neotectonic features,
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such as, strath terraces, diversion of streams, ponding of streams, fault scarps, triangular facets and
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offsetting of alluvial fans are remarkable geomorphic expressions of tectonic activity that has been
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observed throughout the Soan dun.
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4. Methodology
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In the present study, we used CARTOSAT (2.5m resolution) satellite data and analyzed conventional
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geomorphic indices of active tectonics to evaluate the extent of deformation pattern in the NW Himalayan
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region. The geomorphic indices were used as an elementary tool for quantitative analysis of stream
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channels influenced by active tectonics (see Keller and Pinter, 2002). We evaluated stream-length
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gradient index (SL), steepness index (Ks), hypsometric integral (HI) and drainage basin asymmetry (Af)
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for the quantitative study of 111 sub-basins of Beas, Soan and Sutlej rivers. The computed values
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acquired from each parameter were further classified into five classes for evaluating Relative Index of 5
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Active Tectonics (RIAT). The details of each parameter are given in supplementary document and
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illustrated in supplementary Fig. 2b. Further, we evaluated geometric fault parameters for the Soan and
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Back thrust (ST and BT) (Figs. 3-4) using the empirical relationship proposed by Caskey (1995) and
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Yang et al. (2015). In addition, we used a newly developed technique (i.e. GLA magnitude analysis) to
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deduce tectonic deformation along the river courses, as recommended by Žibret and Žibret (2014, 2017).
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Also, we used InSAR technique to appraise regional scale surface deformation between the HFT and
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MBT by acquiring Sentinel-1A data for the period from October 2014 – October 2016. The Sentinel-1A
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data sets of ascending orbit with polarization of VV, Beam Mode IW were processed by persistent
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scattered InSAR (PSI) technique. The details of the method adopted for processing of PSI have provided
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in supplementary Fig.1. The cloud-free and day-and-night land observations were made using an active
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microwave sensor of L-band frequency of the Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR). Depending on the number
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of scans, the SAR is allowed to acquire a wide width of SAR images at the expense of spatial resolution,
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which is three to five times wider than conventional SAR images. We used high-resolution CARTOSAT-
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1 DEM data (downloaded from http://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in/ data/download/index.php) to calculate
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morphometric indices, GLA magnitude analysis, fault related parameters and to delineate the distribution
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of active fault features within the Soan dun. 3D perspective view and shaded relief image was generated
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to observe the stream offset, paleo water gap, linearity of mountain fronts, vertical and lateral offset of
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alluvial fan, and active fault scarps. Further, the field investigations were carried out to map geologic and
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geomorphic features such as alluvial fans, fault scarps and faults to verify the ongoing activity in the Soan
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dun.
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4.1 Gradient Length Analysis (GLA)
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The gradient length analysis (GLA) is a recently developed method to understand the tectonic
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deformation of an active region. The method is statistically modified form of widely used SL and Ks
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analysis. The SL and Ks sometimes fail to deduct the minor tectonic deformation (Goldrick and Bishop,
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2007; Pérez-Peña et al., 2009; Vágó, 2010; Žibret and Žibret, 2014) because of the impact of regional
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scale rock erodibility, climate and vegetation (Zaprowski et al., 2005; Wobus et al., 2006; Whittaker,
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2012). Therefore, the GLA magnitude is an alternative independent geomorphic technique (see Žibret and
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Žibret, 2014, 2017) which is capable of detecting minor disturbance (uplift/subsidence) caused by a
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tectonic movement along the longitudinal course of river channel. In the steady state condition, the river
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profile follows an exponential curve with decreasing trend of elevation along its course (Žibret and Žibret,
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2014, 2017) and the exponential form can be expressed as:
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H= e-KL+n
(1) 6
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where, H is altitude of the trunk stream, L is the distance from the source measured in the downstream
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direction, and k and n are the specific coefficients derived from the best-fit exponent regression curve of
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the river. dH = dLe-KL
(2)
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dH/dL = e-KL
(3)
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where dH/dL is the gradient of the stream measured for each segment. It is clear from the equation that
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the gradient decreases exponentially and has negative sign. The best-fit approximation of the actual river
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gradient on the river profile is represented by K (e.g, Žibret and Žibret, 2014, 2017). The negative values
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provided by GLA reflect anomalous uplift along the profile and positive values can be correlated with
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subsided areas. The observed negative and positive values of GLA may have association with active
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tectonic movements and climatic factors (enhancing or diminishing erosional effect) and interruptions
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posed by any anthropogenic activity (Žibret and Žibret, 2014, 2017). The negative and positive values
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can be calculated using equations
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GL Lborder = e-KL+nσ
(4)
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GL Lborder = e-KL+nσ
5)
where, σ is the standard deviation computed as the difference between observed and actual values of river
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gradient (Eq. (4-5), (Žibret and Žibret, 2014, 2017). The value of n is selected to obtain the desired best-
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fit curve of the method to delimit the upper and lower limits of GLA. The DIF is the difference between
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the natural logarithm of the absolute and predicted values (Eq. 6) obtained from the river bed gradient,
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i.e., dH/dL (Eq. (7) and imax is the number of river gradient measured along the longitudinal length of river
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course (Žibret and Žibret, 2014, 2017).
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DIF = In (∆h/ ∆l measured – ∆h/ ∆l expected)
(7)
The GL anomalies results, when:
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∆h/ ∆l < GL Lborder GLUborder< ∆h/ ∆l
The final value of the GL-anomaly is given by Eq. (8) (Žibret and Žibret, 2014, 2017)
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(8)
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The GLA analysis was carried out for 196 drainage basins of Soan dun including hinterland and foreland
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areas covering the most significant tectonic lineaments such as HFT, BT, ST and MBT. We have
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observed a good correlation of the results as predicted by Žibret and Žibret, 2014, 2017. The frontal part
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near HFT is extensively deteriorated by agricultural activities and household purposes. Therefore, the
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values in such portions of the basin cannot be estimated properly, but the areas which are unaffected by
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such activities show a good range of GLA anomalies.
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The calculation of fault parameter is to bring out the tectonic and geometric evolution of an active fault
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scarp (Stewart, 1990; Caskey, 1995; Amos et al., 2010; Yang et al., 2015). The parameters such as dip
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slip (DS; horizontal displacement (HD) and vertical displacement (VD; vertical separation (VS) and scarp
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height (SH) (Figs. 4-5) are globally used for calculating the deformation characteristics, active tectonism
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and seismic hazards, generated along an active segment of the fault scarp (Yang et al., 2015) who
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proposed a mathematical relationship among various parameters for reverse as well as normal scarp of
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reverse fault. Further, Caskey, 1995 derived the relationship for normal fault scarp by assuming the
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ground surface of hanging and footwall of a fault are parallel. The vertical component (VD) and
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horizontal component (HD) of dip slip of a fault for normal scarp are expressed by following equations.
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VD = DS sinθ
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= {(x (ms - mf) + bs - bf)/ (sinθ + mfcosθ) + x (mh - ms) + bh-bs)/ (sinθ + mhcosθ)} sinθ
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HD = DS cosθ
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(10)
= {(x (ms-mf) + bs-bf)/ (sinθ + mfcosθ) + x (mh - ms) + bh-bs)/ (sinθ + mhcosθ)} cosθ
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SH = y1-y2
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The vertical separation (VS) or vertical offset of the ground surface lies between the minimum
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(VSmin.) and the maximum vertical separation (VSmax.) which is expressed as
(11)
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VSmax = x1(mh – mf) + bh-bf
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VSmin = x2(mh – mf) + bh-bf
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VSmin ≤ VS ≤ VSmax
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Where, x is the absicca of fault tip on scarp face, mf, ms, mh are slope of footwall, scarp face and
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hanging wall respectively, θ is the fault dip angle (Yang et al., 2015) and SH represents scarp
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height, calculated by the difference between the maximum and minimum height of scarp face (Figs.
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4-5).
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Fig. 3
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Fig. 4
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(9)
5. Results
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(12)
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5.1 Relative Index of Active Tectonics (RIAT)
275 We have used the geomorphic indices to evaluate potential area of tectonic activity within the Soan dun
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by evaluating relative index of tectonic activity (RIAT). The quantitative analysis of five morphometric
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parameters for 111 basins in the study area was averaged to estimate the RIAT (El Hamdouni et al.,
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2008). This indices was arbitrarily divided into five classes (Fig. 5c, supplementary Table-1) in the order
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of increasing potential tectonic activity, i.e., class-1 (least active, RIAT< 2.5; class-2 (active, RIAT 2.5 –
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2.75; class-3 (moderately active, RIAT 2.75–3; class-4 (very active, RIAT 3–3.25; and class-5 (extremely
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active RIAT > 3.25). The RIAT class distribution shows about 15% area covering 350 km2 is less active,
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17% area covering 400 km2 is active, 22% area covering 506 km2 is moderately active, 36% are covering
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812 km2 is very active and 10% area covering 210 km2 is extremely active (see Fig. 5c).
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The topographic profiles are obtained across active fault scarps of the ST and BT within the Soan dun
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using high resolution DEM data. The geomorphic data of our field investigations are combined with
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previously published data, to highlight the actual position of the ST and BT on the DEM. We extracted 12
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profiles from the folded fault scarp at various locations within the Dun, i.e., six profiles each across
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normal scarp of the ST (Fig. 3) and BT (Fig. 4) of Janauri anticline. The parameters provide considerable
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variations in the values calculated from the fault scarp profiles of ST and BT (Table 1). In most cases, the
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scarp height (SH) is greater than the vertical separation (VS) and vertical displacement (VD), which
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correlates well with the relationship given by Yang et al. (2015) for normal nature of the scarp i.e., SH ≥
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VS ≥ VD. It was observed that the horizontal displacement (HD) of these fault scarps is much greater that
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vertical displacement (VD) and is in accordance with studies done by Yeats and Lillie, 1991. For
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example, along BT, the values of SH range from ~14.7 to 6.7m from northwest to southeast (Table 1, Fig.
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5a; VD ranges from 13 ± 0.3 to 4.5 ± 1.3 m, and the HD ranges from 30.2 ± 6m to 7.1 ± 2 m. Similarly,
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values along ST for SH range from 57.6 to 8.4 m, VD ranges from 39.1 ± 7.1 to 7.2 ± 0.5 m, and HD
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ranges from 39.1 ± 7.1 to 7.2 ± 0.5 m. The published results of GPS observation from the NW Himalaya
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by Powers et al., 1998; Banerjee and Burgmann, 2002 suggested that the horizontal shortening between
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HFT and MBT is around 14 ± 1 mm/y, which is consistent all along the NW Himalayan front (Thakur et
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al., 2014). We plotted each individual measurement of fault geometric parameters against along-strike
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distance measured from the Beas River at the northwestern termination of the Janauri anticline and
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Siwalik hills for BT and ST (Figs. 5a-b). Along the strike distance of ST and BT the individual profiles
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display irregular shape and variations of the maximum displacement.
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Fig. 5
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Conventionally, in the subsiding sedimentary basin like Soan dun, the sediments are usually
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subjected to compaction owing to increasing effective stresses, potentially in both the vertical and
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horizontal directions (see Bjørlykke, 2006). The lateral stress is primarily transmitted through the
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detachment surface because of southward propagation of thrusts and secondly due to vertical stresses
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through the compacted sediments of low porosity over large distance (Bjørlykke, 2006). The high
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horizontal stress within the Soan dun is however, regulated by both the processes, i.e., transmission of
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stress through detachment surface and compaction of sediments. The vertical stress is driven by the
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thickness of overburden in the direction of minimum stress without significant shortening in the vertical
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direction with respect to imposed horizontal compressive stress (Bjørlykke, 2006). However, within the
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piggy back basin (Duns) increase of the horizontal displacement is only possible because consolidated
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sediments mechanically produce a significant elastic horizontal strain parallel to the thrusts (see
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Bjørlykke, 2006). If there is no shortening of the basin due to tectonic activity, the horizontal
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displacement cannot be greater than the vertical displacement. Therefore, the increase of the horizontal
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displacement estimated from fault geometric parameter is correlated with the elastic horizontal strain
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along ST and BT.
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5.3. Gradient Length Analysis (GLA)
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Three major rivers, i.e., Beas, Soan and Sutlej, traversing across four major thrusts, e.g., MBT, ST, BT
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and HFT were examined for GLA (Fig. 6). These three major river basins collectively consist of 196 sub
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drainage basins, covering an area of ~23,066 km2. To understand the response of active thrusts, detailed
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analysis was carried out within the Soan dun and adjoining regions, including the foreland, Soan dun and
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hinterland basins, located between the HFT and MBT zones (Figs. 6 a-b, Supplementary Fig. 3). We
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analyzed ~17,670 locations, out of which ~8747 locations gave negative GLA values ranging from -9.21
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to -0.77 and ~8923 locations showed positive GLA values ranges between 5.48 and 26.60 respectively. A
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total of about 8182 locations from 23 tributary streams of the Beas River were analyzed, (Supplementary
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Fig. 3a) out of which 3950 showed and 4232 showed positive values. Within the Soan dun, ~8336 data
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points were acquired, where the negative values of GLA range from -9.21 to -0.12, and the positive
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values range between 0.01 and 15.26. The estimated values of GLA for ST zone ranges from -1.91 to -
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0.02 for uplifted regions and 0.01 to 15.26 for subsided locations. Similarly, for the BT zone, the GLA
339
values lie between -9.21 and -0.01 for uplifts and 0.02 to 10.06 for subsided regions (Fig. 6).
340
Furthermore, towards the foreland region of Janauri anticline, approximately 60 sub-basins were analyzed
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341
to understand the tectonic response, associated with the HFT (Supplementary Fig. 3c). The estimated
342
values of negative GLA range between -0.77 to -0.01 and the positive values vary between 0.01 and 5.5. Fig. 6
343 344
5.4 Crustal deformation and InSAR studies
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345 We used red, green and blue (RGB) color scale patterns to differentiate the Persistent Scattered
347
Interferometry (PSI) phase velocity. The depicted range of vertical deformation in the area varies
348
between -3.13 and +3.14 mm/y (Figs. 7a-b). The positive values of PSI indicate reduction in the base line
349
length of Persistent Scatterer (PS) and points towards the satellite, whereas the negative value indicates an
350
increase of the base line length from the satellite along the radar line-of-sight (LOS). These positive and
351
negative values of phases were correlated with the ground uplift subsidence with respect to the hanging
352
wall and footwall of the thrusted block. Fig. 7a represents estimated range of surface deformation velocity
353
with respect to LOS towards the satellite depicted from PSI investigations. The deformation pattern
354
observed from the phase analysis varies from place to place. A significant amount of deformation (i.e.
355
uplift and subsidence) is observed towards the footwall block of the HFT zone. The observed filtered
356
phases of PSI show subsidence in Dasuya, Garhdiwala, Garhshankar and south of Bholewala, Fatehpur
357
and Kurali locations, whereas Hariana, Hoshiarpur, Mahilpur, Fatehpur, Kurali and surroundings of
358
Chandigarh show a significant amount of uplift (Figs. 7 a-b). A small amount of subsidence and uplift is
359
recorded in the northwestern, central and southeastern parts of Janauri anticline. The hanging wall zone of
360
the HFT and northwestern flank together with the area located between the step over zone of the Janauri
361
and the Chandigarh anticlines shows uplift. The Pinjore Dun area, NE of Chandigarh anticline indicates a
362
significant subsidence, whereas, the Buddi locality in the central portion of Chandigarh anticline reflects
363
surface uplift. There is a linear trend of uplift and subsidence within the BT zone of Janauri anticline.
364
Additionally, the Soan dun area shows uplift towards the northwestern (between Joh and Sansarpur) and
365
southeastern part (Nangal and Kiratpur Sahib whereas, the central part between Nangal and Joh shows
366
subsidence. A large area between hanging wall block of the ST and footwall block of Jwalamukhi thrust
367
(JMT) shows uplift, whereas, the subsidence is deciphered in the central portion (in and around Sujanpur)
368
of the JMT and BpT. The uplift is viewed towards the footwall block of the BpT and hanging wall of the
369
Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) (Figs. 7 a-b). Large areas of subsidence are noticed towards the southern
370
part of the MBT zone, adjacent to Solan, whereas, Shimla and adjoining regions show significant amount
371
of uplift. The unusual mining and landslides are difficult to get identified in the PSI results (Meisina et al.,
372
2008; Yhokha et al., 2015). Hence, the results of PSI suggest negligible amount of surface deformation
373
south of Chandigarh as well as south of Solan (footwall of the MBT) owing to mining and landslide
374
activities. However, the observed surface deformation pattern between the HFT and MBT with respect to
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baseline velocity are considered to have been principally caused by Holocene active fault/thrust
376
movements (Kumar et al., 2001; Malik and Nakata, 2003; Malik and Mohanty, 2007; Philip, 2007; Philip
377
et al., 2006; Malik et al., 2010a, b, 2015; Sahoo and Malik, 2017). The rate of deformation pattern, -3.13
378
to +3.14 mm/y, as deduced by the PSI, can be positively correlated with the palaeoseismic evidences,
379
shown by previous workers (Kumar et al., 2001, 2006; Malik et al., 2010; Jayangondaperumal et al.,
380
2011, 2017; Kumahara and Jayangondaperumal, 2012; Thakur et al., 2014).
381 Fig. 7
382
384
6. Geomorphic evidences/river response to active tectonics
385
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The Soan dun is composed of Quaternary sediments which are deposited in the form of the alluvial fan
387
terraces and valley fill deposits of variable sizes (Fig. 2b) and are dissected by the ST in North and BT in
388
South (Malik and Mohanty, 2007). Geomorphologically, the Soan dun is located between two different
389
domains of the northeast (Siwalik hills of Miocene age) and southwest (Janauri anticline of Late
390
Quaternary age). For detailed geomorphic analysis of the landform, the entire area was divided into six
391
geomorphic windows namely, Sansarpur and Amroha (window-1; Mandwara and Banehra (window-2;
392
Amboa and Amb (window-3; Tatera and Nari (window-4; Nari and Palakhwa (window-5; and the
393
window-6 covering the area between Tahliwal and Palahta localities (Fig. 2a).
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6.1 Sansarpur – Amroh (Window-1)
396
The window-1 occupies an area of 204.9 km2 and marks the northwestern corner of the study area (Figs. 8
398
a-b). Structurally, this window is located between Back Thrust (BT) and Soan Thrust (ST), demarcating
399
the northeastern and southwestern boundaries of the Soan dun. The ST has brought the Middle Siwalik
400
over Upper Siwalik and younger post Siwalik sediments (Powers et al., 1998). The ST, tectonically and
401
physiographically, separates the Middle Siwalik sandstone or the Upper Siwalik conglomerate from the
402
Late Quaternary-Holocene Soan dun sediments (Thakur et al., 2014). The footwall trace of the ST seems
403
to demarcate the recent basin sediments and sub- recent sediments that comprise alluvial fans and fluvial
404
terraces. At Sansarpur village (31.927606°N, 75.924623°E), a single set of strath terraces composed of
405
rounded to well-rounded boulders (Fig. 8c) is well preserved along the northwest flowing Soan Nadi
406
(tributary of Beas River). The terrace sediments rest over ~3m high Lower Siwalik sandstone (Fig. 8d).
407
The southwest flowing Ghagret ki Khad is a major stream flowing across the ST. Within the thrust zone,
408
the rocks of Lower Siwalik sandstone are incised by 10-20 m (Fig. 8e). At near Ranoh, several traces of
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parallel normal faults are observed within the Siwalik sediments. These faults are roughly striking toward
410
NW-SE direction dipping by 46o toward SW (Fig. 8f). The stream flowing across the fault zone shows
411
prominent offset within the fault zone. Within the fault zone, the Siwalik rocks are exposed due to
412
incision and simultaneous uplift of the rock (Fig. 8g) which is manifested in form of the incised V-
413
shaped valley. Presence of ~1.5 km long palaeochannel of Ghagret ki Khad is one of the prominent
414
geomorphic features observed in the area, indicating uplift of the initial valley floor because of tectonic
415
movement (Figs. 8g-h). Besides, near Pragpur (31.886314N, 75.966681E), a small stream flowing across
416
the fault zone is blocked because of vertical tectonic forcing along the fault which manifests in the form
417
of ponding of the stream (Figs. 8g-i). Displaced fluvial strath terraces and development of triangular fault
418
facets are prominent geomorphic expressions associated with tectonic movement in the south of Ranoh
419
locality. The episodic deformation along the fault has vertically displaced fluvial terraces, resulting in
420
stacking of two levels of terraces as illustrated in Fig. 8j. These two levels of fluvial terraces are well
421
preserved within the confluence zone of Ghagret ki Khad and Soan Nadi. Furthermore, towards the
422
northeast facing slope of Janauri anticline, the fluvially modified alluvial fans are the major geomorphic
423
surfaces. These alluvial fan surfaces are truncated along the BT and have formed a back-hill facing fault
424
scarp associated with the thrust (Fig. 8a).
425
Fig. 8
426 6.2. Window-2 (Mandwara- Banehra)
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428
The most remarkable geomorphic expressions in this window are development of active fault scarp, tilted
430
terraces, deflection of streams, truncation of alluvial fans and sudden changes in the gradient of river
431
(Figs. 9 a-b). Truncation of alluvial fans is the major geomorphic expression exposed in this window.
432
Towards the northeast facing slope of the Janauri anticline near Malwari, alluvial fan surfaces are
433
truncated along inferred trace of the BT (~10m high scarp; which evinces in the form of NW-SE oriented
434
linear fault scarp (Fig. 9c). Meanwhile near Bhatoli (31.830833N, 75.973611E) area and south of Joh, the
435
footwall of the ST exposes vertically stacked ~10 m high gravel beds. Texturally very coarse, the fault
436
scarp of ST consists of rounded to well-rounded gravels of fluvial origin (Figs. 9d-e). The gravel beds are
437
tilted by 15° towards SW and rest over Siwalik sediments, perhaps reflecting the tectonic control of ST.
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In the Joh section, ~ 3m thick fluvial (younger) sediments are resting over the ~7m high alluvial
440
fan sediments (Fig. 9f). The younger fluvial sediments are composed of rounded to well-rounded cross
441
bedded gravels, whereas the fan facies are graded in nature. Presence of younger fluvial sediments ~7m
442
above the present-day river-bed may imply tectonic control. Moreover, the satellite data show that the 13
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south-west flowing stream are diverted to the NW and SE in the axial part of Soan dun along an inferred
444
NW-SE oriented fault plane, named as the Soan Fault (SF) (Fig. 9b inset). The alluvial fan deposits along
445
the inferred trace of fault are truncated and manifested as a 10-15 m high and 15 km long fault scarp (Fig.
446
9g). To show the topographic variations of alluvial fan surfaces, three profiles were constructed at
447
location 1, 2 and 3, as shown in Figs. 9 a-g. Here, the scarp formation is characterized by change in
448
terrace level and sudden drop in elevation. Presence of such scarps within Soan dun marks the influence
449
of inferred SF delineated based on the offset of upper older terraces from lower younger terrace (Fig. 9g).
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450 Fig. 9
451 6.3 Window-3 (Amboa – Amb)
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452 453
The alluvial fans are another remarkable geomorphic marker of tectonic activity and are recognize in the
455
window-3 entirely from satellite data investigations (Figs. 10 a-b). The alluvial fan surface is largely
456
distributed on the northeast and the southwest facing slopes of Soan dun and can be exercised to
457
understand the tectonic scenario of the Soan dun (Figs. 10 a-b). The noteworthy development of active
458
fault scarps of BT and ST facing NE and SW is the surface manifestation of vertical tectonic forces
459
occurring in the area (Fig. 10a). To understand the topographic variations, we constructed various profiles
460
i.e. 4, 5, 6 across ST, 7, 8, 9 across BT and 10, 11, 12 were constructed across the inferred SF (Figs. 10 a-
461
c). From the topographic profiles, it is clear that the ST is surface manifestation of thrusting between
462
Siwalik sandstone and the recent sediments (pf. no, 4, 5, 6, see Fig. 10c). Thakur et al., 2014 concluded
463
that the Middle Siwalik sandstone has over ridden the gravel and sand–silt sediments of the Soan dun
464
owing to southwest propagation of hanging wall of ST around 29 - 23 ka. Further, the geomorphic and
465
geological evidence provided by Thakur et al. (2014) at Amb locality confirms the presence of ST in the
466
area. It was further argued that the thrusting of Siwalik over recent sediments (~10ka) clarifies that the ST
467
was reactivated during early phase of Holocene (Suresh and Kumar, 2009). Similarly, in the northeast
468
facing slope of the Janauri anticline, the Siwalik sediments have over-ridden the recent alluvial sediments
469
along the BT (pf. no, 7, 8, 9, Fig. 10c). The alluvial fan surfaces are quite distinct towards the central
470
portion of the basin and appear to be truncated along the inferred SF (pf. no, 10, 11, and 12, see Fig. 10c).
471
These topographic profiles evidently show development of 12-20 m high escarpment within the central
472
portion of the basin (Fig. 10c), that is correlated with the activity associated along the inferred SF.
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473 474
6.4 Window-4 (Tatera – Nari)
475
14
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The prominent geomorphic features associated with tectonic movement from this window are obtained
477
from detailed satellite imagery investigation (Figs. 11 a-b). In order to understand scarp geomorphology,
478
we constructed topographic profiles 13, 14, 15 along ST, 16, 17, 18 along BT and 19, 20, 21 across the
479
inferred fault SF (Fig. 11a). The topographic profile of ST and BT clearly shows the development of NE
480
and SW facing active fault scarp (Fig. 11c). From the topographic profiles, it is obvious that the Siwalik
481
sandstone has over-ridden the recent sediments which hints towards the active nature of the ST and BT.
482
Within the ST zone, the Siwalik sediments are vertically displaced and resulted in approximately 12 m
483
high and 15 km long NW-SE oriented scarp (Fig. 11c). However, towards the northeast facing slopes of
484
the Janauri anticline, two levels of vertically offset alluvial fan surfaces are clearly visible. The vertical
485
offset between upper and lower alluvial fan surfaces is defined as a boundary of the BT (Fig. 11c). In the
486
central portion of the basin, linear NW-SE oriented 10 to 35m high topographic break separates older
487
terrace surfaces from younger terraces as shown in topographic profiles 19, 20, and 22 (Fig. 11c).
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Fig. 11
488 489
6.5 Window-5 (Nari – Palakhwa)
490
The development of fault scarp, triangular fault facets, tilting of terraces, truncation of alluvial fans and
492
straight mountain front are the major geomorphic makers of active tectonics that were observed in
493
window-5 (Fig. 12). These features are recognized using satellite data investigation and geomorphic
494
analysis of landforms. Towards the southwest facing slope within Soan dun, huge fluvially modified
495
alluvial fan deposits are distinctly visible (Figs. 12 a-b). Along the straight course of Soan River, these
496
alluvial fans are truncated and have formed ~30 km long and 14-15 m high NW-SE oriented rectangular
497
escarpment parallel to inferred fault SF (Figs. 12 c-d). Closer examination of the composition of these
498
escarpments revealed that they were composed of fluvially deposited sand, interbedded with rounded to
499
well-rounded gravel and tilted towards northeast. Similarly, towards the NE facing slope of Janauri, ~12m
500
thick fluvially modified alluvial terraces have been observed (Figs. 12 e-f). Here, the BT seems to
501
propagate into mid fan surface and separates T1 (older fan surface) from T2 (younger fan surface) (Figs.
502
12e-f) and have formed ~5 km long NE facing fault scarp trending NW- SE direction. Moving further SE
503
in the vicinity of the village Palakhwa (31° 23.883'N, 76° 14.633'E; a nearly 15 m high fluvial section
504
was exposed with alternating sand and well-rounded gravel beds (Figs. 12 g-h). These fluvial deposits are
505
tilted by ~13° towards the northeast (Fig. 12g) because of the hanging wall motion of BT. Furthermore, in
506
the central portion of the basin, younger and older terrace surfaces are vertically separated along NW-SE
507
oriented inferred fault. To understand scarp topography and vertical separation, we constructed five
508
topographic profiles (23-27) across the inferred trace of SF (Fig. 12i). The topographic profiles clearly
509
indicate that the upper older terraces are vertical separated from younger terraces by 30 m at Saluri, 20 m
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510
at Nari, 15 m at Una, 15 m at Kuthar Kalan, 20 m at Fatehpur, and 5 m at Dayapur, respectively (Fig.
511
12i), which is correlated with the recent activity of SF.
512 Fig. 12
513
515
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514 6.6 Window-6 (Tahliwal- Palahta)
516
The window-6 in the study area (Fig. 13) is considered to be one of the most active segments in the area.
518
Towards the forelimb of the JA, the Siwalik sandstone strata dip 25°–35° towards SW, whereas towards
519
the back limb, the sandstone beds are dipping by 30°–20° due NE (Thakur et al., 2014). A broad, open,
520
symmetric and an upright fold with flat hinge zone with both limbs dipping gently in opposite direction
521
observed between Tahliwal and Samundari. The flat hinge zone of JA occupies an area ~10 × 5 sq. km on
522
the top (Thakur et al., 2014) and is covered by fluvial sediments comprising horizontal stratified sand, silt
523
and gravel (Figs. 13 a-n). These fluvial sediments are deposited and aggraded by Paleo-Sutlej River
524
which used to flow across the anticlinal axis in NE and SW directions prior to the uplift of the anticline
525
around 43 ka (Malik et al., 2010, Thakur et al., 2014) (Fig. 13b). However, the optical chronology of
526
younger alluvial sediments resting on the forelimb and back limb of the anticline is dated to 12 and 17 ka
527
(Thakur et al., 2014). A wide range of deformed zones were observed in the form of faulting, folding and
528
tilting of sediments toward the back limb of the Janauri anticline (Figs. 13 c-m). At the Khera Kalmot
529
locality, the BT is well propagated within the recent sediments (Fig. 13c). The sediments resting on the
530
hanging wall of BT are tilted and folded in nature (Figs. 13 d-e) and displaced by 2.5m along BT. Here
531
the fault plane of BT dips by an amount of 25° towards SW direction as the thrust propagated out to the
532
surface the dip angle changed from 25° to 5° towards SW. The gravels are highly deformed/rotated and
533
are aligned parallel to the thrust plane (Figs. 13 d-e).
535 536
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Fig. 13
537
The fluvial sand resting on the footwall block of the thrust shows small scale micro faulting parallel to
538
the thrust plane. At the crest of fold axis, a zone of NE-SW oriented normal faults dips with an amount of
539
55° towards NW and have net displacement of ~65 cm within the fluvial sediments (Figs. 13 f--h). On the
540
northeastern limb of the anticline, the thickly bedded Siwalik sandstone abuts against the fluvial sediment
541
and formed ~5-7 m high scarp in front of Soan dun between Samundari and Tahliwal (Figs. 13 j-k). The
542
fluvial sediments comprising stratified sand, silt, and gravel on the basal parts of the back limb of the
543
Janauri anticline between Palakhwa and Palahta (Fig. 13 m). These fluvial sediments are tilted by 14° SW 16
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and 25°NE direction owing to horizontal compression generated between BT and HFT (Fig. 13l). Further,
545
to understand topographic variations along inferred SF we constructed six topographic profiles (28-32)
546
across the inferred fault (Fig. 13n). The topographic profiles clearly show that the upper older terraces are
547
vertically separated from younger terraces by 10 m at Fatehpur, 15 m at Sehjowal, 6 m at Bhanam, 12 m
548
at Dasgrain, 8m at Mahain, and 8m at Anandpur Sahib, respectively (Fig. 13n). These vertical separation
549
of terraces is correlated with the recent activity of inferred SF.
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550 551
7. Discussion
552
The northwestern Indian Himalaya, witnessed the occurrence of several destructive earthquakes in the
554
historic past i.e. A.D. 1555, A.D. 1828, and A.D. 1885 earthquakes (Oldham, 1883; Iyengar and Sharma,
555
1996; Iyengar et al., 1999; Bilham et al., 2010; Ambraseys and Jackson, 2003; Ambraseys and Douglas,
556
2004; Bamzai, 1962; Lawrence, 1895) and the 1905 Kangra earthquake (Mw 7.8) (Middlemiss, 1910;
557
Ambraseys and Bilham, 2000; Hough et al., 2005; Negi, 1963; Wallace et al., 2005; Thakur et al., 2000;
558
Kumar et al., 2009; Malik et al., 2015). Evidence suggests that during the 1905 Kangra (Mw 7.8)
559
earthquake, approximately 100 x 55 km2 area was ruptured within the zone of MBT and HFT (Thakur et
560
al., 2014; Joshi and Thakur, 2016; Wallace et al., 2005). However, in the central Himalaya including
561
Garhwal-Kumaun and Nepal, the microseismicity belt lies ~100 km north of the HFT (Arora et al., 2012;
562
Jouanne et al., 2004; Thakur et al., 2014). The surface rupture was generated by the Bihar-Nepal
563
earthquake (1934, Mw 8.2), is located within the similar seismogenic zone of the HFT (Sapkota et al.,
564
2013; Thakur et al., 2014). However, unlike the Bihar-Nepal earthquake, the Kashmir earthquake (2005,
565
Mw 7.6) produced an approximately 75 km long surface rupture that lies far north from the HFT in the
566
hinterland (Kaneda et al., 2008; Hussain et al., 2009). The recurrence of microseismicity is thus
567
interpreted as a consequence of stress accumulation within the locked part of the Main Himalayan Thrust
568
(MHT) affected by brittle-ductile creep beneath the Higher Himalayan topographic front (Thakur et al.,
569
2014).
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The HFT is considered as the most active thrust in the Himalaya where convergence rates are
571
comparatively higher than rest of the Himalaya (Banerjee and Burgmann, 2002). The estimated
572
shortening rates 21 ± 1.5 mm/y of HFT have been inferred from folded fluvial terraces by Lave´ and
573
Avouac, 2000 and is being advocated that the lesser amount of convergence across the central Himalayan
574
region is accommodated by other thrusts located to the north of HFT (Banerjee and Burgmann, 2002).
575
Geodetic observations (Bilham et al., 1997; Larson et al., 1999; Bettinelli et al., 2006) across the central
576
part of Himalaya (100 km wide zone) suggest that 18–20 mm/y slip is accommodated by the subducting
577
decollement towards north. Similarly, observations made from northwestern part of Himalaya shows 17
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shortening rates of 14 ± 2 mm/y for Kangra reentrant and 11 ± 5 mm/y east of Dehra Dun between HFT
579
and MBT (Powers et al., 1998; Banerjee and Burgmann, 2002). However, geomorphic and paleoseismic
580
records along HFT shows Holocene slip rate 13.8 ± 3.6 mm/y and 9.6 ±7.0/-3.5 mm/y, respectively
581
(Wesnousky et al., 1999; Kumar et al., 2001). Further the paleoseismic trench investigation near Kala
582
Amb (Black Mango) area by Kumar et al., 2001; near Chandigarh by Malik and Nakata, 2003 provides
583
slip rate of 6.3±2 mm/y. The Holocene slip rate 21±1.5 mm/y of the HFT estimated from folded fluvial
584
strath terraces by Lave´ and Avouac, 2000 in the central Nepal suggests that the entire slip is
585
accommodated by HFT.
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The observations from the 10 km wide zone of HFT in the Arunachal Himalaya (eastern segment)
587
shows cumulative shortening rate of 23.4±6.2 mm/y, which is distributed along Bhalukpong thrust (8.4
588
mm/y) Ballipara anticline (10 mm/y), and 5 mm/y on the Nimeri thrust (Burges et al., 2012; Thakur et al.,
589
2014). The estimated long term Late Quaternary convergence rates across Himalayan Frontal Thrust
590
(HFT; Back Thrust (BT), Soan Thrust (ST), and Jwalamukhi Thrust (JMT) are 6.0 mm/y over 42 ka, 3.0
591
mm/y over 29 ka, and 3.5–4.2 mm/y over 32–30 ka, respectively (Thakur et al., 2014). Based on folded
592
and tilted terraces, Dey et al., (2016) estimated 44 m of differential uplift within the zone of JMT and
593
concluded that the Holocene activity within this zone owe to strain partitioning along the Himalayan
594
wedge. Further, their estimate shows shortening rate during the last 10 ka ranges from 5.6±0.8 to 7.5±1.1
595
mm/y along the JMT. Based on shortening rates, Dey et al., 2016 concluded that the Sub-Himalayan
596
region of the Kangra reentrant accommodates about 40 to 60% shortening of the entire NW Himalaya.
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Previous studies show-decreasing trend of shortening/slip rates from central to northwestern
598
Himalaya region, whereas it increases in the central and eastern Himalayan region. For example, 9–14
599
mm/y across the Potwar foreland of the Pakistan (Baker et al., 1988), 1.4–4.1 mm/y across the Balakot-
600
Bagh fault in the Kashmir Himalaya (Kaneda et al., 2008) and 12 ± 3 mm/y in the Garhwal Himalaya
601
(Wesnousky et al., 1999). However, the convergence rate of India with respect to the Tibet increases from
602
west to east respectively (Bettinelli et al., 2006; Molnar and Stock, 2009). Recently studied data reveals
603
that the convergence of India and Asia is perpendicular to the Himalayan arc and is decreasing from the
604
central to the northwest Himalaya because of right lateral slip in the NW Himalaya (Li and Yin, 2008).
605
The northwestern Himalaya, which is located in the vicinity of the western Himalayan syntaxis shows a
606
component of the right-lateral slip, may be due to oblique slip convergence (McCaffrey and Nabelek,
607
1998; Jouanne et al., 1999).
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608
Based on the observations mentioned above, we propose a five-stage conceptual model for the
609
tectonic evolution of the Soan dun (Fig. 14). The modelled topography clearly shows that prior to 43 ka,
610
the Indo Gangetic Plain was extended approximately 20 km north of the present position and the initial
611
uplift of Siwalik to the south of the Lesser Himalaya took place along the Soan Thrust (ST). As the 18
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convergence proceeds along ST and MBT, the Siwalik attained higher topography which led to increased
613
erosional activity towards the elevated regions and contributed considerably to fan aggradation process
614
within the valley. The post Siwalik sediments were eroded from the uplifted regions and deposited in the
615
initially formed piedmont zone between HFT (Foreland Thrust) and ST (Fig. 14a). These sediments were
616
started deforming and vertically uplifted because of horizontal compressive force generated between HFT
617
and ST. The back thrusting (BT) began and propagated opposite to the direction of HFT around 43 ka
618
because of the layer parallel horizontal shortening or locking of fore thrust below the sediments in the
619
foreland region (Fig. 14b). The horizontal N-S to NNE-SSW compressive forces generated between HFT
620
and back thrust around 43 and 36 ka resulted anticlinal folding (growth of Janauri anticline) and uplift of
621
Siwalik sediments (Thakur et al., 2014). The simultaneous progressive compression between HFT and ST
622
resulted in the formation of piggy back basin (Soan dun) towards the footwall of ST and back limb of
623
anticlinal ridge (Fig. 14c). The geological evidences suggest that because of growth of NW-SE anticlinal
624
ridge the Beas River shifted towards NW and the southwest flowing Sutlej River changed its course to the
625
SE direction. The continuous growth of NW-SE oriented frontal anticlinal ridge (Janauri anticline) and
626
uplift of hinterland thrusts (ST and MBT) caused huge amount of sediments to erode and get deposited
627
within the newly formed piggy back basin (Soan dun) in the form of alluvial fan (Fig. 14 d-e). These
628
alluvial fan surfaces later cut by active trace of Back thrust and Soan thrust and develops NW-SE oriented
629
active fault scarp in the area.
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Fig. 14
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The optical chronology of alluvial fan surfaces dated from back limb of Janauri anticline and footwall
633
block of ST suggests that there was a continuous sedimentation within the basin until around 12 ka
634
(Thakur et al., 2014). After deposition of sediments around 12 ka an intra basinal faulting (Soan Fault)
635
took place within the Soan dun (Fig. 14d; which is evident from the truncation of alluvial fan sediments
636
between Amroh to the NW (window-1) and Nangal in the SE (window-6) for approximately 70 km in
637
NW-SE direction. The horizontal shortening between HFT and BT resulted in the development of ~ 500
638
m high 120 km long and 5-12 km wide Janauri anticline between 43 ka and 12 ka (Thakur et al., 2014)
639
and has been interpreted as a fault propagation fold over the HFT with steeper, 45° SW, dipping forelimb
640
and gentler, 30°NE, dipping back limb (Powers et al., 1998). Structurally, the back limb of anticline is
641
characterized by a back thrust (BT) (Thakur et al., 2014). The deformation along BT is
642
geomorphologically manifested by development of ~5-15 m high fault scarp and folding of fan sediments
643
as shown in Fig. 14e. Studies shows that the sediments resting on the top of Janauri anticline are uplifted
644
against Indo Gangetic plain by 150 m during late Quaternary (Delcaillau et al., 2006). The
645
chronologically constrained uplift rates of the Janauri anticline suggest that it was uplifted at a rate of 3.4
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± 0.3 mm/y over the period between 43 and 12 ka (Thakur et al., 2014). Thakur et al., 2014 estimated
647
shortening and slip rate of the HFT, BT, ST and MBT. The estimate of Thakur et al., 2014 shows that the
648
shortening and slip rate of HFT is 6.0 ± 0.5 and 6.9 ± 0.5 mm/y (Fig. 14e). The trench investigation along
649
HFT shows that the Holocene slip rate 6.3 ± 2 mm/y and shortening rates 6.9 ±1.4 mm/ y (Malik et al.,
650
2010b). The estimates show that the shortening and slip rate of back thrust are 2.0 ± 0.17 and 2.2 ± 0.18
651
mm/y. The obtained value indicates that the area accommodated 8.0 mm/y shortening for the formation of
652
JA during last 43 to 12 ka (Thakur et al., 2014). The estimated convergence and slip rate along ST are 3.4
653
± 0.3 and 3.4 ± 0.3 mm/y. The available rates indicated that the area between ST and BT accommodated
654
5.4 mm/y horizontal shortening for the formation of Soan dun (piggy back basin) towards the footwall
655
block of ST. Similarly, the shortening and slip rates of MBT are 3.5 ± 0.4 and 3.4 ± 0.3 mm/y,
656
respectively (Thakur et al., 2014, Fig. 14e). The observed slip and shortening rates for MBT and ST are
657
similar, which indicates that both the thrusts deforming at the same speed. The GPS driven crustal
658
shortening rates of Banerjee and Burgmann, 2002 and rate estimated from balance section by Powers et
659
al., (1998) suggests that the area between HFT and MBT is 14 ± 2 mm/y, which is well corroborated with
660
the chronological constraints shortening rates of Thakur et al., 2014. Further, based on chronological
661
results of Thakur et al., 2014 it has been argued that the area of horizontal shortening between HFT and
662
BT is ~8 mm/y, between BT and ST is 5.4 mm/y, and between ST and MBT is 6.9 mm/y respectively.
663
The cumulative shortening rate is ~ 20.3 mm/y, which is comparatively higher side of observed
664
shortening rates of GPS 14 ± 2 mm/y. This further indicates that the 6.3 mm/y shortening is
665
accommodated by Soan dun area which is reflected in the form of deformation of geomorphic surfaces as
666
discussed in windows 1 to 6. The rates of horizontal shortening between different thrust systems are
667
higher than the vertical displacement, which is obvious for the region where vertical displacement is less
668
than horizontal displacement.
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The results of geomorphic mapping, topographic surveying, and available rates of deformation
670
were combined to calculate fault geometric parameters for deformed geomorphic surfaces along the BT
671
and ST zones of Soan dun. The results obtained for fault displacement parameters along BT and ST are
672
estimated from the fault scarp and folded terrace profiles. These profiles were generated where the
673
alluvial fan terraces are continuous and displaced vertically over the surface traces of BT and ST. The
674
values so obtained in the BT zone reveals that VD ranges from 13 ± 0.3 to 4.5 ± 1.3 m and HD ranges
675
from 30.2 ± 6 to 7.1 ± 2 m whereas the SH varies between ~14.5m - 6.5m, respectively (Fig. 5a, Table-1).
676
Similarly, for ST zone the SH ranges between 57.6 and 8.4 m, the VD varies from 39.1 ± 7.1 to 7.2 ± 0.5
677
m, and the HD 39.1 ± 7.1 to 7.2 ± 0.5 m respectively (Fig. 5b, Table-1. Our estimates reveal that for each
678
thrust Scarp Height (SH) is greater than Vertical Separation (VS) and Vertical Displacement (VD) which
679
is in coordination with the theoretical relationship SH ≥ VS ≥ VD, adopted by Amos et al., 2010 and
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Yang et al., 2015. Our results are well corroborating with chronological constrained rates of horizontal
681
shortening and slip rates of the NW region of the Himalaya, where horizontal shortening between HFT
682
and BT is 8 mm/y and vertical uplift is 3 mm/y. Similarly, in the ST zone, horizontal shortening is 5.5
683
mm/y and the vertical uplift is 3.4 mm/y (Thakur et al., 2014).
684
An area of ~23,066 km2 was studied to estimate GLA magnitude to understand the response of active
685
surface deformation between HFT and MBT zones. The n factor is determined from the Eq. 4 and 5 to
686
predict anomalies along the river gradient in the form of negative and positive anomalies. A total of 8747
687
locations of uplift were determined out of 17670, with the values ranging from -9.21 to -0.77 (negative)
688
and ~8,923 locations of subsidence with the GLA values ranging from 5.48 to 26.60 by using the (Eq. 8).
689
Although the trend of GLA anomaly as shown in Fig. 6 and supplementary Fig. 3 is not as strong in case
690
of the negative (uplift). The experimental results of Žibret and Žibret, 2017 clearly show that the
691
abnormal GLA might have occurred because of changes in lithology and changes in rock resistant caused
692
by erosional activity. The negative and positive anomalies of GLA are also controlled by high
693
precipitation and strong active deformation (Žibret and Žibret, 2017). The regions of surface deformation
694
(uplift and subsidence) identified using GLA magnitude are well corroborated with InSAR, phase
695
velocity. Theoretically, the values of uplift and subsidence obtained from GLA magnitude correspond to
696
approximately 0.1 mm/y (Žibret and Žibret, 2017). Similarly, the depicted range of deformation from PSI
697
phases in the area ranges between -3.13 to +3.14 mm/y. The negative PSI phase represents subsidence,
698
and the positive values are correlated with uplift of the area. The depicted range of deformation (vertical
699
and horizontal) is well corroborated by published chronological results of Thakur et al., 2014, Malik et
700
al., 2010b. The chronological constraints result shows that the Janauri anticline is uplifting at the rate of
701
3.4 ± 0.3 mm/y over the period between 43 and 12 ka (Thakur et al., 2014). The Holocene shortening and
702
slip rate of HFT are 6.0 ± 0.5 and 6.9 ± 0.5 mm/y (Malik et al., 2010b). The estimates show that the
703
shortening and slip rate of BT are 2.0 ± 0.17 and 2.2 ± 0.18 mm/y and for the ST are 3.4 ± 0.3 and 3.4 ±
704
0.3 mm/y (Thakur et al., 2014). Formerly, the PSI phases have been used to deduce surface deformation
705
by many other researchers (e.g., Chang et al., 2004 a, b; Hooper et al., 2004; Yen et al., 2007; Chang et
706
al., 2010; Yhokha et al., 2015). Moreover, our observations augment the results of previous geomorphic,
707
palaeoseismic and field based morphotectonic investigations, clearly showing that all the faults of the
708
study area are tectonically active (Powers et al., 1998; Philip et al., 2006, 2011; Thakur et al., 2014; Malik
709
et al., 2010 a, b; Malik et al., 2003, 2015; Malik and Nakata., 2003; Malik and Mohanty, 2007; Kumar et
710
al., 2006; Delcaillau et al., 2006; Suresh and Kumar, 2009; Joshi and Thakur, 2016; Sahoo and Malik,
711
2017; Jayangondaperumal et al., 2011, 2017).
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Furthermore, the surface deformation obtained from GLA and InSAR studies are correlate with
713
the field and morphometric parameters. In the NW part of Sub-Himalayan region where rocks are highly
714
weathered and less resistant to erosion, may allow changes in river gradient and steepness. Therefore, the
715
SL and Ks analysis allow us to deduce the gradient changes due to tectonic movement. The results of SL
716
and Ks clearly shows that there is a linear change in gradient parallel to the major tectonic boundaries as
717
shown in Supplementary Fig. 2. The relative index of active tectonics (RIAT) distribution pattern allows
718
us to categorize deformation pattern of the area. The RIAT distribution pattern shows that within the Soan
719
dun which covers 2100 km2, 350 km2 (15%) are least active, 400 km2 (17%) are active, 506 km2 (22%) is
720
moderately active, 812 km2 (36%) area is very active, and 210 km2 (10%) are extremely active. Our
721
estimates are well supported with field observations and present seismic pattern. The class-4 and class-5
722
represents segmental reactivation of thrusts/faults, which may be attributed to gradual changes in stress
723
distribution along different fault segments.
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Recent morphotectonic investigations and our field observations in the area have also shown that
725
all the faults of the study area are tectonically active and show distinct geomorphic signatures such as
726
folding and tilting of terraces, development of strath terraces, triangular fault facets, drainage anomalies,
727
surface gradient anomalies, faults scarps, displacement of ridges, and growth of anticlines. Based on our
728
geomorphic results, field investigations and previous studies (Powers et al., 1998; Philip et al., 2006,
729
2011; Thakur et al., 2014; Malik et al., 2010a, b; Malik et al., 2003, 2015; Malik and Nakata, 2003, Malik
730
and Mohanty, 2007; Kumar et al., 2006; Suresh and Kumar, 2009; Sahoo and Malik, 2017; Joshi and
731
Thakur, 2016; Jayangondaperumal et al., 2011, 2016, 2017; Delcaillau et al., 2006), we present a model to
732
summarize the tectonic movements in the area since last 43 ka leading to the development of Soan dun
733
(Fig. 14). The balanced cross sections drawn through the Ganga Plain and Kangra reentrants (covering the
734
northwestern part of the study area) by Powers et al., 1998 reveal that the MBT branch off the gently
735
(~2.5º), northward dipping basal detachment, at a depth of 23 km but steeper 6° toward the southeastern
736
part of the study area (Powers et al., 1998). (Fig. 1c). The horizontal compression along these longitudinal
737
thrusts resulted in the successive development of Soan, and Pinjore dun piggy-back basins in the western
738
part of the study area. The Faults/Thrusts are presently active in different segments and inducing surface
739
deformations to variable extents in the area.
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741
Conclusions:
742
On the basis of geomorphic and morphotectonic investigations following conclusions have been drawn.
22
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743
•
The ongoing active deformation within the epicentral zone of 1905 Kangra earthquake of NW Sub-
744
Himalaya is manifested by the presence of duns (piggy back basins) and anticlines within the
745
imbricated thrusts zones of MBT and HFT at the Himalayan front.
746
•
The study suggests that the prior to 43 ka the foreland basin extended approximately 20 km northward from the present position. The initial uplift (growth of Janauri anticline) within the
748
foreland region took place around 43 ka and horizontal compression N-S to NNE-SSW generated
749
between HFT and MBT deformed the post Siwalik sediments. The horizontal shortening and locking
750
of foreland thrust (northward dipping, HFT) consequently, caused the initiation of back thrust in
751
opposite direction of HFT (southward dipping, BT) around 43 to 36 ka. Simultaneously, these
752
compressional forces resulted in the formation of elongated piggyback basin (i.e. Soan dun) toward
753
the hinterland of Janauri anticline, which generated accommodation space for the deposition of post
754
Siwalik alluvial fan and recent sediments in the sub Himalayan region of NW Himalaya.
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•
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747
Within the Soan dun (piggy back basin) deformation of well-preserved Post-Siwalik and Holocene
756
terraces indicates tectonic activity along the Soan Thrust (ST) and Back Thrust (BT). The present day
757
geomorphic features such as folded, tilted and uplifted terraces, truncation of alluvial fans, offset of
758
channels, fault scarp and displacement of fluvial sediments suggests active nature of ST and BT.
759
•
The geometric analysis of fault scarp morphology suggests that the horizontal displacement along ST and BT is higher than vertical displacement because of increase in horizontal elastic strain parallel to
761
the thrusted blocks within the Himalayan front.
762
•
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760
The present study demonstrates the successful application of GLA magnitude technique in determining the active surface deformation in the Himalayan region. The method is found suitable for
764
the deduction of surface deformation along the river valleys of the NW sub-Himalaya, which is a
765
reliable alternative to the InSAR studies.
766
•
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763
The PSI phase velocity results suggest that the epicentral zone of the Kangra earthquake in the northwestern part of the Himalaya is uplifting at the rate of ± 3.14 mm/y, which is very well
768
corroborated with chronologically constraints uplift rates 3.4±0.3 mm/y estimated from Janauri
769
anticline.
770 771
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Acknowledgements
772 773
The authors are grateful to the Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India (MoES/P.O.(Seismo)
774
/1(271)/AFM/2015) for financial support under the active fault mapping program. We are thankful to Dr.
775
M. Ravikumar, Director General, and Dr. Sumer Chopra, Director, Institute of Seismological Research
776
for giving permission to carry out this work. BSK is thankful for partial assistance to MoES, New Delhi 23
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
777
(P.O./ Geosci/43/2015). CCP and NJ are thankful to Prof. A. K. Sharma, Head Department of Geology,
778
Kumaun University, Nainital for support.
779 Additional Information
781
All the authors have made equal contribution in this manuscript. There is no conflict of interest between
782
all co-authors.
783
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Yhokha, A., Chang, C.P., Goswami, P.K., Yen, J.Y., Lee, S.I., 2015. Surface deformation in the
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Himalaya and adjoining piedmont zone of the Ganga Plain, Uttarakhand, India, determined by
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different radar interferometric techniques. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 106, 119-129. Yue, H., Liu, G., Guo, H., Li, X., Kang, Z., Wang, R., Zhong, X., 2011. Coal mining induced land
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subsidence monitoring using multiband spaceborne differential interferometric synthetic
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aperture radar data, Journal of Applied Remote Sensing 5(1), 518–529.
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river incision. Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface 110(F3).
Žibret, L., Žibret, G., 2014. Use of Geomorphological indicators for the detection of Active faults in Southern Part of Ljubljana Moor, Slovenia. Acta geographica Slovenica 54-2.
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Zaprowski, B.J., Pazzaglia, F.J. and Evenson, E.B., 2005. Climatic influences on profile concavity and
Žibret, G., Žibret, L., 2017. River gradient anomalies reveal recent tectonic movements when assuming an exponential gradient decrease along a river course. Geomorphology 281, 43-52.
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Figure Captions
1185
Fig 1. (a) Structural map of NW Himalaya showing isoseismic lines of 1905 Kangra earthquake modified
1186
from Middlemiss (1910; Hough et al., (2005) and Singh et al., (2012). (b) Regional geological
1187
map of Kangra reentrant NW Himalaya (after Thakur et al., 2014) (c) Balanced cross-section
1188
across Kangra reentrant showing major structures, estimated shortening and slip rates on the
1189
thrust faults (modified after Thakur et al., 2014 and Powers et al., 1998).
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Fig 2. (a) Landsat image overlay onto the CARTOSAT DEM shows major tectonic landform
1191
development between BT and ST zone. A sharp truncation observed in the central portion of the
1192
basin is marked by black dotted line. The windows described in the text are highlighted here. (b)
1193
Detailed Geomorphic map of the Soan dun area of NW Himalaya. The area has been divided into
1194
6 windows for detailed investigation. The inferred fault is highlighted by black dotted line in the
1195
central part of geomorphic map.
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Fig 3. Diagrammatic sketches of calculation of the fault parameters across various locations of Soan
1197
Thrust (ST) scarp. VS: Vertical separation of ground surface, VS min: minimum vertical
1198
separation of ground surface, VS max: maximum vertical separation of ground surface, SH: scarp
1199
height, DS: dip slip of fault, HD: horizontal displacement of fault, VD: vertical displacement of
1200
fault.
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Fig 4. Diagrammatic sketches of calculation of the fault parameters across various locations of Back
1202
Thrust (BT) scarp. VS: Vertical separation of ground surface, VS min: minimum vertical
1203
separation of ground surface, VS max: maximum vertical separation of ground surface, SH: scarp
36
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1204
height, DS: dip slip of fault, HD: horizontal displacement of fault, VD: vertical displacement of
1205
fault. Fig 5. Displacement profiles measured from fault scarp and folded terraces. The calculated parameters for
1207
both the thrusts BT and ST from fault scarp are shown here, (a) across the Back Thrust (BT) and
1208
(b) across the Soan Thrust measured along the strike distance measured from Beas River. The
1209
fault parameters show that the horizontal displacement is greater than vertical displacement and
1210
vertical separation for both the thrusts. The chronological constraints, convergence, slip and uplift
1211
rates (Thakur et al., 2014 and Jayangondaperumal et al., 2014) for both the thrusts are shown with
1212
horizontal displacement. (c) Relative Index of Active Tectonics (RIAT) distribution map of the
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study area. Higher class represents higher activity.
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Fig 6. GLA magnitude analysis of Soan dun showing (a) negative GLA magnitude anomaly marked by green triangles and (b) positive GLA anomalies marked by red triangles.
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Fig 7. (a) PSI velocity results in Kangra Reentrant of NW Himalaya. (b) Overlay of the PSI results onto
1217
the shaded relief topography DEM from CARTOSAT-1 and some major geological structures of
1218
the area. Mean Line of Sight (LOS) Velocity (MLV) in mm/y.
Fig 8. (a-b) Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and detailed geomorphic map of window-1 showing
1220
development of major geomorphic units, (c-d) development of fluvial terraces on the hanging
1221
wall of ST near Sansarpur. (e) Incision of Lower Siwalik rocks within the ST zone. These Siwalik
1222
beds are displaced by (f) Normal faulting parallel to ST. (g) satellite view of Parapur and Ranoh
1223
area showing offset of drainage pattern and vertically uplifted fluvial terraces and trace of paleo
1224
channel are observed within the faulted zone. Within the offset zone streams flowing across the
1225
fault zone. A trace of ~1.7 km long paleochannel of Ghagret ki Khad is clearly visible in the
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satellite image. (h) Field photograph of paleochannel. (I) shows ponding of the stream. (j) Sketch
1227
of two levels of vertically uplifted terraces observed near Ranoh locality. (k) Development of SW
1228
facing bedrock scarp has been observed near Ranoh locality.
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Fig 9. (a-b) Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and detailed geomorphic map of window-2 showing
1230
development of major geomorphic units. The inset shows NW and SE deflection of drainage
1231
towards the SW facing slope. Small solid black lines 1, 2, and 3 are the directions of topographic
1232
profiles. (c) Development of ~10 m high fault scarp of BT near Malwari, (d-e) two levels of
1233
fluvially modified fan terraces resting over the Siwalik sandstone observed at the footwall of ST,
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south of Joh locality. These terraces are tilted by 15° towards SW. (F) An uplifted ~10 m high
1235
section has been well exposed near Dangoh area where younger fluvial sediments overlying the
1236
older alluvial fan shows sharp aggradational contact. (g) Topographic profile constructed along 1,
1237
2, and 3 across inferred traces of fault shows development of fault scarp.
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1238
Fig 10. (a-b) Digital elevation model (DEM) and detailed geomorphic map of window-3 showing development of major geomorphic features.
(c) Variations in topographic profiles 4, 5, 6
1240
constructed along ST, profiles 7, 8, and 9 were constructed along BT, and profiles 10, 11 and 12
1241
were constructed along inferred fault. The position of all these profiles are shown in DEM. The
1242
topographic profile clearly shows that the Siwalik sediments along ST and BT are ridded over the
1243
younger fluvial sediments, whereas a sharp elevation drop has been observed in the central part of
1244
the basin along inferred SF. The fault/Thrusts are marked based on sudden elevation changes
1245
within the topographic profiles.
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Fig 11. (a-b) Digital elevation model (DEM) and detailed geomorphic map of window-4 showing
1247
development of major geomorphic features. (c) Variations in topographic profiles 13, 14, 15
1248
constructed along ST, profiles 16, 17, and 18 constructed along BT, and profiles 19, 20 and 21
1249
were constructed along inferred fault. The position of all these profiles are shown in DEM. The
1250
topographic profile clearly shows that the Siwaliks sediments along ST and BT are ridded over
1251
the younger fluvial sediments, whereas a sharp elevation drop has been observed in the central
1252
part of the basin along Inferred SF. The fault/Thrusts are marked based on sudden elevation
1253
changes within the topographic profiles.
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Fig 12. (a-b) Digital elevation model (DEM) and detailed geomorphic map of window-5 showing
1255
development of major geomorphic features. (c-d) Development of ~10 m high fluvial scarp along
1256
inferred SF. (e-f) Development of 12 m high NE heading alluvial fan terraces in the BT zone, and
1257
(g-h) presence of 15 m high tilted terraces near Palakhwa within the BT zone. These terraces are
1258
tilted by 13° toward NE. To understand topographic variations profiles 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, and 27
1259
are constructed along inferred trace of the fault. The topographic profiles clearly show that the
1260
upper older terraces are vertically separated from lower younger terraces along the trace of fault.
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Fig 13. (a-b) Digital elevation model (DEM) and detailed geomorphic map of window-6 showing
1262
development of major geomorphic features. Inset shows post folding NE-SW cross section of
1263
Janauri anticline, where folded strata are marked by black broken lines, Siwalik sediments are
1264
shown by yellow, older sediments are shown by light blue and the truncated fan sediments are
1265
shown by pink color. The respective ages of sediments are given in the inset (Modified after
1266
Thakur et al., 2014). The flat surface on the top of Janauri anticline is highlighted by green dotted
1267
polygon. Sutlej River is marked by thick black arrow curved line in Fig. 16b. Near Kalmot
1268
locality ~30 m high fault scarp of BT is well exposed. The fluvial sediments within section are (c)
1269
displaced by 2.5 m along BT. The sediments within the faulted block are highly deformed, (d-e)
1270
field photo showing deformation of sediments within the BT zone. (f, g, h, i) Field photographs
1271
shows displacement of sediments along the normal fault. Net 63 cm displacement has been
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observed within the faulted zone. (j, k) field photo shows development of ~5 m high fault scarp
1273
near Palahta with the BT zone. (l) Towards the back limb of Janauri anticline ~20 m high folded
1274
and tilted fluvial terraces has been observed on the hanging wall of BT. These terrace sediments
1275
are tilted by 25° toward NE (m) horizontally stratified gravel beds has been observed on the hinge
1276
zone of Janauri anticline. (n) Topographic profile 28-33 constricted across the inferred fault
1277
shows vertical offset of terraces in the central portion of the basin.
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Fig 14. Five stage evolutionary model of Soan dun represents (a) Foreland topography prior to 43 ka, (b)
1279
Development of back thrust around 43 ka which lead to upliftment of post Siwalik sediments. (c)
1280
formation of piggyback basin and development of Janauri anticline started around 43-36ka,
1281
leading to eastward migration of Sutlej river. (d) Progressive growth of anticline leading to the
1282
formation Soan dun until around 24 ka and the dun was filled by post Siwalik alluvial fan
1283
sediments. (e) The present day topography of Soan dun evolved after 12 ka.
1284
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Supplementary Fig.
1286
Supplementary Fig 1. Processing flowchart for Persistent Scattered InSAR (PSI) analysis adopted from
1287
European space agency SAR processing
1288
Supplementary Fig 2. (a-b) SL and Ks class contour of Soan dun area. The higher activity is represented
1289
by higher color order. Position of ST and BT is marked based on sharp linear changes in observed in the
1290
contour lines. Insets shows SL and KS class cross sections.
1291
Supplementary Fig 3. (a) GLA contour anomaly of Hinterland between BT and MBT, (b) GLA anomaly
1292
of Soan dun between BT and ST, and (c) GLA anomaly of HFT and foreland basin. The uplifted regions
1293
are highlighted by negative GLA, where the positive GLA indicates subsidence of the area.
1294
Supplementary Fig 4. Fig. depicts GLA anomaly magnitude analysis of hinterland and foreland areas
1295
with respect to Soan dun shows (a) Negative and positive GLA magnitude distribution between BT and
1296
MBT (Hinterland; (b) negative and positive anomaly of GLA between BT and HFT and adjoining areas
1297
of foreland region.
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Table 1: Calculated Fault Geometric parameter for Back Thrust (BT), Soan Thrust (ST) and inferred Soan Fault
BABEHAR AMBOA SAGHNAI OYAL TATERA
DS (m)
Fault parameter of Back Thrust HD (m) VD (m) VS (m)
PANDOGA
BT 1 BT 2 BT 3 BT 4 BT 5 BT 6
as (°) 35 35 35 35 35 35
8.7±2.3 22.5±2.3 32.1±6.3 15.8±0.4 9.7±1.6 29.11±11.5
NAKROH
ST1
30
51.6± 4.9
Fault Parameter of Soan Thrust 44.7 ± 4.3 19.8 ± 4.5 22.4± 3.8
MATAUNAGAR
ST2
30
104.4± 0.1
90.4±0.08
33.1±0.6
34.8± 0.5
AMB KHARIALA GHUNGRALA
ST3
30
32.3 ± 0.4
28. ± 0.4
16.2 ± 0.2
ST4 ST5 ST6
30 30 30
14.346 ± 1.1 78.1 ± 14.5 39.7 ± 18.4
12.4±0.9 67.6± 12.4 34.4± 15.9
7.2 ± 0.5 39.1 ± 7.1 19.8 ± 9.2
SF1
JOH
SCARP TYPE
30.5
SH>VS>VD
N SCARP
HD>VD
SH>VS>VD
N SCARP
HD>VD
18.4± 0.2
51.1 22.9
SH>VS>VD
N SCARP
7.5± 0.4 44.7± 5.6 24.1± 9.4
8.4 57.6 45.2
SH>VS>VD SH>VS>VD SH>VS>VD
N SCARP N SCARP N SCARP
HD>VD HD>VD HD>VD
45
20.6 ± 1.2
Fault Parameter of Soan Fault 14.6 ± 0.8 14.6 ± 0.8 14.4 ± 0.6
11.5
VD>VS>SH
R SCARP
HD=VD
SF2
45
16.6 ± 0.7
12.4 ± 0.6
11.1 ± 0.5
8.9 ± 1.5
11.4
SH>VD>VS
N SCARP
HD>VD
PRITHIPUR
SF3
45
5.6 ± 0.7
4.2 ± 0.5
3.7 ± 0.4
3.2
2.8
VD>VS>SH
R SCARP
HD>VD
DANGOH
SF4
45
6.3 ± 2.1
4.5 ± 1.5
4.5 ± 1.5
2.8 ± 0.1
2.69
VD>VS>SH
R SCARP
HD=VD
MUBARIKPUR
SF5
45
29.6 ± 6.9
21.9 ± 5.2
19.8 ± 4.6
14.9 ± 0.2
14.9
VD>VS>SH
R SCARP
HD>VD
JINDBAR
SF6
45
44.8 ± 10.4
33.3 ± 7.7
30 ± 6.9
19.4 ± 2.8
24.1
VD>SH>VS
R SCARP
HD>VD
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SC
HD>VD HD>VD HD>VD HD>VD HD>VD
12.7
N. SCARP R SCARP N SCARP N SCARP N SCARP N SCARP
BRICKSITE
5.2 ± 1.2 12.4± 0.9 11.9± 1.7 9± 0.1 5.6 ± 0.8 10±3
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4.5±1.3 13± .3 11±2.1 9 ± 0.2 5.6± 0.9 10±3.5
RESULTS SH>VS>VD VD>VS>SH SH>VS>VD SH>VS>VD SH>VS>VD SH>VS>VD
DHATWARA
7.1 ± 2 18.4 ± 2 30.2 ± 6 12.9 ± 0.3 7.9 ± 1.3 27.4± 10.9
SH (m) 9.05 10.7 14.7 10.7 6.7
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FAULT
EP
LOCALITY
HD>VD
HD>VD
SF7
45
12.3 ± 1.4
27.6 ±11.3
20.5 ± 8.4
18.5 ± 7.5
10.2
VD>VS>SH
R SCARP
HD>VD
SALURI
SF8
45
37 ± 5.9
27.5 ± 4.4
24.7± 3.9
18.4 ± 1.8
22
VD>SH>VS
R SCARP
HD>VD
NARI
SF9
45
19.1 ± 0.4
14.2 ± 0.3
12.7± 0.3
13.7 ± 0.2
18.6
SH>VS>VD
N SCARP
HD>VD
JHALERA
SF10
45
23.1 ± 10.3
17.2 ± 7.6
15.4 ± 6.8
8.5 ± 0.6
11.2
VD>SH>VS
R SCARP
HD>VD
KUTHARKLAN
SF11
45
31.8± 5.1
23.6 ± 3.7
21.3 ± 3.4
16.7± 0.9
18.3
VD>SH>VS
R SCARP
HD>VD
FATEHPUR
SF12
45
21.9 ± 4.7
16.3 ± 3.5
14.7 ± 3.1
10.1 ± 0.8
VD>SH>VS
R SCARP
HD>VD
SH>VD>VS
N SCARP
HD>VD
VD>VS>SH
R SCARP
HD=VD
VD>SH>VS
R SCARP
HD=VD
SH>VD>VS
N SCARP
HD>VD
SH>VS>VD
N SCARP
HD>VD
VD>VS>SH
R SCARP
HD>VD
VD>SH>VS
R SCARP
HD>VD
RI PT
BADAUN
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SF15
UNA BHANAM DASGRAIN MAHAIN ANANDPUR SAHIB
SF16 SF17 SF18 SF19
45 45 45 45 45 45
12.6± 0.8 7.6 ± 2.1 16.7± 4.5 2.3 ± 0.2 7.2 ± 1.3 11.6 ± 1.9 14.5 ± 3.9
9.4 ± 0.6 5.3 ± 1.4 11.8 ± 3.2 1.7± 0.1
8.4 ± 0.5 5.3 ± 1.5
11.8 ± 3.2 1.6 ± 0.1
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SF14
45
5.3 ± 1
8.6 ± 1.4
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DAYAPUR
SF13
10.8 ± 2.9
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13.9
4.8 ± 0.9 7.8 ± 1.3
6.1 ± 1.5
9.4
3.7 ± 0.2
3.2
8.8 ± 0.2
8.9
1.2 ± 0.2
2.2 4.9 ± 1.1
5.8 6.3± 0.1
5.2 9.7 ± 2.6
7.5± 0.6
8.5
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