Landscapes, climate change & forager mobility in the Upper Paleolithic of northern Spain

Accepted Manuscript Landscapes, climate change & forager mobility in the Upper Paleolithic of northern Spain G.A. Clark, C. Michael Barton, Lawrence G. Straus PII:

S1040-6182(17)31347-2

DOI:

10.1016/j.quaint.2018.04.037

Reference:

JQI 7398

To appear in:

Quaternary International

Received Date: 5 October 2017 Revised Date:

12 April 2018

Accepted Date: 23 April 2018

Please cite this article as: Clark, G.A., Barton, C.M., Straus, L.G., Landscapes, climate change & forager mobility in the Upper Paleolithic of northern Spain, Quaternary International (2018), doi: 10.1016/ j.quaint.2018.04.037. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

Manuscript Details

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Manuscript number

QUATINT_2017_817

Title

Landscapes, Climate Change & Forager Mobility in the Upper Paleolithic of Northern Spain

Article type

Full Length Article

RI PT

Abstract

M AN U

SC

Numerous studies have shown that the relative frequency of retouched pieces can help to distinguish forager mobility strategies amongst individual layers at a single site and, potentially, at multiple sites across regions (Riel-Salvatore & Barton, 2004; RielSalvatore et al., 2008; Barton & Riel-Salvatore, 2014). We use this proxy measure and other lines of evidence to evaluate Late Pleistocene human land-use practices from 47 Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic sites in northern coastal Spain. To monitor mobility strategies we examine the proportion of retouched pieces to total lithics, focusing on backed pieces which probably served mostly as replaceable inserts in organic armatures for hunting weapons. Kuhn (1995) argued that foragers at some distance from a residential base would have had to rely on replaceable elements for the tools and weapons they carried with them. Assemblages with low total lithic densities but a high proportion of backed pieces would most likely represent the remains of short-term camps where hunting weapons were repaired in the field, whereas those with high lithic densities and relatively few backed pieces would likely represent residential bases where hunting weapons were manufactured. The analysis also links variation in lithic assemblages to paleoclimate and topography and uses 951 radiocarbon dates to identify demographic ‘pulses’ under the assumption that – ceteris paribus – the density of dates and the density of population are at least roughly linearly correlated with one another (French & Collins, 2015). Increases and decreases in regional population density can be detected and compared to episodes of climate change measured by the GISP2 and NGRIP2 ice cores over the Pleniglacial, Tardiglacial (MIS 2) and the early Holocene. Data insufficiencies, incomparable typologies, and adequacy of reporting are also discussed.

Upper Paleolithic; northern Spain; lithic assemblages; paleolandscapes; methodology; chronology

Corresponding Author

G. A. Clark

Corresponding Author's Institution Order of Authors

Arizona State University

EP

G. A. Clark, C Michael Barton, Lawrence Straus Harold Dibble, J. Emili Aura Tortosa, Iain Davidson, peter Hiscock, Shannon McPherron, Nuno Bicho, Jonathan Haws, Michael Bisson, Deborah Olszewski

AC C

Suggested reviewers

TE D

Keywords

Submission Files Included in this PDF File Name [File Type]

QI cover letter 9-22-17.doc [Cover Letter] Response to Reviewers’ Comments 04-02-18.doc GAC et al. Straus QI 04-10-18.docx [Manuscript] File] 54609-30014120.docx.pdf [Author Agreement] S1. Solutrean – Old Collections (Straus 1975).xlsx [Table] S2. Site Locations – Elevation, Distance to Modern and Last Glacial Coasts; Longitude & Latitude.xls [Table] S3. Barton, Clark & Straus.doc [URL: https://zenodo.org/record/1215819] [e-Component] NB: this document contains the date [V0, S3] and lithic [V0, S4] data.

MANUSCRIPT Submission Files Not Included inACCEPTED this PDF (none) File Name [File Type] S3. FINAL UP dates CMB format 7-8.xls [Table] S4. FINAL UP lithics CMB format.xlsx [Table]

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

To view all the submission files, including those not included in the PDF, click on the manuscript title on your EVISE Homepage, then click 'Download zip file'.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Research Data Related to this Submission

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

There are no linked research data sets for this submission [URL: https://zenodo.org/record/1215819]. The following reason is given: We DO intend to upload all research data (i.e., Supplements 1-4) to the internet but have not yet assigned a URL to it.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

21 September, 2017

This is a letter of conveyance for the manuscript:

RI PT

Min-Te Chen Editor-in-Chief Quaternary International

Landscapes, Climate Change & Forager Mobility in the Upper Paleolithic of Northern Spain (G. A. Clark, C. Michael Barton & Lawrence G. Straus) Submitted for possible publication in: Honor of Lawrence Guy Straus

M AN U

SC

The manuscript is a logical progression from Clark and Barton (2017) where we published an application of a new package of methods called whole assemblage behavioral indicators (WABI) to a single site, La Riera (Asturias, Spain), an Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic cave site dated from >20 to c. 9 ka BP. Developed by C. Michael Barton and Julien Riel-Salvatore (2004) to assess forager mobility in the remote past, WABI is a powerful and general approach that makes use of data commonly available in many archaeological site reports. The analysis showed that La Riera was a residential basecamp over much of its long occupation.

TE D

Here we apply WABI to the Upper Paleolithic of northern coastal Spain (Asturias, Cantabria, and the Basque Country), a data set comprising 205 archaeological assemblages, 790,184 stone artifacts from 47 Upper Paleolithic sites dating from the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), Tardiglacial and early Holocene (~42-7 ka BP). As in the earlier paper, patterns in the WABI analysis are then juxtaposed with the relevant parts of the GISP2 and NGRIP2 ice cores to try to determine the extent to which episodes of climate change correlated with changes in mobility strategies. Time, considered a reference variable used to measure change attributable to other causes, is monitored by 951 radiometric dates from 157 sites. These are among the largest data bases ever compiled for a regional Upper Paleolithic sequence anywhere in the world.

EP

Results indicated reasonably good correspondence with episodes of climate change, that climate change was a significant factor driving changes in site function, and that – like La Riera – residential bases were concentrated along the coastal plain in Asturias and Cantabria, but less so in Vizcaya and Guipúzcoa where the coastal plain is practically non-existent. Curated assemblages indicative of short-term camps were bimodally or trimodally distributed on the footslopes and piedmont of the Cordillera, occasionally at high elevations. Expedient assemblages were mostly confined to the lowlying coastal plain.

AC C

Potential reviewers are: Michael Bisson ([email protected]), Harold Dibble ([email protected]), Shannon McPherron ([email protected]), Peter Hiscock ([email protected]), Emili Aura ([email protected]), Nuno Bicho ([email protected]), Deborah Olszewski ([email protected]), Iain Davidson ([email protected]) and Jonathan Haws ([email protected]). Please do not send it to Paul Mellars, William Davies, Ofer Bar-Yosef, João Zilhão, Bruno Bosselin or François Djindjian. The manuscript submitted is complete except for the Acknowledgements. We will add them at a later stage, assuming the manuscript is accepted for publication. continued . . .

GEOFFREY A. CLARK, PH.D. REGENTS’ PROFESSOR School of Human Evolution & Social Change PO Box 872402, Tempe, AZ 85287-2402 Tel.: (480) 965-7596, Fax: (480) 965-7671, e-mail: [email protected]

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

Thank you for your consideration. Please let us know if any additional information is required. With best wishes,

RI PT

1 2 3 4

5 Geoffrey A. Clark, Ph.D. Regents’ Professor Emeritus

SC

cc: GAC CMB LGS

M AN U

Clark, G. A., Barton, C. M. 2017. Lithics, landscapes and la longue durée – curation and expediency as expressions of forager mobility. Quaternary International 450: 137-149. Miller, A., Barton, C. M. 2008. Exploring the land: a comparison of land-use patterns in the Middle and Upper Paleolithic of the western Mediterranean. Journal of Archaeological Science 35, 1427-1437.

EP

TE D

Riel-Salvatore, J., Barton, C. M. 2004. Late Pleistocene technology, economic behavior, and land-use dynamics in southern Italy. American Antiquity 69, 257-274.

AC C

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

Response to Reviewers Comments QUATINT_2017_817 – Clark, Barton & Straus

SC

RI PT

(1) sample issues – open sites not included: That our data are derived almost exclusively from caves and rock shelters is simply a consequence of the emphasis on those kinds of sites in the regional research tradition. In other words, there haven’t been a lot of surveys so there isn’t a lot of data on open sites. Moreover, despite 150 years of research and lots of industrial, residential and infrastructure excavations, very few open-air sites have been found. While they clearly existed, they are either buried under meters of post-Pleistocene colluvium and/or, because of the steep terrain, eroded away by slopewash and other geological processes. Given the focus on the Upper Paleolithic, when wet, cold climates prevailed, most sites with longer occupations would likely have been in low-lying coastal caves and rock shelters anyway (i.e., we would expect to find a predominance of ‘expedient’ assemblages there, and we do). We acknowledge that at least the early part of the Gravettian was much colder than today.

M AN U

(2) data from classic sites: as an example, we have these data for the Solutrean (compiled from Straus, 1975, 1992). We can include them as a supplement (I attach them here).

TE D

(3) data on raw material: we acknowledge that to include raw material types would be interesting to do, but to source them would require an enormous amount of additional research. For a meta-analysis of published material like this paper, reviewing raw material information would be partial at best because raw material data are lacking from most publications [even some modern ones] and, with the exception of La Riera, none of these data are quantified. Moreover, there has been little systematic study of potential sources of raw material (though very recent efforts in this direction are encouraging). To make this change is neither feasible nor possible, and to attempt to do it would delay publication enormously.

EP

(4) definition of retouched pieces: As a meta-analysis of published information, we rely on the assessment of the original excavator and/or analysts for artifact classification. Most often, the Bordesian Upper Paleolithic typology, originally defined by de Sonneville-Bordes & Perrot, was the ‘post-1970 standard’ adopted by practically all workers up to the present. The interpretation of these types varies from one investigator to the next and there is no way to extract more refined definitions from the publications. None of the monographs or papers from which we have drawn data reports the number of flake scars on formal ‘tools.’ An advantage of the WABI approach used here is that we group all retouched tool types together, avoiding a great degree of inter-analyst variation in detailed classification of individual types.

AC C

23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66

2

(5) backed tools: again, we could only use individual investigators’ definitions of backed pieces (usually backed, sometimes truncated or pointed bladelets with unidirectional or bidirectional abrupt retouch). Some workers adhered to very strict definitions, others not so much. Again, the WABI approach disregards these differences and groups all backed pieces together as indicative of some kind of hafted, multipcomponent weapons. Additionally, in Figure 2, we have indicated the relative frequency of backed pieces among retouched pieces (Ib.b, where reported) to show that they do not weight overall retouch frequencies to generate high values.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

Rather, the assemblages with the highest frequencies of backed pieces coincide with lower retouch frequencies rather than higher values.

RI PT

(6) high & low retouch frequency: defined in the manuscript as >10% = curated, <10% = expedient, including both backed pieces and overall retouch. This division was made for convenience in differentiating among assemblages. Density plots of retouch frequency by techno/typological industries showed a significant drop in this measure between 0.1 and 0.2. We picked the conservative value of 0.1 as a dividing point. Keep in mind that ‘curated’ and ‘expedient’ are continua.

M AN U

SC

(7) size & quantity of retouched pieces: this is primarily a function of whether or not graded screening was used. At La Riera we used water screening through fine mesh, resulting in the recovery of hundreds of backed bladelets, essentially re-defining the Solutrean. Fine screening was also used at El Mirón, no doubt accounting for the thousands of microliths and other tiny artifacts recovered there. Generally, most workers did not screen artifacts at all until after the 1980s. Many ‘modern-era monographs are based on unscreened data. The most likely effects for the kinds of analyses performed here are underrepresentation of the number of backed pieces in some assemblages. Even with screening, most published sources do not include tiny lithic debris (shatter) in debitage counts.

TE D

(8) raw material availability: varies considerably over the study area. In contrast to the Dordogne, fine-grained crypto-crystalline rocks (cherts, flints) only occur as small pebbles – generally of low quality – in riverbeds in Asturias and Cantabria. Consequently most bladelets are of flint/chert, whereas larger tools tend to be made of fine-grained quartzite.

EP

(9) ecological knowledge of task groups: because there are many unforeseen contingencies that affect hunting parties, we disagree that task groups dispatched from residential camps would necessarily know the location of suitable raw material. Also, they might know raw material locations, but find themselves far from them. Additionally, individually provisioned, far-ranging task groups would have tried to minimize carrying any unnecessary weight of heavy cryptocrystalline rock (so that they could carry back game or other resources). It seems more reasonable to think they carried bladelets with them to refit broken or lost elements in wooden, bone or antler armatures.

AC C

67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110

3

(10) the Asturian (pp. 10-13): Given the valid issues about sampling error raised by reviewers, we decided to delete the Asturian because it is early Holocene, generally considered Mesolithic, and so lies outside the scope of the study. (11) use of lithics after the Stone Age (pg. 14): there is a body of literature that supports the continued use of lithic technologies up through the Roman Iron Age (in fact, they were used in threshing sledges up until the 1960s) (Clark [1987] – this is a universal phenomenon [see Rosen [1997]). Chipped stone technologies persisted through the Neolithic, being replaced only gradually over long periods of time. In other words, there is no sharp division between the Mesolithic, on the one hand, and the Neolithic, on the other.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

RI PT

(12) use of wild species after the Stone Age (pg. 14): see above – deer, boar, etc. were hunted throughout history in northern Spain, even in societies dependent on domesticated plants and animals. Boar hunting is popular today on the Meseta del Norte; venison and wild boar are available throughout northern Spain in the finer restaurants. How the Neolithic is defined is subtended by this issue. If there is no evidence of domesticated species in a (dated) site, it is assumed to be Mesolithic. Some defined the Neolithic by the presence of pottery. (13) Gravettian relatively cold?: it could be argued that the early Gravettian is cold, and we have edited the ms accordingly.

EP

G. A. Clark C. Michael Barton Lawrence G. Straus

TE D

M AN U

SC

(14) broken vs complete retouched pieces: we cannot answer this question because different workers often do not provide this information. Unfortunately, there is no consensus as to whether or not this distinction is, or should be made, nor whether it is important. We believe it is general practice to include fragments of identifiable artifacts in most analyses. Unfortunately, Paleolithic archaeology lacks a ‘meta-language’ (like math in physics) that is the consensus basis for its logic of inference. Consequently, much of Paleolithic archaeology consists of narratives, rather than inference defined by consensus. We suggest that an explicit concern with the logic of inference underlying knowledge claims is a critical component of a ‘science-like’ archaeology. This paper is a first step – admittedly imperfect – in providing that. Finally, since the great majority of lithics recovered in archaeological sites were discarded as unwanted by the prehistoric occupants of these locales, whether or not a heavily reused and/or exhausted piece was or was not ‘complete’ (in the archaeologically aesthetic sense) is probably not particularly relevant to the kind of WABI analysis we conducted here.

AC C

111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138

4

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

RI PT

Version 1 (revised), 10 April, 2018

Landscapes, Climate Change & Forager Mobility in the Upper Paleolithic of Northern Spain

Authors:

G. A. Clark1 – [email protected] C. Michael Barton1 – [email protected] Lawrence G. Straus2 – [email protected]

Addresses:

Arizona State University School of Human Evolution & Social Change P. O. Box 872402 Tempe, AZ 85287-2402 U. S. A.

M AN U

SC

Title:

TE D

University of New Mexico Department of Anthropology MSC01 1040 Albuquerque, NM 87131-0001 U.S.A.

EP

Corresponding Author: G. A. Clark Key Words: Upper Paleolithic northern Spain lithic assemblages paleolandscapes methodology chronology cave sites

AC C

139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180

5

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

RI PT

Numerous studies have shown that the relative frequency of retouched pieces can help to distinguish forager mobility strategies amongst individual layers at a single site and, potentially, at multiple sites across regions (Riel-Salvatore & Barton, 2004; RielSalvatore et al., 2008; Barton & Riel-Salvatore, 2014). We use this proxy measure and other lines of evidence to evaluate Late Pleistocene human land-use practices from 47 Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic sites in northern coastal Spain.

M AN U

SC

To monitor mobility strategies we examine the proportion of retouched pieces to total lithics, focusing on backed pieces which probably served mostly as replaceable inserts in organic armatures for hunting weapons. Kuhn (1995) argued that foragers at some distance from a residential base would have had to rely on replaceable elements for the tools and weapons they carried with them. Assemblages with low total lithic densities but a high proportion of backed pieces would most likely represent the remains of short-term camps where hunting weapons were repaired in the field, whereas those with high lithic densities and relatively few backed pieces would likely represent residential bases where hunting weapons were manufactured. The analysis also links variation in lithic assemblages to paleoclimate and topography and uses 951 radiocarbon dates to identify demographic ‘pulses’ under the assumption that – ceteris paribus – the density of dates and the density of population are at least roughly linearly correlated with one another (French & Collins, 2015). Increases and decreases in regional population density can be detected and compared to episodes of climate change measured by the GISP2 and NGRIP2 ice cores over the Pleniglacial, Tardiglacial (MIS 2) and the early Holocene. Data insufficiencies, incomparable typologies, and adequacy of reporting are also discussed. 1. Introduction

TE D

210

Abstract

This paper deploys a package of methods called whole assemblage behavioral

EP

181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209

6

indicators (WABI) to assess changes in forager mobility in the remote past (Barton,

212

1998; Riel-Salvatore and Barton, 2004). Rooted in the work of Binford (1980), Kelley

213

(1983, 1992), Kuhn (1992, 1994, 1995), Bamforth (1986), Bleed (1986) and others, and

214

used successfully in the analysis of hundreds of Stone Age assemblages in Italy (Riel-

215

Salvatore & Barton, 2004), Spain (Barton, 1998; Barton et al., 2013; Clark & Barton,

216

2017), the western Mediterranean (Barton et al., in press), Europe (Barton et al., 2011),

217

and even Australia (Hiscock, 2007), WABI is a powerful and general approach that

218

makes use of the kinds of data commonly available in ‘modern era’ and even some

219

older, legacy archaeological site reports. It is applied here to 205 assemblages totaling

220

790,184 artifacts from 47 Upper Paleolithic sites in northern Spain dating to the last

AC C

211

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

7

Glacial Maximum (LGM), Tardiglacial and Early Holocene (>20-7 ka BP). Mobility,

222

resource distributions, climate change and landscape evolution are primary variables.

223

Time, as measured by 951 radiometric dates from 157 sites, is a reference variable

224

used to identify and assess changes attributed to other causes (i.e., change does not

225

occur simply because of the passage of time). Climate change and its effects on

226

resource distributions and, consequently, forager mobility strategies are shown to be

227

significant factors driving changes in site function. WABI can also be used to assess

228

changes in mobility at intrasite, local, regional (as here) and supra-regional scales

229

(Clark & Barton, 2017, Riel-Salvatore et al. 2008; Barton et al., 2011, 2013) and can be

230

adapted to surface sites with little or no stratigraphy so long as random samples are

231

available (Miller & Barton, 2008).

SC

M AN U

232

RI PT

221

The focus here is on caves and rockshelters at the regional scale since there are very few open-air Upper Paleolithic sites known in Cantabria (Cabo Busto, Bañugues)

234

and in the Basque country (Ametzagaina, Irkaitz), and even fewer have been published

235

(Arrizabalaga et al., 2015). That our data are derived almost exclusively from caves and

236

rockshelters is simply a consequence of the emphasis on those kinds of sites in the

237

regional research tradition. There haven’t been a lot of surveys in Vasco-Cantabria so

238

there isn’t a lot of data on open sites. Moreover, despite 150 years of research and

239

many industrial, residential and infrastructure excavations, very few open-air sites have

240

been found. While they clearly existed, they are either buried under meters of post-

241

Pleistocene colluvium and/or, because of the steep terrain, eroded away by slopewash

242

and other geological processes. Given the focus on the Upper Paleolithic, when wet,

243

cold climates prevailed, most sites with longer occupations would likely have been in

244

low-lying coastal caves and rock shelters anyway (i.e., we would expect to find a

245

predominance of ‘expedient’ assemblages there, and we do).

EP

AC C

246

TE D

233

Our initial objective is to discriminate sites, and assemblages within sites, in

247

terms of their gross functions – more specifically, whether they were – on average –

248

longer term residential bases, characterized by a range of activities, or whether they

249

were – on average – limited activity stations, sites or assemblages of short duration

250

perhaps best conceptualized as overnight camps. We develop and justify two sets of

251

archaeological ‘signatures’ that monitor duration and type of site occupation based on

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

8

the concepts of expedient and curated behavior. We argue that, with very few

253

exceptions, archaeological sites and their constituent assemblages are never ‘pristine’,

254

and that they represent the conflated activities of multiple groups of people who were

255

seldom, if ever, contemporaries. Within the resolution of even the most carefully

256

excavated sites, the contents of levels are therefore palimpsests, composites of the

257

activities of these groups repeated over and over again, such that an individual stratum

258

might indicate one or several functional types, whereas the site sequence as a whole

259

might or might not indicate the predominance of one functional type over others. In

260

order to isolate the finest analytical unit possible, the analysis is conducted on an

261

assemblage-by-assemblage basis.

SC

RI PT

252

Site functional analyses are then juxtaposed with the relevant parts of the ice

263

core record for Late Glacial paleotemperatures (e.g., GISP 2) to try to determine the

264

extent to which behavioral changes documented in the lithic assemblages correspond to

265

macroclimatic changes documented in the cores. Against the backdrop of macroclimatic

266

change, these comparisons are carried out at the level or scale of paleolandscapes with

267

site stratigraphies divided into analytical units according to the conventional typological

268

systematics used by the excavators (e.g., Solutrean, Magdalenian – see Bordes [1974],

269

Bordes & de Sonneville-Bordes [1970]) . While these analytical units may indicate

270

changes in technology – primarily hunting technology (e.g, backed bladelets, foliate or

271

notched points, antler points, harpoons) and sometimes associated processing activities

272

– so far as human adaptation is concerned, no particular social significance can be

273

attributed to these groupings (see, e.g., Straus & Clark, 1986; Clark & Barton, 2017). In

274

fact, episodes of accelerated change signaling shifts in adaptation often appear to

275 276 277

cross-cut or behave independently of culture-stratigraphic unit boundaries.

TE D

EP

AC C

278

M AN U

262

2. Retouched Stone Artifacts Retouched pieces have been used historically to identify the mental templates

279

according to which ancient peoples made stone tools (e.g., Bordes, 1953; Hours et al.,

280

1973), an approach based on the assertion that pattern in the Paleolithic is best

281

(although not exclusively) apprehended by artifact typology. The form of stone tools is

282

interpreted as the tangible remains of technological and/or typological traditions held in

283

common by identity conscious groups of people and transmitted from one generation to

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

9

the next through a process of social learning. Retouched stone artifacts are, therefore,

285

taken to be the products of intentional design (see Clark & Riel-Salvatore [2006, 2009]

286

for an extended critique). The typological paradigm began to collapse in the mid-1980s

287

when Dibble (1987, 1995) showed that the shapes of Middle Paleolithic sidescrapers

288

probably represented no more than modal points along a continuum of morphological

289

variation determined only by the size and shape of the original blank and the extent to

290

which it had been retouched before it was lost or discarded. This argument was

291

subsequently extended to the Upper Paleolithic, and then generalized to include most

292

retouched tools (Sackett, 1988; Barton, 1991), thus largely discrediting the notion that

293

there was much design specificity in their manufacture (Clark, 2009). In short, what

294

were perceived to be discrete types might, more often than not, simply represent

295

successive stages in the modification of a single generalized tool and/or minor

296

alterations in form primarily determined by variations in blank morphology. What is

297

usually found in archaeological contexts are the broken, worn-out, exhausted remnants

298

of flakes, blades and cores that have reached the end of their ‘use-lives’, no longer able

299

to be extended by further modification (see also Bleed, 2001; Hiscock, 2007; Holdaway

300 301 302

& Douglass, 2012).

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

284

2.1 Curation & expediency – their behavioral implications Although there are obvious exceptions (e.g., Solutrean points), the main

304

consequence of this ‘paradigm shift’ is that the ratio of retouched pieces to overall

305

artifact frequency corrected for volume of sediment excavated is presently viewed by

306

some workers as an index of site function and, more specifically, of the degree of

307

mobility and the duration of site occupation (e.g., Stiner 1994, Kuhn, 1995; Riel-

308

Salvatore & Barton, 2004; see Clark & Riel-Salvatore [2006], Culley et al. [2013] for

309

critical reviews of conventional systematics). This is the perspective adopted here.

AC C

310

EP

303

The incidence of retouch offers a measure of relative residential stability, or lack

311

thereof, and the incidence of retouched pieces scaled to artifact density will give some

312

indication of the relative importance of curated and expedient assemblages. Derived

313

ultimately from Kuhn’s work on the Mousterian (1992), a higher incidence of retouch

314

indicates provisioning of individuals in the context of greater residential mobility, smaller

315

groups, shorter duration of site occupation, low lithic densities, and many retouched

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

10

pieces relative to the amount of débitage. Although strongly influenced by the

317

characteristics of the regional topography (Marks & Freidel, 1977; Clark 1984, 2016),

318

residential mobility is more common in landscapes where resources are consistently

319

and predictably distributed in space and time, but not in particularly dense or high

320

caloric return patches. Among recent foragers, these contexts usually are found in

321

tropical to subtropical latitudes (Kelly, 1995; Grove, 2009, 2010), often in xeric

322

environments (Clark, 2016). Because they move regularly from one resource patch to

323

another, residential foragers would have had to rely upon the tools they could carry with

324

them, perhaps also signaling increased use of compound weapons that could be

325

‘refitted’ in the field. We usually do not find these small, transient and ephemeral

326

campsites, but rather the basecamps where tool stone could be stockpiled and where

327

their durable elements – microliths – were manufactured. Such assemblages have been

328

described by Binford (1982) as ‘curated’ and are typical of the group fission phase in the

329

driest seasons of an annual cycle.

SC

M AN U

330

RI PT

316

Conversely, a high incidence of cores and débitage coupled with a low incidence of retouched pieces have been characterized as ‘expedient’ assemblages (Nelson, 1991).

332

In terms of mobility and land-use, expedient assemblages often indicate a reduced need

333

for conserving behaviors due to greater residential stability and a longer duration of site

334

occupation, when the locations of raw material sources are known and can be

335

stockpiled in anticipation of future needs – provisioning places instead of individuals

336

(Kuhn 1992). Such residential camps are often bases for logistical mobility (Binford,

337

1980, 2001), which tends to be more common among ethnohistoric foragers at higher

338

latitudes and under ecological conditions of patchy, high-return resources distributed

339

over a large geographic area and somewhat unpredictable in space and time. (Table 1).

340

We emphasize that ‘curated’ and ‘expedient’ refer to conceptually opposite ends of

AC C

EP

TE D

331

341

a continuum, and that few – if any – assemblages are ever wholly curated or wholly

342

expedient. That said, it should nevertheless be possible to array a series of

343

assemblages along that continuum and draw some conclusions about the ratio of one

344

kind of assemblage to the other within a single site sequence, across many site

345

sequences, and within and across regions. This analysis is conducted at the scale of

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

11

346

the region, Cantabria, comprising the Principality of Asturias, the autonomous

347

Community of Cantabria, and the Basque provinces of Vizcaya and Guipúzcoa. Based on an archaeological record compiled over 240 years of research (Straus

349

1992), assemblages from northern Spain are heavily skewed toward residential bases

350

of logistical hunter-gatherers, characterized by expedient lithic assemblages. A key

351

element of a logistical land-use strategy is the deployment of small task groups from a

352

residential base to locate specially targeted resources and return them to the base

353

camp. With respect to lithics, these task groups resemble residential foragers. Because

354

they often must travel for several days from the residential base, especially when

355

hunting high-return ungulates, they might find themselves in unfamiliar territory far from

356

suitable tool stone. This is a strategy for provisioning these highly mobile individuals

357

with redundant, reliable, flexible, lightweight, polyvalent tool kits (e.g., replaceable

358

elements in compound tools) in order to minimize risk under conditions of uncertainty.

359

With respect to Upper Paleolithic hunting technology, the remains of their small and

360

ephemeral campsites would have yielded lots of backed and otherwise retouched

361

bladelets and few large and heavy cores, large flakes and blades relative to those found

362

in residential bases. Below we treat levels yielding highly curated lithic assemblages as

363

most likely the remains of overnight or other short-term camps produced by task groups

364

deployed from residential bases with expedient assemblages found on the low and

365

narrow coastal plains of eastern Asturias and western Cantabria, and in the moderate

366 367 368

elevations of the footslopes of the Cordillera that abut them to the south.

SC

M AN U

TE D

EP

3. Limitations on WABI Applications It should be kept in mind that WABI is a meta-analysis – a statistical approach

AC C

369

RI PT

348

370

that combines the results of multiple studies to uncover a pattern common to all

371

analytical units but that is acknowledged to have a certain amount of error within

372

individual studies. The objective is to derive approximations of that pattern, assess the

373

amount of error, determine its statistical significance and its effect on pattern (Glass,

374

1976; Walker et al., 2008). Despite its power, general utility and relatively simple

375

structure, a complete WABI analysis requires data that are seldom recorded in pre-1990

376

site reports and are often incomplete even in those published after 2000. Because this

377

is so, it usually becomes necessary to simplify data requirements and adjust the

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

12

analytical format accordingly. Data requirements for a complete WABI scenario are

379

given in Table 2. Archaeological examples that approximate a complete WABI scenario

380

include a pioneering study by Parry and Kelley (1987) using New World data that

381

showed statistically significant correlations between lower mobility and a lower

382

incidence of retouch, on the one hand, and higher mobility and more retouch, on the

383

other. In analyses of nearly 200 Pleistocene assemblages from sites across Europe and

384

Asia, in diverse depositional, geographic, and temporal contexts, LVD and retouch

385

frequency consistently displayed a statistically significant negative correlation

386

(Villaverde et al., 1998; Riel-Salvatore and Barton, 2004, 2007; Sandgathe, 2006; Clark,

387 388 389

2008; Riel-Salvatore et al., 2008; Barton et al., 2013; Kuhn and Clark, 2015).

SC

3.1 Lithic data from old excavations

M AN U

390

RI PT

378

Published research on the Vasco-Cantabrian Upper Paleolithic extends back to the beginning of the 20th century (e.g., Vega del Sella 1914, 1915; Obermaier, 1924;

392

see Straus [1992] for summaries). An effort was made to utilize some this information

393

here but, with rare exceptions, those data proved to be inadequate. At a bare minimum,

394

lithic and retouched totals are required; estimates of area excavated and level thickness

395

are also important. Bias factors include the unstandardized typologies used prior to the

396

1960s, a tendency to retain only retouched pieces (and often only the best examples of

397

those), a posteriori reconstitution of normative culture stratigraphic units (‘cultures’)

398

according to (largely French-derived) preconceptions about what they should look like;

399

large, deep ‘pick-and-shovel’ excavations by untrained (and often unsupervised)

400

laborers, a near total absence of screening, selective artifact collecting, and the practice

401

of distributing belles pièces to other workers, thus compromising the integrity of the

402

collections. While from a modern perspective these empirical insufficiencies are deeply

403

problematic, it is important to keep in mind that self-taught amateur archaeologists were

404

responsible for most of this research, that they published the results of their

405

excavations, and were operating according to the accepted standards of the time.

406

Compiled from Straus (1975), Table S1 presents data from 36 Solutrean sites

407

excavated prior to 1970. Notice the very large areas excavated, the low lithic totals, the

408

exceptionally high incidence of retouched pieces, and the paucity of retouched

409

bladelets. Except for data on site location and setting, the collections are so heavily

AC C

EP

TE D

391

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

13

410

selected as to be useless for our purposes. It is perhaps surprising that many modern-

411 412 413

era site reports also suffer from these deficiencies. 4. Forager Mobility – the Lithic Evidence Lithic data were compiled for 205 Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic assemblages from

415

47 sites (Figure 1). Tabulated data for this analysis and the radiocarbon analyses discussed

416

below are available in Table 2 and at Table S3 [https://zenodo.org/record/1215819],

417

(Barton et al., 2018). Given the range of variables required for a complete LVD analysis

418

(Table 1), it should be kept in mind that many site reports contain lacunae – missing data

419

that sometimes precludes an assessment of site- or level-specific function. Taking these

420

considerations into account, Table 3 identifies the 17 sites and 80 assemblages for which

421

retouch frequency could be computed; an additional four sites (28 assemblages) contain

422 423 424

lithic and retouch totals but lack any volumetric data.

SC

M AN U

425

RI PT

414

4.1 Retouched Frequency & Culture/Stratigraphic Units

The following discussion is based on the retouched frequencies cross-classified by culture/stratigraphic (C/S) unit, elevation, and distance to the modern and LGM

427

shorelines. Three types of analyses were conducted: (1) retouch frequency by C/S unit,

428

ignoring the C/S unit subdivisions; (2) retouch frequency by elevation and period, and (3)

429

minimum (i.e., straight line) distances to the modern and LGM coasts. Table 4 shows the

430

corresponding statistics upon which the box and scatter plots are based.

TE D

426

The incidence of retouch cross-classified by analytical units and by geographic

432

location are given as box and scatter plots in Figures 2 and 3 respectively. So far as

433

retouch by analytical unit is concerned, if 10% is used as a somewhat arbitrary, but

434

empirically derived division between relatively curated (above) and highly expedient

435

assemblages (below) the 28 Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP = Châtelperronian,

436

Aurignacian, Gravettian) assemblages have a median value of c. 10.7% retouch and

437

show a perfectly even distribution between the two, albeit with the expedient

438

assemblages more clustered between 5% and 10% and the curated ones extended up

439

to as much as 40%. Five assemblages are almost certainly curated (≥ 20%) (22.2-

440

39.3%); there is a strong outlier at c. 39.3%. The 29 Solutrean assemblages show the

441

tightest clustering of all but with a lower incidence of retouch (median = c. 5.0%

AC C

EP

431

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

14

retouch). Sites with arguably expedient assemblages are weakly dominant (12:11); four

443

assemblages lie directly on the 10% line. Three assemblages are clearly curated, again

444

with a marked outlier at c. 38.8%. Like the EUP assemblages, the 25 Lower and Middle

445

Magdalenian (L/M) assemblages (median = 3.2%) again show a perfectly even

446

distribution (12:12) but, again, with tight clustering between about 5% and 7%. A single

447

level lies directly on the median. There is a sharp break between the Solutrean and L/M

448

Magalenian, on the one hand, and the Upper Magdalenian and Azilian, on the other,

449

with much wider dispersion, suggesting a fundamental change in site function – at least

450

at intervals – when compared with the earlier units. Although the 10 Upper Magdalenian

451

assemblages have a nearly even numerical distribution, the median is closer to that of

452

the EUP (c. 10.7 versus 13.3%), whereas those of the Solutrean and L/M Magdalenian

453

are much lower (5.0%, 3.2% respectively). However, there are substantially fewer

454

assemblages (10) and they vary considerably more than the EUP or L/M Magdalenian

455

assemblages. There are only two curated assemblages, one of which is a marked

456

outlier at 56%. Three assemblages lie on the median. The ratio of curated to expedient

457

assemblages is 4:3. So far as the Azilian is concerned, the overall configuration is the

458

same as that of the Upper Magdalenian but with better separation. Six assemblages fall

459

into the expedient range, vis à vis five in the curated (≥ 10%) part of the graph. A single

460

assemblage falls on the median and there is only a single outlier, albeit at about 60.1%,

461

the highest in the series. The medians of the UP and the Azilian are very similar (10.7%,

462

12.2% respectively).

SC

M AN U

TE D

EP

463

RI PT

442

With only three assemblages (one at each of three sites), the Asturian shows one unambiguous curated level (retouch frequency c. 35%); the other two are more

465

expedient in character (12% and 9% retouched). The Asturian is identified solely on the

466

basis of the iconic quartzite cobble picks, which were always saved by archaeologists,

467

but there is very little débitage in the remnants of Asturian middens, underscoring their

468

function as garbage dumps (Clark, 1971, 1983a, 1983b). No inland Asturian sites are

469

known. (see below). The mixed component open site of Liencres, with a flint-dominated

470

assemblage, two quartzite grinding slabs, and a Bronze Age projectile point falls

471

squarely in the expedient range (Clark 1975). Despite the recovery of five typical picks,

AC C

464

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

15

472

its status as an Asturian site has been contested (González Morales, 1982). An

473 474 475

acknowledged anomaly, it is the only Asturian open site known.

Retouch frequency cross-classified with geography (elevation and minimum

RI PT

476

4.2 Retouch Frequency & Geographical Context

distance from the coast) is shown in Figure 3 and summarized in Table 4. Expedient

478

assemblages, probably representing longer-occupied base camps, seem to be located

479

in two contexts. For the entire period considered, expedient assemblages are found at

480

sites on the narrow coastal plain at elevations slightly above modern sea level and

481

within 6 km of the modern shore. For all but the Holocene and Upper Magdalenian,

482

expedient assemblages are also found at 13-15 km from the modern coast and

483

elevations of 250-350 m. This geographic consistency is particularly notable in view of

484

changes in sea level and coastline between the LGM, with sea level regression at

485

around – 100 m and the coast displaced from 5-15 km north of its mid-Holocene

486

position. The lack of expedient assemblages in the Asturian (not considered here) may

487

be a function of a tiny sample size (only three assemblages), but this does not seem to

488

be a reasonable explanation for the Upper Magdalenian. There are numerous other

489

assemblages from these periods within the region but without retouch frequency data to

490

assess site function.

M AN U

TE D

491

SC

477

More curated assemblages, probably indicative of short-term hunting or other resource extraction camps, are found on the coastal plain, along with the hypothesized

493

base camps. There are also curated assemblages (and several sites without retouch

494

frequency data) at higher elevations and more inland than those of the Upper

495

Magdalenian. Again, this would be expected of hunting camps for ibex, chamois or

496

other game adapted to higher elevations with more rocky terrain.

AC C

497

EP

492

It should be kept in mind that much of the Upper Paleolithic developed under the

498

dry, cold conditions associated with the LGM/Oldest Dryas (c. 25-18 cal BP). Although

499

beset with climatic fluctuations, the high incidence of caves and rockshelters on the

500

plain, its comparatively mild, oceanic microclimates when compared with sites at higher

501

elevations, the concentration of shellfish (limpets, topshells, winkles), red and roe deer,

502

and boar, and tree crops (acorns; hazel and beech nuts), and with relict copses of trees

503

confined to the N/S trending river valleys would have made the plain an optimal

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

16

environment for sustained occupation by foragers over much of the Late Pleistocene. In

505

contrast, the primary resources available at higher elevations were caprids (chamois,

506

and esp. ibex) accessible by hunting parties dispatched from the lowland, coastal sites.

507

Although there are residential sites situated near the relatively low mountain passes

508

between the coast and the Meseta del Norte in eastern Cantabria (notably El Mirón

509

[Straus & González Morales, 2012]), they are the exceptions rather than the rule.

510

Radiometric dates, pollen phases, Dansgaard-Oescher (D-O) and Heinrich (H) Events,

511 512 513

and ice core ages for the conventional C/S units are given in Table 5. 5. The Anomalous Case of the Asturian

SC

RI PT

504

The absence of inland sites during the Asturian is a curious phenomenon.

515

Several explanations have been proposed for it. Perhaps the most plausible one is that

516

the ameliorating climate of the Preboreal (11.7-9.6 ka cal BP) and Boreal (9.6-8.4 ka cal

517

BP) probably increased the density and spatial extent of mixed deciduous/coniferous

518

woodlands, formerly confined to river valleys. Increases in the density of woodlands,

519

and the problem of tracking wounded animals, could have made hunting a less

520

productive pursuit at higher elevations in the foothills of the Cordillera, especially given

521

the prevalence of red and roe deer on the coastal plain.

TE D

522

M AN U

514

There are roughly 150 Asturian concheros now known, mostly concentrated along the eastern coast of Asturias and in western Cantabria (pers. comm, Pérez

524

Bartolomé, 2017) – many more than were known at the time of Clark’s dissertation on

525

the Asturian (1971). Almost without exception they consist of the remnants of once-

526

extensive shell middens preserved as cornices on the walls of caves and rockshelters.

527

They are so far unpublished, which is why we have not included them here. The

528

concheros appear to have been trash heaps associated with open-air residential bases

529

constructed of perishable material (wood, hides, etc.) that have left no archaeological

530

traces (Cueva de Mazaculos, where a small part of a living surface is preserved, is an

531

exception [González Morales et al., 1980]). With an exclusively coastal distribution,

532

there are no indications of use of the piedmont nor of higher elevations in the Cordillera.

533

The situation in Asturias and Cantabria contrasts strongly with that in the Basque

534

Country where the coastal plain is practically nonexistent and where surviving coastal

535

sites are small and few in number (exceptions are Jaizkebel 3 [J3], Santimamiñe, and

AC C

EP

523

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

17

536

Santa Catalina). Contemporaneous trans-Cordilleran sites with flint-dominated

537

microlithic assemblages (not included in this study) are found in the interior valleys of

538

Guipúzcoa, La Rioja and Navarra but have no real coastal counterparts, nor do interior

539

sites occur in Asturias and Cantabria south of the Cordillera. The Asturian shell middens have little discernible stratigraphy and almost no

RI PT

540

features. Except for the quartzite picks and a few heavy-duty tools (choppers, chopping

542

tools), it is a ‘lithically impoverished’ industry, both in general and so far as retouch

543

frequencies (other than the picks) are concerned. It could be the case, however, that the

544

rather uncommon unmodified flakes were the primary cutting and scraping tools. A

545

recent study of wear patterns on Mesolithic flakes and blades from northern France and

546

Belgium indicates that many of them were used on vegetal substrates (Guéret, 2017).

547

The bone and antler industry is confined to a few rudimentary points and/or awls, bone

548

fish gorges, and a single perforated antler bâton. There are no known tools made on

549

shell, probably because no one has looked for them. Cuenca and colleagues (2010,

550

2011) note that scrapers made on mussel shells occur in early Neolithic assemblages at

551

Santimamiñe, in Vizcaya, and in many ethnographic contexts (see also Gútierrez

552

Zugasti, 2009). Asturian adaptations likely depended almost exclusively upon wooden

553

bows and arrows, bone gorges and nets for their hunting and fishing technologies.

554

Except at Liencres (Clark,1975; Papalas et al. 2003; cf. González Morales 1982), flint

555

artifacts are very scarce, and occur only as small, fractured nodules recovered from

556

river beds.

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

541

While a strong case can be made for seasonal movement up and down the N/S

558

trending rivers in the region during the Late Pleistocene, where are the Asturian inland

559

sites corresponding in time to the coastal Asturian that one might expect to find

560

predicated on evidence from earlier periods? Given dense early Holocene woodland

561

where edible biomass would have been relatively low and mobility very difficult

562

compared to the littoral ecotone, Asturian foragers might simply have congregated in

563

the lowlands along the coast where staple resources (red and roe deer, boar, fish,

564

shellfish) would have been abundant in the estuaries, rivers and interfluves that transect

565

the coastal plain (Clark 1983a, Clark & Straus 1983). The sheer number of Asturian

566

shell middens lends some support to this hypothesis. However, with organic

AC C

557

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

18

567

technologies, ephemeral structures, casual hearths and little accumulation of trash

568

(except for the middens themselves), open-air Asturian camps would have left very little

569

to have survived until the present.

570

Although an ephemeral Mesolithic presence is documented by two burials (without artifacts) on the southern slopes of the Cordillera at Cueva La Braña in León,

572

far to the west (Olalde et al., 2014), La Uña, also in León; and at Los Canes and

573

Arangas between the Picos de Europa and the Sierra de Cuera in eastern Asturias,

574

there are no signs of sustained occupation. Isolated burials also occur in Asturian

575

contexts along the coast (e.g., Colombres [Molino de Gasparín], Truchiro, Tito Bustillo,

576

El Toral), and at the Azilian site of Los Azules in the intermontane Güeña valley in

577

eastern Asturias (Fernández-Tresguerres, 1976). A single Mesolithic burial is known

578

from the Basque country at the conchero site of Jaizkibel (J3) but, in general, Mesolithic

579

sites are small and rare along the coasts of Vizcaya and Guipúzcoa. A less likely

580

hypothesis is an eastward migration along the Cantabrian coast and through the low

581

mountain passes in Cantabria, Vizcaya and Guipúzcoa into the Ebro Valley. Whatever

582

the case, the Asturian picks have an exclusively coastal distribution. Although they also

583

occur in Galicia and along the north coast of Portugal, they are never found very far

584

inland (Clark 1983a).

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

571

It is interesting to note that practically all the Upper Paleolithic caves and

586

rockshelters in Asturias and Cantabria located at moderate elevations not far from the

587

coast were abandoned after the Azilian (e.g., El Mirón, El Horno, La Güelga, Los

588

Azules, El Castillo, El Valle, Rascaño, Las Caldas, La Viña, Collubil) (Straus, 2005).

589

This contrasts sharply with the case in the Basque Country where there was a fully-

590

developed trans-Cordilleran Mesolithic, and a poorer coastal one (albeit with two

591

important non-Asturian concheros on Monte Jaizkibel (J3) near San Sebastian and

592

Santimamiñe, near Guernica). Based on broad similarities with the ‘Sauveterrian’ lithic

593

industries of Mediterranean France, some have suggested that the concentration of

594

Mesolithic sites in Navarra, Álava (including the Castilian enclave of Treviño) and La

595

Rioja in the more open country of the Upper Ebro drainage could indicate an influx of

596

migrants from southeastern France and/or Catalonia. Many of these sites also contain

597

early Neolithic assemblages stratified above the Mesolithic ones. Whatever this

AC C

EP

585

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

19

difference might mean, the north Spanish Neolithic first appeared along the western

599

Mediterranean coast, followed the course of the Ebro to its headwaters in the Picos de

600

Europe, finally arriving in Cantábria (as at El Mirón) via the mountain passes in western

601

Vizcaya. In Euskadi fully developed Neolithic agropastoral economies, dated to 7-6 ka

602

BP, were confined to the relatively broad, fertile valleys of the Transcordillera whereas

603

in Cantabria, better suited to pastoralism than farming, the ‘Neolithization’ was very

604

partial and very late (~5.5 ka BP) (Peña-Chocarro et al., 2005). In fact, foraging

605

societies persisted alongside rather impoverished Neolithic ones throughout the entire

606

north coastal strip up through the Roman Iron Age. The arrival of agropastoral

607

economies is signaled mainly by the rather sudden appearance of megalithic tombs in

608 609 610

the mountainous terrain of eastern and central Asturias (Clark, 1987).

SC

M AN U

611

RI PT

598

5. The Lithic Evidence for Forager Mobility – A Brief Overview The overall picture shows an increasing proportion of lowland residential sites with expedient assemblages located on the low-lying coastal plain and piedmont,

613

reaching a maximum during the Solutrean (~24-20 ka BP) and L/M Magdalenian (~20-

614

17 ka), an interval regarded by many as the Last Glacial Maximum. The picture

615

changes significantly after about 16 ka BP. The Upper Magdalenian (~16-13.5 ka) is

616

characterized by high retouch frequencies, greater dispersion, and a higher incidence of

617

curated sites located in the foothills and piedmont of the Picos de Europa, a pattern that

618

continues throughout the Azilian. In these respects, the Upper Magdalenian and Azilian

619

sites resemble those of the EUP. In short, there appear to be two major kinds of

620

adaptation: the EUP, Upper Magdalenian and Azilian (under warmer conditions), on the

621

one hand, and the Lower Magdalenian and Solutrean (under colder conditions), on the

622

other (Figures 2 and 3). What was driving these changes in settlement patterns is

623

probably climate change but it is difficult to link it to the archaeology because of

624

differences in scale and because of the nature of typological systematics and the way

625

by which the analytical units are identified (see below).

626

AC C

EP

TE D

612

It should be kept in mind that entities like the Magdalenian, Solutrean, etc. were

627

originally created – not discovered – during the latter half of the 19th century on the

628

basis of supposedly-diagnostic archaeological index fossils thought to be restricted in

629

time and space and used since by convention and/or for convenience. However, there

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

20

is no consensus about what those entities might mean in terms of human behavior, an

631

important – indeed crucial – epistemological issue addressed by a number of scholars

632

(e.g., Straus, 2003; Neeley and Barton, 1994; Barton et al.,1996; Clark & Riel-Salvatore,

633

2009; Culley et al., 2013), nor are there necessarily strong correlations with episodes of

634 635 636

marked climate change.

637

RI PT

630

6. Forager Mobility – Date Density & Ice Core Correlations

The second objective of this paper is to examine links between variation in lithic assemblages, occupational intensity and paleoclimatic change using summed

639

probability density (SPD) analysis of radiocarbon dates. SPD analysis combines

640

multiple radiocarbon age estimates, each one of which is itself a probability distribution

641

of the likelihood that a sample is of a given age, into an aggregate probability function.

642

Currently, such aggregation is most often done through a Bayesian procedure that

643

treats the individual radiocarbon estimates as prior probabilities and calculates the

644

aggregate SPD curve as a posterior probability distribution (Bronk-Ramsey, 2009;

645

Parnell et al. 2008, 2011). In the past decade, SPD analysis has most often been used

646

in archaeology as a proxy for occupational intensity or demographic change based on

647

theoretical propositions first outlined by Rick (1987). We use SPD analysis in this way

648

and discuss some of the issues involved in such interpretations below. However, we

649

also use the SPD method to explore possible relationships between the C/S units

650

commonly used in Iberia and paleoenvironmental change. All SPD analyses were done

651

using the BChron package for R (Parnell et al., 2011); the Intercal13 curve was used for

652 653 654

age calibration of terrestrial samples and the Marine13 curve was used for shell dates.

M AN U

TE D

EP

6.1 Date Density, Dispersion & Central Tendencies

AC C

655

SC

638

We compiled a large database of radiocarbon dates for the Upper Paleolithic and

656

Mesolithic of northern Spain from a database maintained by Pierre Vermeersch at the

657

Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Vermeersch, 2016), archaeological publications, and

658

field notes. After removing duplicates, this totaled 951 individual radiocarbon dates from

659

356 proveniences in 157 sites. Each date has a C/S attribution ascribed by the

660

excavator or analyst. We used this information to carry out an SPD analysis of the

661

aggregate, calibrated radiocarbon age distribution for each of the major C/S industries:

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

21

662

Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean, Magdalenian, Azilian, and Asturian+Mesolithic. The

663

results are shown in Figures 4 and 5. The data used in the SPD analyses are available

664

in Tables 2 and S3 [https://zenodo.org/record/1215819] (Barton et al., 2018).

665

There are many potential sources of variation in our analysis. The sample is the result of excavation and analysis by many archaeologists over the course of many

667

decades. There were undoubtedly differences among this large group of scholars in the

668

way assemblages were classified and ascribed to major C/S units – although focusing

669

on the highest level of classification should significantly reduce this kind of variation.

670

Nevertheless, uncertainty by the original excavator/analyst about C/S attribution can be

671

seen in entries like 'Solutrean or Gravettian’. Given the complex formation processes

672

responsible for cave and shelter deposits (Straus, 1979), it is also likely that in some

673

cases organic material dated was not actually contemporaneous with nearby

674

archaeological material upon which C/S attribution was based. Also, there are multiple

675

potential sources of variability in radiocarbon age estimates, including samples of mixed

676

provenance, compositional issues that resulted in large standard deviations, and

677

‘wiggles’ in the 14C calibration curve. Finally, multiple radiocarbon age estimates have

678

been obtained from some proveniences in sites, and only single dates from others.

SC

M AN U

TE D

679

RI PT

666

There are methods that help control for some of these sources of variation (Williams, 2012; Bernabeu et al., 2016; Garcia Puchol et al., 2017) and we employ

681

some of these when using SPD analysis as a proxy for occupational intensity. But here

682

we intentionally avoid using these filtering protocols to examine the aggregate age

683

distribution for all samples available from northern Iberia that have been attributed to

684

each of the six major C/S units. That is, we are not seeking the ‘correct’ chronological

685

boundaries for the Magdalenian, for example, but to derive empirically an age

686

distribution for all samples that someone thought were Magdalenian. In fact, we

687

explicitly include C/S attribution uncertainty in this analysis by ‘double’ counting dates

688

where the original excavator/analyst listed multiple possible attributions. For example,

689

the date with the ‘Solutrean or Gravettian’ attribution just mentioned was included in the

690

SPD analysis of Solutrean dates and in the SPD analysis of Gravettian dates. This

691

procedure provides a new kind of chronological characterization of traditional C/S

AC C

EP

680

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

22

692

industries that allows us to compare them with paleoclimate data in ways not otherwise

693

possible.

694

Figure 4 shows the probability curves of the aggregate 14C age estimates for each major C/S industry, much like the probability curves commonly shown for

696

individual radiocarbon dates. The calibrated probability curves for each individual 14C

697

date that contributed to each aggregate are also shown as light grey polygons. When

698

compared with the chronology in Table 5, a consensus emerges, at least in regard to

699

the order of these units in Vasco-Cantabria and Asturias. Moreover, while there is

700

considerable discussion of their temporal spans, and whether and how the units should

701

be defined or subdivided, the analysis confirms qualitative generalizations about central

702

tendencies in the literature (Straus, 2005). However, our purpose here is not to define or

703

confirm the age of these industries, but rather to examine the range and shape of age

704

estimates for samples attributed by the excavators to each of them. While many

705

prehistorians would regard the definition of the time-space boundaries of the C/S units

706

as a primary goal in itself, we are of the opinion that ransacking the unfiltered raw data

707

for pattern is potentially more informative about past human behavior, and about the

708

relationships between typological practice, unit boundaries, and radiometric

709

chronologies, than to try to refine variety-minimizing, normative definitions of units that

710

were created by prehistorians more than a century ago. Although obvious after the fact,

711

it should be kept in mind that the samples from which the 14C dates are derived are

712

completely unrelated to the defining characteristics of the industries to which they are

713

attributed.

SC

M AN U

TE D

EP

714

RI PT

695

We overlay the chronological distributions of all six units, together with rescaled delta 18O curves from well-studied Greenland ice cores (Rasmussen et al., 2014) for

716

comparison in Figure 5. Overall, the main peaks in the age curves line up reasonably

717

well with major temperature fluctuations recorded in the ice cores. We caution that such

718

simple ‘wiggle matching’ in no way should be seen as indicating paleoclimatic causes

719

for variation in Upper Paleolithic industries. However, these comparisons can serve as

720

an initial step in understanding what these archaeologically-defined artifact groups

721

might mean in terms of technological change and adaption to dynamic Pleistocene

722

conditions. For example, the Aurignacian (113 dates) shows a major mode at around

AC C

715

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

23

34.7 ka BP indicating a greater likelihood for the age of assemblages attributed to that

724

industry that is coterminous with a period of warmer temperatures in Greenland

725

(Denekamp interstadial in Europe at ~ 36-32.5 ka). However, a secondary mode at c. 43

726

ka, aligns with an interval of significantly colder Greenland temperatures, the Huneborg

727

cold phase (~41.4-36 ka). There is no apparent correlation between the Aurignacian,

728

whose age distribution is spread over a long interval, and macroscale climatic

729

oscillations. On the other hand, zones of maximum likelihood for age estimates (i.e.,

730

curve modes) align with warmer periods for the Gravettian, Magdalenian, Azilian, and

731

Asturian/Mesolithic. The two equally prominent Solutrean modes seem to align with

732

colder periods, however (see Tiffagom et al., 2007; Barton, 2013). Overall, this suggests

733

that, at the scale of the most inclusive Upper Paleolithic C/S units, there are probably

734

important links between the artifacts diagnostic of these units (often components of

735

hunting weaponry) and paleoenvironmental conditions, but that these links are not

736 737 738

straightforward and may require new analytical approaches to isolate them.

SC

M AN U

739

RI PT

723

6.2 Summed probability density curves

As noted above, our research shows that most Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic assemblages, cross-classified by conventional culture/stratigraphic units, retouch

741

frequency, elevation and distance to shoreline, appear to be residential bases with few

742

retouched pieces (i.e., they can be characterized as expedient assemblages),

743

concentrated along the coastal plain, at low elevations and short distances from the

744

coast, and in the piedmont. Of the 98 assemblages for which retouch frequency can be

745

calculated, 64% have retouch frequencies ≤ 10% and 89% have retouch frequencies ≤

746

20%. Conversely, the relatively few assemblages located at higher elevations, greater

747

distances from the sea, with many retouched pieces and few other artifacts (i.e., they

748

can be characterized as curated assemblages), appear to represent the remains of

749

overnight camps, foraging parties and other kinds of long-distance, short term activities.

EP

AC C

750

TE D

740

How well or poorly do these data correlate with independent measures of global

751

climatic temperature changes? It might be hypothesized, for example, that coastal sites

752

dominated by expedient assemblages would show increases in relative frequency

753

during milder climatic episodes when the economizing behaviors associated with

754

climatic amelioration would be relaxed, resources would be closer proximity to

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

24

residential sites and hunting parties to higher elevations would also decline in frequency

756

(i.e., the ratio between energy expended and calories obtained would increase).

757

Conversely, during colder phases, populations would have aggregated along the

758

coasts, population-resource imbalances would have ensued, resources become

759

depleted by overexploitation, and long-distance foraging parties deployed from

760

residential bases would have increased in frequency (i.e., the ratio between energy

761

expended and calories obtained would decrease).

762

RI PT

755

These changes can be tested by examining changes in climate, measured by the GISP2 and NGRIP2 ice cores, and changes in population density, using SPD analysis

764

of radiocarbon dates as a proxy for increases and decreases in population mentioned

765

above. Site counts classified by culture-stratigraphic units scaled to unit time have been

766

used before as crude proxies for population density (Clark & Straus, 1986; Straus et al.,

767

2001) but these early efforts were site (rather than level) based, exceptionally ‘coarse-

768

grained’ and lacked an independent monitor of climate change (for comparisons of site

769

counts and SPD analyses, see Bocquet-Appel et al., 2005; French & Collins, 2015). As

770

is true of all archaeological research, SPD analysis for demographic reconstruction is

771

subject to certain bias factors and assumptions (Shennan & Edinborough, 2007;

772

Williams, 2012; Shennan et al., 2013; Bernabeu Aubán et al., 2016; Downey et al.,

773

2016; García Puchol et al., 2017; Contreras & Meadows, 2014). However, in spite of

774

these issues, when used with appropriate caution and especially in regional scale

775

studies with large datasets, this approach seems to be the most robust method of

776

estimating population dynamics in prehistoric demography currently available.

M AN U

TE D

EP

The most fundamental assumption underlying the approach is that the density of

AC C

777

SC

763

778

the proxy data is roughly proportional to that of the human population, and the

779

correlation between the density and distribution of archaeological material, on the one

780

hand, and past population, on the other, is roughly linear and uniform throughout

781

(Bocquet-Appel et al., 2005, cf. Peros et al., 2010). It is also assumed that the intensity

782

of archaeological research was approximately uniform across the region under study for

783

the duration of the database used (Bocquet-Appel et al., 2009). These constraints

784

appear to be met reasonably well in the case of northern Spain, an area with a century-

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

25

785

long history of Stone Age research rivaling that of France and extending back as far as

786

the late 19th century. We employed several filtering steps to help control for some kinds of variability

788

that can distort relationships between SPD results and the assumptions that make it a

789

useful proxy for past demography (Williams, 2012; Timpson et al., 2014; García Puchol

790

et al., 2017). Date estimates with exceptionally large error ranges were eliminated to

791

remove samples that might be poor estimates for the timing of human activities or be

792

completely unrelated to them (e.g., organic material contaminated by soil carbonates or

793

other ‘dead’ carbon). Identifying dates with ‘exceptionally large error ranges’ is not

794

always clear cut, especially over the entire Upper Paleolithic, which spans much of the

795

datable range of 14C and where absolute standard deviations are expected to increase

796

with the age of a sample. We used the coefficient of variation (standard deviation

797

divided by the mean) to identify dates with large errors over the large age range

798

considered here. We eliminated all dates in which the coefficient of variation was >0.05.

799

In order to ensure that a unit of occupational debris containing datable material is not

800

overrepresented simply because the excavators had better funding for more

801

radiocarbon dates, multiple dates from single excavation units or single time slices are

802

often merged. We averaged all uncalibrated dates from single proveniences prior to

803

SPD analysis. We did not have enough consistent information to filter samples by

804

material type. Nor did we attempt to weight the results by age to counter recognized

805

taphonomic bias against older dates (Williams, 2012). Hence, we caution that lower

806

values for earlier parts of the SPD curve may be due in part (possibly a large part) to

807

taphonomic bias rather than to lower population densities and focus more on relative

808

changes than absolute values. The data cleaning described above reduced the number

809

of dates used for the SPD analysis to 404 from the original 951. The results are shown

810

in Figure 6. For comparison, we have overlaid the SPD curve with the boundaries for

811

major C/S units broadly accepted in the regional archaeological literature and given in

812

Table 5. Note that these are not drawn from the SPD analyses of C/S units discussed

813

above but are not at odds with those results either.

814 815

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

787

Inspection of Figure 6 shows a variable amount of correspondence between C/S unit boundaries, demographic peaks and valleys (for which the SPD curve serves as a

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

26

proxy), and climate change again represented by ice core temperature proxies as in

817

Figure 5. While fairly good correspondence occurs between date density probabilities

818

and episodes of climate change, both behave more or less independently from the C/S

819

units, underscoring their non-ecological nature. For the first half of the study interval (c.

820

45-25 cal ka BP) date density probabilities remain fairly low, perhaps reflecting

821

preservation bias and generally poor discrimination between the Aurignacian and the

822

Gravettian in default of the characteristic archaeological index fossils. There may be

823

evidence of gradual increase in population and/or occupational intensity over a period of

824

some 11 ka, from the first appearance of Upper Paleolithic assemblages through the

825

Aurignacian, and followed by fluctuating or dynamic stability until about 25 cal ka. This

826

pattern does not correspond in any clear way with fluctuations in the GISP2 and

827

NGRIP2 ice cores. For example, the dip in temperature at around 38.7 ka BP followed

828

by an abrupt increase about a millennium later probably corresponds to the transition

829

from the Huneborg stadial to the Denekamp interstadial, an event that was relatively

830

rapid in terms of climate change but that shows only a weak correspondence with the

831

SPD curve. A further discordant pattern occurs at around 33-32 cal ka when a local

832

peak in the SPD curve at c. 31.5 cal ka aligns with a dip in the temperature curve. As

833

we note above, radiocarbon proxies for prehistoric demography in northern Spain

834

cannot be simply linked to 18O proxies for prehistoric temperatures in Greenland. It

835

nevertheless provides the opportunity to generate hypotheses about human behavior,

836

as represented in the archaeological record, and paleoenvironmental dynamics at

837

regional scales.

SC

M AN U

TE D

EP

There is a more consistent pattern following the early Upper Paleolithic. There

AC C

838

RI PT

816

839

are significant demographic peaks at the beginning of each time interval corresponding

840

to the Solutrean, Magdalenian, and Azilian, with each peak followed by an equally

841

notable valley, taken to signify demographic declines. Although the definition and thus

842

duration of the LGM is debated, there is some consensus that growth of the ice sheets

843

reached a maximum at about 26.5 ka. Deglaciation commenced in the Northern

844

Hemisphere after about 20 ka and came to an end during the Bølling oscillation, marked

845

by an abrupt rise in sea level, at about 14.5 ka. The SPD curve reaches two maxima

846

during the LGM, and another in the Tardiglacial. There are dips in the curve that appear

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

27

to be contemporaneous with the Oldest and Older Dryas. But despite these fluctuations,

848

population densities remained generally high and were concentrated along the

849

Cantabrian coast in residential bases dominated by assemblages with expedient

850

assemblages. In this coastal zone, warmed by the Rennell’s Current (an arm of the Gulf

851

Stream), temperatures remained relatively mild and stable compared with more inland

852

areas.

RI PT

847

The most dramatic demographic decline is temporally coterminous with the

854

Younger Dryas and the beginning of the Holocene. When population recovers, the

855

archaeological record of the Mesolithic seems to indicate a significantly different way of

856 857 858

life from that of Upper Paleolithic inhabitants.

M AN U

859

7. Concluding Remarks

SC

853

It is our opinion that independent measures like radiocarbon dates matched to fine-grained ice core data and supplemented by more or less well-established climatic

861

phases can provide new insights into the multiple factors driving changes in human

862

adaptation in the Late Pleistocene and early Holocene. While not without their

863

problems, we further believe that WABI methods provide overall better indicators of past

864

human behavior than the variety-minimizing typological and technological systematics

865

that are currently used by many Paleolithic archaeologists. Instead of focusing on

866

prehistorian-defined analytical unit boundaries, we choose instead to use exploratory

867

data analysis (EDA, see Clark [1982] for a summary) to identify patterns that, more

868

often than not, cross-cut and behave independently from the conventional c/s units. This

869

essay is an attempt to use some of these methods on a regional scale in an area where

870

there is a long history of Paleolithic research and a relatively fine-grained archaeological

871

record. Although used with considerable success in Spanish Levante, Italy, other parts

872

of western Europe, Australia and in the United States, it remains to be seen how widely

873

adopted these methods will become. In Franco-Cantabria most workers continue to

874

adhere to the basic analytical units originally defined more than a century ago without

875

due consideration of what those units might mean in terms of human behavior, jamming

876

their analyses into this restrictive, out-dated paradigm. We hope to have demonstrated,

877

by example, how liberating it can be to shed that paradigm and put Paleolithic research

878

squarely into the powerful conceptual framework of human ecology. Perhaps the most

AC C

EP

TE D

860

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

28

879

significant result of this research is the demonstration that those unit boundaries are

880

permeable and at odds with linked changes in environment and human behavior. Only

881

time will tell.

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

882

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

References Arrizabalaga, A., Rios, J., Álvarez, D., 2015. The past is out there: open-air Palaeolithic sites and new research strategies in the Cantabrian region (northern Iberia). Quaternary International 364,181-187. DOI: 10.1016/j.quaint.2014.07.051

RI PT

Balaga, K., Müller, H., Ralská-Jasiewiczowa, M., Stebich, M., Negendank, J., 2001. Correlation and synchronization of late-glacial continental sequences in northern central Europe based on annually laminated lacustrine sediments. Quaternary Science Reviews 20, 1233-1249.

SC

Bamforth, D.B., 1986. Technological efficiency and tool curation. American Antiquity 51, 38–50.

M AN U

Barton, C.M., 1991. Retouched tools: fact or fiction? Paradigms for interpreting chipped stone. In: Clark, G.A. (Ed.), Perspectives in Prehistory Paradigmatic Biases in Circum-Mediterranean Hunter-Gatherer Research. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, pp. 143–163. Barton, C.M., 1998. Looking back from the world’s end: Paleolithic settlement and mobility at Gibraltar. In: Sanchidrián Torti, J.L., Simón Vallejo. M.D. (Eds.), Las Culturas del Pleistoceno Superior en Andalucía. Patronato de la Cueva de Nerja, Nerja, pp. 13-23. Barton, C.M., 2013. Stories of the past or science of the future? Archaeology and computational social science. In: Bevan, A., Lake, M.W. (Eds.), Computational Approaches to Archaeological Spaces, University College London, Institute of Archaeology Publications. Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, CA, pp. 151–178.

TE D

883 884 885 886 887 888 889 890 891 892 893 894 895 896 897 898 899 900 901 902 903 904 905 906 907 908 909

29

Barton, C.M., Clark, G.A., Straus, L.G., 2018. Upper Paleolithic of Northern Spain – Lithic and C14 Data and Analysis. doi:10.5281/zenodo.1214794

912 913 914 915 916 917 918 919 920 921 922 923 924 925 926 927

n.d. Landscapes_climate_mobility_N-Iberia (data and analysis scripts). To be released on GitHub and Zenodo.

EP

910 911

AC C

Barton, C.M., Neeley, M.P., 1996. Phantom cultures of the Levantine Epipaleolithic. Antiquity 70, 139–147. Barton, C.M., Riel-Salvatore, J., 2014. The formation of lithic assemblages. Journal of Archaeological Science 46, 334–352. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2014.03.031 Barton, C.M., Olszewski, D.I., Coinman, N.R. 1996. Beyond the graver: reconsidering burin function. Journal of Field Archaeology 23, 111-125. Barton, C.M., Aura Tortosa, J.E., Garcia Puchol, O., Riel-Salvatore, J.G., Gauthier, N., Vadillo Conessa, M., Pothier Bouchard, G., 2017. Risk and resilience in the late glacial: a case study from the western Mediterranean. Quaternary Science Reviews In press.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

Barton, C.M., Riel-Salvatore, J., Anderies, J.M., Popescu, G. 2011. Modeling human ecodynamics and biocultural Interactions in the Late Pleistocene of Western Eurasia. Human Ecology 39, 705–725. http://doi:10.1007/s10745-011-9433-8

RI PT

Barton, C.M., Villaverde, V., Zilhão, J., Aura, J.E., Garcia, O., Badal, E. 2013. In glacial environments beyond glacial terrains: Human eco-dynamics in late Pleistocene Mediterranean Iberia. Quaternary International 318, 53–68. http:/doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2013.05.007

SC

Bernabeu Aubán, J., García Puchol, O., Barton, M., McClure, S., Pardo Gordó, S., 2016. Radiocarbon dates, climatic events, and social dynamics during the Early Neolithic in Mediterranean Iberia. Quaternary International 403, 201–210. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.09.020

M AN U

Binford, L.R., 1980. Willow smoke and dogs’ tails: hunter-gatherer settlement systems and archaeological site formation. American Antiquity 45, 4–20. Binford, L.R., 1982. The archaeology of place. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 1, 5-31. Binford, L.R., 2001. Constructing Frames of Reference: an Analytical Method for Archaeological Theory Building using Ethnographic and Environmental Data Sets. University of California Press, Berkeley.

TE D

Bleed, P., 1986. The optimal design of hunting weapons: maintainability or reliability. American Antiquity 51, 737–747.

EP

Bleed, P., 2001. Trees or chains, links or branches: Conceptual alternative for consideration of stone tool production and other sequential activities. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 8, 101–127. Bocquet-Appel, J.-P., Demars, P.-Y., Noiret, L., Dobrowsky, D., 2005. Estimates of Upper Paleolithic meta-population size in Europe from archaeological data. Journal of Archaeological Science 32, 1656-1668.

AC C

928 929 930 931 932 933 934 935 936 937 938 939 940 941 942 943 944 945 946 947 948 949 950 951 952 953 954 955 956 957 958 959 960 961 962 963 964 965 966 967 968 969 970 971 972 973

30

Bocquet-Appel, J.-P., Naji, S., VanderLinden, M., Kozlowski, J.K., 2009. Detection of diffusion and contact zones of early farming in Europe from the time-space distribution of 14C dates. Journal of Archaeological Science 36, 807-820. Bordes, F., 1953. Essai de classification des industries ‘Moustériennes’. Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 50, 457-466 Bronk Ramsey, C., 2009. Bayesian analysis of radiocarbon dates. Radiocarbon 51, 337–360.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

RI PT

Clark, G.A., 1971. The Asturian of Cantabria – a Re-evaluation. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago. Clark, G.A., 1975. Liencres: Una Estación al Aire Libre de Estilo Asturiense cerca de Santander. Bilbao: Universidad de Deusto, Cuadernos de Arqueología No. 3, Bilbao.

SC

Clark, G.A., 1982. Quantifying archaeological research. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 5, 217-273.

M AN U

Clark, G.A., 1983a. Late Pleistocene hunter-gatherer adaptations in Cantabrian Spain. In: Bailey, G.N. (Ed.), Boreal phase settlement-subsistence models in Cantabrian Spain. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 96-110. Clark, G.A., 1983b. The Asturian of Cantabria: Early Holocene Hunter-Gatherers in Northern Spain. University of Arizona Press, Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona No. 41, Tucson.

TE D

Clark, G.A., 1984. The Negev model for paleoclimatic change and human adaptation in the Levant and its relevance to the Paleolithic of the Wadi el'Hasa [west-central Jordan]. Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 28, 225-248. Clark, G.A., 1987. From the Mousterian to the Metal Ages: long-term change in the human diet of Cantabrian Spain. In: Soffer, O. (Ed.), The Pleistocene Old World: Regional Perspectives. Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York, pp. 293-316. Clark, G.A., 2009. Accidents of history: conceptual frameworks in paleoarchaeology. In: Camps, M., Chauhan, P. (Eds.), Sourcebook of Paleolithic Transitions: Methods, Theories, and Interpretations. Springer, New York, pp. 19–41.

EP

977 978 979 980 981 982 983 984 985 986 987 988 989 990 991 992 993 994 995 996 997 998 999 1000 1001 1002 1003 1004 1005 1006 1007 1008 1009 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018

Clark, A.E., 2008. Changes in Occupation Intensity during the Lower and Middle Paleolithic at Tabun Cave, Israel. MA thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson.

Clark, G.A., 2016. The Old Stone Age in the SAAS area. In: The Shammakh to Ayl Archaeological Survey, Southern Jordan (2010-2012). American Schools of Oriental Research, Boston, 451-476.

AC C

974 975 976

31

Clark, G.A., Barton, C.M., 2017. Lithics, landscapes and la longue durée – curation and expediency as expressions of forager mobility. Quaternary International 450: 137149. doi:10.1016/j.quaint./2016.08.002 Clark, G.A., Riel-Salvatore, J., 2006. Observations on systematics in Paleolithic archaeology. In: Hovers, E., Kuhn, S. (Eds.) Transitions before the Transition: Evolution and Stability in the Middle Paleolithic and the Middle Stone Age. Springer, New York, pp. 29-56.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

Clark, G.A., Riel-Salvatore, J., 2009. What’s in a name? Observations on the compositional integrity of the Aurignacian. In: Camps, M., Szmidt, C. (Eds.), The Mediterranean from 50,000-25,000 BP: Turning Points and New Directions. Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp. 323-338.

RI PT

Clark, G.A., Straus, L.G., 1983. Late Pleistocene hunter-gatherer adaptations in Cantabrian Spain. In: Bailey, G.N. (Ed.), Hunter-Gatherer Economy in Prehistory: a European Perspective. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 131-148.

SC

Clark, G.A., Straus, L.G., 1986. Synthesis and Conclusions - Part I: Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic hunter-gatherer subsistence in northern Spain. In: Straus, L.G., Clark, G.A. (Eds.), La Riera Cave: Stone Age Hunter-Gatherer Adaptations in Northern Spain. Arizona State University Press, Tempe, pp. 351-366.

M AN U

Contreras, D.A., Meadows, J., 2014. Summed radiocarbon calibrations as a population proxy: a critical evaluation using a realistic simulation approach. Journal of Archaeological Science 52, 591–608. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.030 Cuenca Solana, D., Clemente Conte, I., Gutiérrez Zugasti, I., 2010. Utilización de instrumentos de concha durante el Mesolítico y Neolítico inicial en contextos litorales de la region Cantábrica: programa experimental para el análisis de huellas de uso en materiales malacológicos. Trabajos de Prehistoria 67, 211-225.

TE D

Cuenca Solana, D., Gutiérrez Zugasti, I. & Clemente Conte, I. 2011. The use of mollusc shells as tools by coastal human groups: the contribution of ethnographical studies to research on Mesolithic and early Neolithic technologies in northern Spain. Journal of Anthropological Research 67, 77-102.

EP

Culley, E.V., Popescu, G., Clark, G.A., 2013. An analysis of the compositional integrity of the Levantine Mousterian facies. Quaternary International 300, 213–233. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.11.030 Dibble, H.L., 1987. The interpretation of Middle Paleolithic scraper morphology. American Antiquity 52, 109–117.

AC C

1019 1020 1021 1022 1023 1024 1025 1026 1027 1028 1029 1030 1031 1032 1033 1034 1035 1036 1037 1038 1039 1040 1041 1042 1043 1044 1045 1046 1047 1048 1049 1050 1051 1052 1053 1054 1055 1056 1057 1058 1059 1060 1061 1062 1063 1064

32

Dibble, H.L., 1995. Middle Paleolithic scraper reduction: background, clarification, and review of the evidence to date. Journal of archaeological method and theory 2, 299–368. Downey, S.S., Haas, W.R., Shennan, S.J., 2016. European Neolithic societies showed early warning signals of population collapse. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113, 9751–9756. doi:10.1073/pnas.1602504113 Fernández-Tresguerres, J. A. 1976. Enterramiento aziliense de la Cueva de Los Azules I (Cangas de Onís, Oviedo). Boletín del Instituto de Estudios Asturianos 87, 273288.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

French, J.C., Collins, C., 2015. Upper Palaeolithic population histories of Southwestern France: a comparison of the demographic signatures of 14C date distributions and archaeological site counts. Journal of Archaeological Science 55, 122–134. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2015.01.001

RI PT

García Puchol, O., Bernabeu Aubán, J., Barton, C.M., Pardo Gordò, S., McClure, S.B., Diez Castillo, A., 2017. A Bayesian approach for timing the Neolithisation in Mediterranean Iberia. Radiocarbon in press. doi:10.1017/RDC.2017.61 Glass, G. 1976. Primary, secondary, and meta-analysis of research. Educational Researcher 5, 3-8. doi:10.3102/0013189X005010003.

SC

González Morales, M. R. 1982. El Asturiense y Otras Culturas Locales. Centro de Investigación y Museo de Altamira Monografía No. 7, Santander.

M AN U

González Morales, M. R., Márquez Uría, M. C., Diáz, T., Ortea, J. A., Volkman, K. 1980. Informe preliminar de las excavaciones en el conchero Asturiense de la Cueva de Mazaculos II (La Franca, Asturias): campañas de 1976-78. Noticiario Arqueológico Hispánico 9, 35-62. Grove, M., 2009. Hunter-gatherer movement patterns: Causes and constraints. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 28, 222–233. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2009.01.003

TE D

Grove, M., 2010. Logistical mobility reduces subsistence risk in hunting economies. Journal of Archaeological Science 37, 1913–1921. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2010.02.017

EP

Guéret, C. 2017. Retoucher, pour quoi faire? Réflexions fonctionnelle et méthodologiques sur la place occupée par l’outillage brut dans l’économie du premier Mésolithique en Europe du Nord-Ouest. Bulletin de la Société préhistorique Française 114, 339-370. Gutiérrez Zagasti, I. 2009. La Explotación de Moluscos y Otros Recursos Litorales en la Región Cantábrica durante el Pleistoceno Final y el Holoceno Inicial. Universidad de Cantabria, Santander.

AC C

1065 1066 1067 1068 1069 1070 1071 1072 1073 1074 1075 1076 1077 1078 1079 1080 1081 1082 1083 1084 1085 1086 1087 1088 1089 1090 1091 1092 1093 1094 1095 1096 1097 1098 1099 1100 1101 1102 1103 1104 1105 1106 1107 1108 1109 1110

33

Hiscock, P., 2007. Looking the other way: a materialist/technological approach to classifying tools and implements, cores and retouched flakes. In: McPherron, S.P. (Ed.), Tools versus Cores. Alternative Approaches to Stone Tool Analysis. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle, UK, pp. 198–222. Hobbs, J. 2016. Fundamentals of World Regional Geography (4th Edition). Boston: Cengage Learning, Boston. Holdaway, S., Douglass, M., 2012. A Twenty-First Century Archaeology of Stone Artifacts. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 19, 101-131. doi:10.1007/s10816-011-9103-6

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

Hours, F., Copeland, L., Aurenche, O., 1973. Les industries Paléolithiques du ProcheOrient, essai de correlation. L’Anthropologie 77, 229-280, 437-496.

RI PT

Kelly, R.L., 1983. Hunter-gatherer mobility strategies. Journal Anthropological Research 39, 277–306. Kelly, R.L., 1992. Mobility/sedentism: Concepts, archaeological measures, and effects. Annual Review of Anthropology 21, 43–66. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.21.100192.000355

SC

Kelly, R.L., 1995. The Foraging Spectrum: Diversity in Hunter-Gatherer Lifeways. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.

Kuhn, S.L., 1991. Unpacking reduction: lithic raw-material economy in the Mousterian of west-central Italy. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 10, 76-106. Kuhn, S.L., 1992. On planning and curated technologies in the Middle Paleolithic. Journal of Anthropological Research 48, 185–214.

M AN U

1111 1112 1113 1114 1115 1116 1117 1118 1119 1120 1121 1122 1123 1124 1125 1126 1127 1128

34

1129 1130 1131 1132 1133 1134 1135 1136 1137 1138 1139 1140 1141 1142 1143 1144 1145 1146 1147 1148 1149

Kuhn, S.L., 1994. A formal approach to the design and assembly of mobile toolkits. American Antiquity 59, 426–442.

1150 1151 1152 1153 1154

Nelson, M., 1991. The study of technological organization. Archaeological Method and Theory 3, 57-100.

Kuhn, S.L., 1995. Mousterian lithic technology: an ecological perspective. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.

TE D

Kuhn, S.L., Clark, A.E., 2015. Artifact densities and assemblage formation: Evidence from Tabūn Cave. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology (Archaeology IS Anthropology: Lewis R. Binford’s Dynamic Contributions to Archaeological Theory and Practice) 38, 8–16. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2014.09.002

EP

Marks, A. E., Freidel, D. 1977. Prehistoric settlement patterns in the Avdat/Aquev area. In: Marks (Ed.), Prehistory and Paleoenvironments in the Central Negev, Israel, vol. II. Southern Methodist University, Dallas, pp. 131-158.

AC C

Miller, A., Barton, C.M., 2008. Exploring the land: a comparison of land-use patterns in the Middle and Upper Paleolithic of the western Mediterranean. Journal of Archaeological Science 35, 1427-1437. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2007.10.007 Neeley, M.P., Barton, C.M., 1994. A new approach to interpreting late Pleistocene microlith industries in southwest Asia. Antiquity 68, 275–288.

Obermaier, H.,1924. Fossil Man in Spain. Yale University Press, New Haven.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

1193 1194 1195 1196 1197 1198 1199 1200

RI PT

Olalde, I., Allentoft, M., Sánchez-Quinto, F., Santpere, G., Chiang, C.W.K., DiGiorgio, M., Prado-Martínez, L., Rodriguez, J.A., Rasmussen, S., Quilez, J., Ramírez, O., Marigorta, U., Fernández-Callejo, M., Encina Prada, M., Vidal Encinas, J.M., Nielsen, R., Netea, M., Novembre, J., Sturm, R., Sabeti, P., Marquès-Bonet, T., Navarro, A., Willerslev, E., Lalueza-Fox, C., 2014. Derived immune and ancestral pigmentation alleles in a 7,000-year-old Mesolithic European. Nature 507, 225-228. Papalas, C., Clark, G.A., Kintigh, K. 2003. Liencres revisited: the significance of spatial patterning revealed by unconstrained clustering. In: Larsson, L., Kindgren, H., Knutsson, K., Loeffler, D., Akerlund, A. (Eds.), Mesolithic on the Move. Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp. 253-261.

M AN U

SC

Parnell, A. C., Haslett, J., Allen, J. R. M., Buck, C. E., Huntley, B., 2008. A flexible approach to assessing synchroneity of past events using Bayesian reconstructions of sedimentation history. Quaternary Science Reviews 27, 1872–1885. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.07.009 Parnell, A.C., Buck, C.E., Doan, T.K., 2011. A review of statistical chronology models for high-resolution, proxy-based Holocene palaeoenvironmental reconstruction. Quaternary Science Reviews 30, 2948–2960. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2011.07.024 Parry, W.J., Kelly, R.L., 1987. Expedient core technology and sedentism. In: Johnson, J.K., Marrow, C.A. (Eds.), The Organization of Core Technology. Westview Press, Boulder and London., pp. 284–304.

TE D

Peña-Chocarro, L., Zapata, L., Iriarte, M. J., González-Morales, M. R., Straus, L. G. 2005. The oldest agriculture in northern Atlantic Spain: new evidence from El Mirón Cave (Ramales de la Victoria, Cantabria). Journal of Archaeological Science 32, 579-587.

EP

Peros, M.C., Muñoz, S., Gajewski, K., Viau, A., 2010. Prehistoric demography of North America inferred from radiocarbon data. Journal of Archaeological Science 37, 656664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2009.10.029 Rasmussen, S.O., Seierstad, I.K., Andersen, K.K., Bigler, M., Dahl-Jensen, D., Johnsen, S.J., 2008. Synchronization of the NGRIP, GRIP, and GISP2 ice cores across MIS 2 and palaeoclimatic implications. Quaternary Science Reviews 27, 18–28. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2007.01.016

AC C

1155 1156 1157 1158 1159 1160 1161 1162 1163 1164 1165 1166 1167 1168 1169 1170 1171 1172 1173 1174 1175 1176 1177 1178 1179 1180 1181 1182 1183 1184 1185 1186 1187 1188 1189 1190 1191 1192

35

Rasmussen, S.O., Bigler, M., Blockley, S.P., Blunier, T., Buchardt, S.L., Clausen, H.B., Cvijanovic, I., Dahl-Jensen, D., Johnsen, S.J., Fischer, H., Gkinis, V., Guillevic, M., Hoek, W.Z., Lowe, J.J., Pedro, J.B., Popp, T., Seierstad, I.K., Steffensen, J.P., Svensson, A.M., Vallelonga, P., Vinther, B.M., Walker, M.J.C., Wheatley, J.J., Winstrup, M. 2014. A stratigraphic framework for abrupt climatic changes during the Last Glacial period based on three synchronized Greenland ice-core records: refining and extending the INTIMATE event stratigraphy. Quaternary Science Reviews 106, 14-28.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

36

1201 1202 1203 1204 1205 1206 1207 1208 1209 1210 1211 1212 1213 1214 1215 1216 1217 1218 1219 1220 1221 1222 1223 1224 1225 1226 1227 1228 1229 1230 1231 1232 1233 1234

Rick, J.W., 1987. Dates as Data: An Examination of the Peruvian Preceramic Radiocarbon Record. American Antiquity 52, 55–73. doi:10.2307/281060

1235 1236 1237 1238 1239 1240 1241

Seierstad, I.K., Abbott, P.M., Bigler, M., Blunier, T., Bourne, A.J., Brook, E., Buchardt, S.L., Buizert, C., Clausen, H.B., Cook, E., Dahl-Jensen, D., Davies, S.M., Guillevic, M., Johnsen, S.J., Pedersen, D.S., Popp, T.J., Rasmussen, S.O., Severinghaus, J.P., Svensson, A., Vinther, B.M., 2014. Consistently dated records from the Greenland GRIP, GISP2 and NGRIP ice cores for the past 104 ka reveal regional millennial-scale δ18O gradients with possible Heinrich event imprint. Quaternary Science Reviews 106, 29-46.

1242 1243 1244 1245 1246

Stiner, M. 1994. Honor Among Thieves: a Zooarchaeological Study of Neanderthal Ecology. Princeton University Press, Princeton.

Riel-Salvatore, J., Barton, C.M., 2004. Late Pleistocene technology, economic behavior, and land-use dynamics in southern Italy. American Antiquity 69, 273–290.

RI PT

Riel-Salvatore, J., Barton, C.M., 2007. New quantitative perspectives on the MiddleUpper Paleolithic transition: the view from the northern Mediterranean. In: RielSalvatore, J., Clark, G.A. (Eds.), Early Upper Paleolithic ‘Transitional’ Industries: New Questions, New Methods. British Archaeological Reports International Series 1620, Archaeopress, Oxford, pp. 61-74.

M AN U

SC

Riel-Salvatore, J., Popescu, G., Barton, C.M., 2008. Standing at the gates of Europe: human behavior and biogeography in the Southern Carpathians during the Late Pleistocene. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 27, 399–417. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2008.02.002 Sackett, J.R., 1988. The Mousterian and its aftermath. In: Dibble, H., Montet-White, A. (Eds.), Upper Pleistocene Prehistory of Western Eurasia. University of Pennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia, pp. 413-426. Sandgathe, D.M., 2006. Examining the Levallois reduction strategy from a Design Theory point of view. British Archaeological Reports International Series 1417, Archaeopress, Oxford.

TE D

Shennan, S., Edinborough, K., 2007. Prehistoric population history: from the Late Glacial to the Late Neolithic in Central and Northern Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science 34, 1339–1345. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2006.10.031

AC C

EP

Shennan, S., Downey, S.S., Timpson, A., Edinborough, K., Colledge, S., Kerig, T., Manning, K., Thomas, M.G., 2013. Regional population collapse followed initial agriculture booms in mid-Holocene Europe. Nature Communications 4. doi:10.1038/ncomms3486

Stiner, M., Kuhn, S., 1992. Subsistence, technology, and adaptive variation in Middle Paleolithic Italy. American Anthropologist 94, 306–339.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

Straus, L. G. 1975. A Study of the Solutrean in Vasco-Cantabrian Spain. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago. Straus, L. G. 1979. Caves: a palaeoanthropological resource. World Archaeology 10, 331-339.

RI PT

Straus, L.G., 1992. Iberia before the Iberians. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.

SC

Straus, L.G., 2003. “The Aurignacian”? Some thoughts. In: Zilhão, J., d’Errico, F. (Eds.), The chronology of the Aurignacian and the Transitional Industries. Trabalhos de Arqueologia 33, 11-18. Straus, L.G., 2005. The Upper Paleolithic of Cantabrian Spain. Evolutionary Anthropology 14, 145-158.

M AN U

Straus, L.G., Clark, G.A., 1986. Synthesis and conclusions, part II: the La Riera excavation, chronostratigraphy, paleoenvironments, and cultural sequence in perspective. In: Straus, L.G., Clark, G.A. (Eds.), La Riera Cave: Stone Age HunterGatherer Adaptations in Northern Spain. Arizona State University Anthropological Research Paper No. 36, Tempe, pp. 367-383

TE D

Straus, L.G., Clark, G.A. (Eds.), 1986. La Riera Cave: Stone Age Hunter-Gatherer Adaptations in Northern Spain. Arizona State University Anthropological Research Paper No. 36, Tempe. Straus, L.G. & González Morales, M.R., 2012. El Mirón Cave, Cantabrian Spain. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.

EP

Straus, L.G., Ellwood, B., Harrold, F., Benoist, S., González Morales, M., Bicho, N., Zilhão, J., Soler, N.,2001. Paleoclimate and intersite correlations from Late Pleistocene/Holocene cave sites: results from southern Europe. Geoarchaeology 16, 433-463. Tiffagom, M., Jordá Pardo, J.F., Barton, C.M., Aura Tortosa, J.E., 2007. Le vent de l’Est . . . essai de mise en contexte chronologique et paléogéographique de la pointe à cran solutréenne. Presented at the ‘Le Solutréen . . .40 ans après le Smith ’66.’ Conference of the International Conference of the Union of Pre- & Protohistoric Sciences, Preuilly-sur-Claise, France.

AC C

1247 1248 1249 1250 1251 1252 1253 1254 1255 1256 1257 1258 1259 1260 1261 1262 1263 1264 1265 1266 1267 1268 1269 1270 1271 1272 1273 1274 1275 1276 1277 1278 1279 1280 1281 1282 1283 1284 1285 1286 1287 1288 1289 1290 1291

37

Timpson, A., Colledge, S., Crema, E., Edinborough, K., Kerig, T., Manning, K., Thomas, M.G., Shennan, S., 2014. Reconstructing regional population fluctuations in the European Neolithic using radiocarbon dates: a new case-study using an improved method. Journal of Archaeological Science 52, 549–557. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2014.08.011

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

Vega del Sella, Ricardo Duque de Estrada y Martínez de Moratín, 1914., La cueva del Penicial (Asturias). Comision de Investigaciones Paleontologicas y Prehistoricas, Memoria 4, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid.

RI PT

Vega del Sella, Ricardo Duque de Estrada y Martínez de Moratín,1915., Avance al Estudio del Paleolítico Superior en la Región Cantábrica. Publicaciones del Congreso de Valladolid, Asociación Española para el Progreso de las Ciencias, Madrid, pp. 139-160. Vermeersch, P.M., 2016. Radiocarbon Palaeolithic Europe Database, Version 20. Universitat Leuven, Belgium.

SC

Villaverde, V., Aura, J.E., Barton, C.M., 1998. The Upper Paleolithic in Mediterranean Spain: a review of current evidence. Journal of World Prehistory 12, 121-198.

M AN U

Walker, E., Hernández, A., Kattan, M., 2008. Meta-analysis: its strengths and limitations. Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine 75, 431-439. doi:10.3949/ccjm.75.6.431.

EP

TE D

Williams, A.N., 2012. The use of summed radiocarbon probability distributions in archaeology: a review of methods. Journal of Archaeological Science 39, 578–589. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.07.014

AC C

1292 1293 1294 1295 1296 1297 1298 1299 1300 1301 1302 1303 1304 1305 1306 1307 1308 1309 1310 1311 1312 1313 1314

38

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

List of Tables Table 1. Material Correlates of Forager Mobility.

Table 3. Sites Used in the Lithic Volumetric Density (LVD) Analysis with the Relevant Culture/Stratigraphic Unit Attributions.1 Table 4. Statistical Summary for Lithic Analysis (Figures 2-4).

SC

Table 5. Radiometric Chronology, Pollen Sequence, Heinrich Events & Ice Core Phases for the Major Divisions of the Upper Paleolithic in Asturias & Cantabria (all archaeological dates ka cal BP).1,2

1330 1331 1332 1333 1334 1335 1336

1348

EP AC C

1347

TE D

1337 1338 1339 1340 1341 1342 1343 1344 1345 1346

RI PT

Table 2. A List of Data Requirements for a Complete WABI Analysis (Riel-Salvatore & Barton, 2004; Clark & Barton, 2017).

M AN U

1315 1316 1317 1318 1319 1320 1321 1322 1323 1324 1325 1326 1327 1328 1329

39

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

Table 1. Material Correlates of Forager Mobility. ______________________________________________________________________ A high incidence of retouch and low lithic volumetric density is consistent with:

M AN U

SC

RI PT

less residential stability (= transient camps) shorter duration of site occupation smaller sites, local groups (= seasonal fission) resources procured by moving the entire group (moves people to resources) a large number of retouched pieces relative to lithic totals no cores and little débitage expected to occur during dry, cold intervals with scarce, widely distributed resource patches consistent with increased mobility and the provisioning of individuals result is curated assemblages A low incidence of retouch and high lithic volumetric density Is consistent with:

EP

TE D

greater residential stability (= base camps) longer duration of site occupation larger sites, local groups (= seasonal fusion) resources procured by task groups deployed from residential bases (moves resources to people) a small number of retouched pieces relative to lithic totals significant numbers of cores, unretouched flakes and blades, and debitage consistent with reduced mobility and the provisioning of places expected to occur during warm, wet intervals with abundant resources clustered in close proximity to residential bases result is expedient assemblages ______________________________________________________________________

AC C

1349 1350 1351 1352 1353 1354 1355 1356 1357 1358 1359 1360 1361 1362 1363 1364 1365 1366 1367 1368 1369 1370 1371 1372 1373 1374 1375 1376 1377 1378 1379 1380 1381 1382

40

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

1417

Table 2. A List of Data Requirements for a Complete WABI Analysis (Riel-Salvatore & Barton, 2004; Clark & Barton, 2017).

Archaeological Variables:

M AN U

SC

RI PT

sites assemblages within sites area excavated in square meters mean level thickness in centimeters volume excavated in cubic meters total number of lithics (flakes, blades, debitage, shatter) total number of cores and core fragments lithic volumetric density (LVD) – total lithics/volume excavated total number of retouched pieces percent retouched of total number of lithics backed bladelet index (Ib/b) – total backed bladelets/total retouched pieces attribution (e.g., Solutrean, Magdalenian, etc.) Landscape & Environmental Variables:

TE D

elevation in meters above sea level distance to sea (air) in kilometers distance to sea (walking) in kilometers UTM co-ordinates distance to other contemporaneous sites Chronological Variables

EP

radiocarbon dates marine isotope stages (MIS) European pollen phases (e.g., Younger Dryas, Preboreal, Atlantic, etc.) ______________________________________________________________________

AC C

1383 1384 1385 1386 1387 1388 1389 1390 1391 1392 1393 1394 1395 1396 1397 1398 1399 1400 1401 1402 1403 1404 1405 1406 1407 1408 1409 1410 1411 1412 1413 1414 1415 1416

41

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

42

1418 1419 1420 1421

Table 3. Sites Used in the Lithic Volumetric Density (LVD) Analysis with the Relevant Culture/Stratigraphic Unit Attributions.1 ______________________________________________________________________

1422 1423 1424 1425 1426 1427 1428 1429 1430 1431 1432 1433 1434 1435 1436 1437 1438 1439 1440 1441 1442 1443 1444

Sites with LVD & retouched data: (80 assemblages) Balmori Bolinkoba Cova Rosa Ekain El Cierro La Riera

RI PT

Attributions:

TE D

M AN U

SC

Asturian Gravettian/Noaillan Solutrean Upper Magdalenian, Azilian Solutrean Gravettian (?), Solutrean, Lower/Middle Magdalenian, Upper Magdalenian, Azilian, Asturian Las Caldas Middle, Upper & Final Solutrean, Lower/Middle Magdalenian Liencres Asturian Mirón Solutrean, Lower/Middle Magdalenian Morín Châtelperronian, Aurignacian, Classic Aurignacian, Upper Solutrean, Upper Solutrean, Magdalenian, Azilian Otero Aurignacian III, IV & V; Magdalenian V Rascaño Archaic Magdalenian, Lower Magdalenian, Upper Magdalenian, Final Magdalenian, Azilian Sopeña (test pit) Gravettian ______________________________________________________________________ Sites with lithic & retouched totals but with no LVD data: (28 assemblages) Aitzbitarte III Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP), Late Aurignacian, Gravettian, Middle Gravettian, Gravettian/Solutrean El Juyo Lower/Middle Magdalenian La Paloma Lower, Middle & Upper Magdalenian; Azilian Los Azules Azilian ______________________________________________________________________

1454 1455

1. culture/stratigraphic affiliations are those of the excavators.

AC C

EP

1445 1446 1447 1448 1449 1450 1451 1452 1453

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

Table 4. Statistical Summary for Lithic Analysis (Figures 2-4). ______________________________________________________________________ (1) Retouch frequency x culture/stratigraphic unit (Figure 2): Early Upper Paleolithic Solutrean Lower & Middle Magdalenian Upper Magdalenian Azilian Asturian (Mesolithic)

28 29 25 10 13 3

Median 0.107 0.050 0.032 0.133 0.122 0.123

Scatter Plot trimodal, skewed residential bimodal, skewed residential trimodal, skewed residential unimodal, even distribution unimodal, even distribution unimodal, skewed curated

RI PT

No. Assemblages

SC

______________________________________________________________________ (2) Retouch frequency x elevation x culture/stratigraphic unit (Figure 3):

Early Upper Paleolithic Solutrean Lower & Middle Magdalenian Upper Magdalenian Azilian Asturian (Mesolithic)

M AN U

No. Assemblages* Median Elev. 49 40 49 35 28 4

151.0 60.0 165.0 165.0 181.0 29.5

Scatter Plot 17.9% curated** 6.9% curated 8.0% curated 10.0% curated 15.4% curated 33.0% curated

TE D

*includes assemblages without retouch frequency information; **curated = >10% retouched (3) Retouch frequency x linear distance to modern and LGM coast (Figure 3):

EP

No. Assemblages*

Early Upper Paleolithic Solutrean Lower & Middle Magdalenian Upper Magdalenian Azilian Asturian (Mesolithic)

AC C

1456 1457 1458 1459 1460 1461 1462 1463 1464 1465 1466 1467 1468 1469 1470 1471 1472 1473 1474 1475 1476 1477 1478 1479 1480 1481 1482 1483 1484 1485 1486 1487 1488 1489 1490 1491 1492 1493 1494 1495 1496 1497 1498 1499 1500 1501 1502

43

49 40 49 35 28 4

Median Median Dist./Modern Dist./LGM Coast Coast 6.58 2.06 12.21 6.58 13.12 1.64

*includes assemblages without retouch frequency information

18.63 10.35 21.99 21.98 26.16 10.09

Difference

12.05 8.29 9.78 15.40 13.04 8.45

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

Table 5. Radiometric Chronology, Pollen Sequence, Heinrich Events & Ice Core Phases for the Major Divisions of the Upper Paleolithic in Cantabria (all dates ka cal BP).

Mesolithic (all)

11.0-8.0

Preboreal

11.5-8.4

13.5-11.0

Dryas III Allerod

12.9-11.7 13.7-12.9

H0 ∼12.5

GS11 GI1a-c

Magdalenian

20.3-13.5

Dryas II Bølling Dryas I

14.1-13.7 14.7-14.1 18.0-17.8

H1

GI1d GI1e GS2.1b

Laugerie Lascaux

Gravettian

∼34.0-24.0

Tursac Maisières

Aurignacian

∼42.0-34.0

16.8

SC

∼24.0-20.0

23.5-22.0 23.0-22.0

H2 24-23

GS2,3 GI3

31.0-29.5 34.5-33.5

H3 ∼30.0

GI2-6 GI6

Denekamp

38.0-34.5

H4 38-35

Hengelo

43.5-40.0

GI6-10, GS7-11 GI12

M AN U

Solutrean

RI PT

Azilian

AC C

EP

TE D

1. Ice core dates are before 2ka AD; based on analysis of NGRIP, GRIP and GISP2 cores (from Rasmussen et al. 2014: 14-28).

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

List of Figures Figure 1. The north Spanish provinces of Asturias, Cantabria, Vizcaya and Guipúzcoa showing the locations of the 47 sites used in the analyses presented.

RI PT

Figure 2. Box plot of retouch frequency cross-classified with analytical unit with medians and mid-spreads indicated and individual assemblages shown as colored dots (shaded in B/W print version) that indicate the prevalence of backed bladelets among retouched pieces (see Table 4).

SC

Figure 3. Scatter plot showing retouch frequency cross-classified with modern elevation and distance from modern coast for each culture/stratigraphic unit (see Table 4). Red circles are assemblages with retouch frequencies ≤ 0.10; blue circles are assemblages with retouch frequencies > 0.10. Grey dots are assemblages without sufficient information to calculate retouch frequency.

M AN U

Figure 4. Calibrated radiocarbon summed probability density curves for six culture/stratigraphic units referred to in text (L/M and U Magdalenian combined). Light grey polygons show probability curves for individual dates. Figure 5. Combined summed probability density curves for each culture/stratigraphic unit. Rescaled ∆18O values proportional to paleotemperatures and glacial ice volume from the relevant portions of the GISP2 (red) and NGRIP2 (blue) ice cores generated from recalibrated dates in Rasmussen et al. (2008) shown for comparison.

AC C

EP

TE D

Figure 6. Summed probability density curve of calibrated 14C dates from the north Spanish coast (solid line) with the duration of six culture/stratigraphic units (Table 5) indicated (vertical dotted lines). Rescaled ∆18O values proportional to paleotemperatures and glacial ice volume from the relevant portions of the GISP2 (red) and NGRIP2 (blue) ice cores generated from recalibrated dates in Rasmussen et al. (2008) shown for comparison.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

2

Tito Bustillo La Lloseta El Cierro

Cueva Oscura

La Riera Cueto de la Mina Bricia El Pendo

Cova Rosa

Rascaño

El Juyo

La Chora

Abittaga Santimamiñe

Ermittia Urtiaga

Los Azules Entrefoces

Asturias

Chufín

Cantabria Sopeña

TE D

Las Caldas

Amalda

Altamira

La Paloma El Conde

M AN U

SC

RI PT

Figure 1. The north Spanish provinces of Asturias, Cantabria, Vizcaya and Guipúzcoa showing the locations of the 47 sites used in the analyses presented.

El Castillo

EP

Morín Piélago I-II

AC C

Otero

Erralla Abauntz

País Vasco

Zatoya

El Valle

Aitzbitarte I-IV

Mirón Silibranka Bolinkoba

Navarra

Agarre Aitzbeltz

Ekain

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 3

RI PT

Clark, Barton & Straus

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

Figure 2. Box plot of retouch frequency cross-classified with analytical unit with medians and mid-spreads indicated and individual assemblages shown as colored dots (shaded in B/W print version) that indicate the prevalence of backed bladelets among retouched pieces (see Table 4).

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

4

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

Figure 3. Scatter plot showing retouch frequency cross-classified with modern elevation and distance from modern coast for each culture/stratigraphic unit (see Table 4). Red circles are assemblages with retouch frequencies ≤ 0.10; blue circles are assemblages with retouch frequencies > 0.10. Grey dots are assemblages without sufficient information to calculate retouch frequency.

5

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

AC C

Clark, Barton & Straus

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

Figure 4. Calibrated radiocarbon summed probability density curves for six culture/stratigraphic units referred to in text (L/M and U Magdalenian combined). Light grey polygons show probability curves for individual dates.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 6

M AN U

SC

RI PT

Clark, Barton & Straus

AC C

EP

TE D

Figure 5. Combined summed probability density curves for each culture/stratigraphic unit. Rescaled ∆18O values proportional to paleotemperatures and glacial ice volume from the relevant portions of the GISP2 (red) and NGRIP2 (blue) ice cores generated from recalibrated dates in Rasmussen et al. (2008) shown for comparison.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 7

Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) Gravettian

Late Upper Paleolithic (LUP)

Solutrean

Magdalenian

Meso.

Azil.

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

Aurignacian

SC

RI PT

Clark, Barton & Straus

Figure 6. Summed probability density curve of calibrated 14C dates from the north Spanish coast (solid line) with the duration of six culture/stratigraphic units (Table 5) indicated (vertical dotted lines). Rescaled ∆18O values proportional to paleotemperatures and glacial ice volume from the relevant portions of the GISP2 (red) and NGRIP2 (blue) ice cores generated from recalibrated dates in Rasmussen et al. (2008) shown for comparison.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 8

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

Clark, Barton & Straus

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

9

Table S1. Solutrean – Old Collections (Straus 1975).

c. 1.7 2 c. 1.2 c. 20 c. 20 c. 20 c. 20 4-6 c. 4 c. 10-20

910 49 456

177 34 167

0.195 0.694 0.367

0.50

8

5

0.625

0.15

61

7

0.25

142 183 202 234 353 785 151 80 50 62

0.60 0.40 2.00

505 5 140

0.555 0.102 0.307

0.115

42

0.689

117 125 171 171 242 584 136 69 25

0.824 0.683 0.847 0.731 0.687 0.745 0.901 0.862 0.500

4 4 6 14 11 31 10 4 10

0.028 0.022 0.030 0.060 0.031 0.039 0.066 0.050 0.200

40

0.645

12

0.194

272

c. 20 c. 30-35 c. 5-6

0.60 0.65 0.20

47 1066 246

EP AC C

194 8 134

0.213 0.163 0.294

1

0.125

47 522 125

1.000 0.490 0.508

204 94

0.191 0.382

33 1 14

RI PT

0.80 1.20 2.00

2

12

6 25 12 29 37 77 2 3 11

0.042 0.137 0.059 0.124 0.105 0.098 0.013 0.025 0.220

3

0.048

14 28 12 19 62 92 3 4 4

SC

c. 3 10-13 2-3

TE D

Río Nalón Las Caldas (Alvarez) Peña de Candamo Cueva Oscura (all) Río Sella Buxu Posada de Llanes Coberizas (Cut A, lev. 4) Cueto de la Mina: lev. F unspec. Solutrean lev. E (undivided) lev. E/3+4 lev. E/1+2 lev. E (all) La Riera (Vega del Sella) Tres Calabres Balmori* Río Deva Sel* Río Nansa Chufin Ríos Saja & Besaya Caranceja Altamira (Alcalde) Altamira (Obermaier) Hornos de la Peña*

Approx. Approx. Total Total Percent Flakes Percent Blades Percent Bladelets Area Exc. Thickness Artifacts Retouched Retouched Flakes Blades m square meters

M AN U

Site & Level

249 19

0.234 0.077

3

90 7

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 10

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

Clark, Barton & Straus

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

11

SUPPLEMENT 3 – DATA & METHODS

Last Updated: 2018-04-09

Table of Contents This workflow is the output for an R Markdown script that performed all analyses used in the paper entitled Landscapes, climate change & forager mobility in the Upper Paleolithic of northern Spain (GA Clark corresponding author), submitted to Quaternary International, 2018. This R Markdown script requires R data files for the lithic assemblages and radiocarbon dates, as well as a several R packages not included in the base distribution. These are all loaded by the ‘setup’ chunk below. The complete dataset and the R Markdown script that produced this document can be downloaded at: https://zenodo.org/record/1214794 (doi: 10.5281/zenodo.1214794) This dataset should be cited as follows:

Setup Load files and libraries # R libraries needed require(ggplot2) require(ggthemes) require(dplyr) require(Bchron) require(viridis) require(readr)

AC C

EP

TE D

# Load files needed load(file="nwiberia_lithics.rda") load(file="nwiberia_dates.rda") load(file="ice_cores.rda")

M AN U

Barton, C.M., Clark, G.A., Straus, L.G., 2018. Upper Paleolithic of N Spain - Lithic and C14 Data and Analysis. doi:10.5281/zenodo.1214794

SC

C Michael Barton, Geoffrey A Clark & Lawrence G Straus

RI PT

Supplementary Information for: Landscapes, Climate Change & Forager Mobility in the Upper Paleolithic of Northern Spain

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

List of Tables Table 1. Material Correlates of Forager Mobility.

Table 3. Sites Used in the Lithic Volumetric Density (LVD) Analysis with the Relevant Culture/Stratigraphic Unit Attributions.1 Table 4. Statistical Summary for Lithic Analysis (Figures 2-4).

Table 5. Radiometric Chronology, Pollen Sequence, Heinrich Events & Ice Core Phases for the Major Divisions of the Upper Paleolithic in Asturias & Cantabria (all archaeological dates ka cal BP).1,2

M AN U

16 17 18 19 20 21 22

34

EP AC C

33

TE D

23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

RI PT

Table 2. A List of Data Requirements for a Complete WABI Analysis (Riel-Salvatore & Barton, 2004; Clark & Barton, 2017).

SC

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

Table 1. Material Correlates of Forager Mobility. ______________________________________________________________________ A high incidence of retouch and low lithic volumetric density is consistent with:

RI PT

SC

§ §

less residential stability (= transient camps) shorter duration of site occupation smaller sites, local groups (= seasonal fission) resources procured by moving the entire group (moves people to resources) a large number of retouched pieces relative to lithic totals no cores and little débitage expected to occur during dry, cold intervals with scarce, widely distributed resource patches consistent with increased mobility and the provisioning of individuals result is curated assemblages

M AN U

§ § § § § § §

A low incidence of retouch and high lithic volumetric density Is consistent with: greater residential stability (= base camps) longer duration of site occupation larger sites, local groups (= seasonal fusion) resources procured by task groups deployed from residential bases (moves resources to people) § a small number of retouched pieces relative to lithic totals § significant numbers of cores, unretouched flakes and blades, and debitage § consistent with reduced mobility and the provisioning of places § expected to occur during warm, wet intervals with abundant resources clustered in close proximity to residential bases § result is expedient assemblages ______________________________________________________________________

EP

TE D

§ § § §

AC C

35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68

2

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

103

Table 2. A List of Data Requirements for a Complete WABI Analysis (Riel-Salvatore & Barton, 2004; Clark & Barton, 2017).

Archaeological Variables:

§

SC

RI PT

sites assemblages within sites area excavated in square meters mean level thickness in centimeters volume excavated in cubic meters total number of lithics (flakes, blades, debitage, shatter) total number of cores and core fragments lithic volumetric density (LVD) – total lithics/volume excavated total number of retouched pieces percent retouched of total number of lithics backed bladelet index (Ib/b) – total backed bladelets/total retouched pieces attribution (e.g., Solutrean, Magdalenian, etc.)

M AN U

§ § § § § § § § § § §

Landscape & Environmental Variables: elevation in meters above sea level distance to sea (air) in kilometers distance to sea (walking) in kilometers UTM co-ordinates distance to other contemporaneous sites

TE D

§ § § § §

Chronological Variables

EP

§ radiocarbon dates § marine isotope stages (MIS) § European pollen phases (e.g., Younger Dryas, Preboreal, Atlantic, etc.) ______________________________________________________________________

AC C

69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102

3

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

4

104 105 106 107

Table 3. Sites Used in the Lithic Volumetric Density (LVD) Analysis with the Relevant Culture/Stratigraphic Unit Attributions.1 ______________________________________________________________________

108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130

Sites with LVD & retouched data: (80 assemblages) Balmori Bolinkoba Cova Rosa Ekain El Cierro La Riera

131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139

Sites with lithic & retouched totals but with no LVD data: (28 assemblages) Aitzbitarte III Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP), Late Aurignacian, Gravettian, Middle Gravettian, Gravettian/Solutrean El Juyo Lower/Middle Magdalenian La Paloma Lower, Middle & Upper Magdalenian; Azilian Los Azules Azilian ______________________________________________________________________

140 141

1. culture/stratigraphic affiliations are those of the excavators.

Attributions:

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

Asturian Gravettian/Noaillan Solutrean Upper Magdalenian, Azilian Solutrean Gravettian (?), Solutrean, Lower/Middle Magdalenian, Upper Magdalenian, Azilian, Asturian Las Caldas Middle, Upper & Final Solutrean, Lower/Middle Magdalenian Liencres Asturian Mirón Solutrean, Lower/Middle Magdalenian Morín Châtelperronian, Aurignacian, Classic Aurignacian, Upper Solutrean, Upper Solutrean, Magdalenian, Azilian Otero Aurignacian III, IV & V; Magdalenian V Rascaño Archaic Magdalenian, Lower Magdalenian, Upper Magdalenian, Final Magdalenian, Azilian Sopeña (test pit) Gravettian ______________________________________________________________________

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

Table 4. Statistical Summary for Lithic Analysis (Figures 2-4). ______________________________________________________________________ (1) Retouch frequency x culture/stratigraphic unit (Figure 2): Early Upper Paleolithic Solutrean Lower & Middle Magdalenian Upper Magdalenian Azilian Asturian (Mesolithic)

28 29 25 10 13 3

Median 0.107 0.050 0.032 0.133 0.122 0.123

Scatter Plot trimodal, skewed residential bimodal, skewed residential trimodal, skewed residential unimodal, even distribution unimodal, even distribution unimodal, skewed curated

RI PT

No. Assemblages

SC

______________________________________________________________________ (2) Retouch frequency x elevation x culture/stratigraphic unit (Figure 3):

Early Upper Paleolithic Solutrean Lower & Middle Magdalenian Upper Magdalenian Azilian Asturian (Mesolithic)

M AN U

No. Assemblages* Median Elev. 49 40 49 35 28 4

151.0 60.0 165.0 165.0 181.0 29.5

Scatter Plot 17.9% curated** 6.9% curated 8.0% curated 10.0% curated 15.4% curated 33.0% curated

TE D

*includes assemblages without retouch frequency information; **curated = >10% retouched (3) Retouch frequency x linear distance to modern and LGM coast (Figure 3):

EP

No. Assemblages*

Early Upper Paleolithic Solutrean Lower & Middle Magdalenian Upper Magdalenian Azilian Asturian (Mesolithic)

AC C

142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188

5

49 40 49 35 28 4

Median Median Dist./Modern Dist./LGM Coast Coast 6.58 2.06 12.21 6.58 13.12 1.64

*includes assemblages without retouch frequency information

18.63 10.35 21.99 21.98 26.16 10.09

Difference

12.05 8.29 9.78 15.40 13.04 8.45

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Clark, Barton & Straus

6

Table 5. Radiometric Chronology, Pollen Sequence, Heinrich Events & Ice Core Phases for the Major Divisions of the Upper Paleolithic in Cantabria (all dates ka cal BP).

11.0-8.0

Preboreal

11.5-8.4

13.5-11.0

Dryas III Allerod

12.9-11.7 13.7-12.9

H0 ∼12.5

GS11 GI1a-c

Magdalenian

20.3-13.5

Dryas II Bølling Dryas I

14.1-13.7 14.7-14.1 18.0-17.8

H1

GI1d GI1e GS2.1b

Solutrean

∼24.0-20.0

Laugerie Lascaux

Gravettian

∼34.0-24.0

Tursac Maisières

Aurignacian

∼42.0-34.0

RI PT

Azilian

SC

Mesolithic (all)

16.8

H2 24-23

GS2,3 GI3

31.0-29.5 34.5-33.5

H3 ∼30.0

GI2-6 GI6

Denekamp

38.0-34.5

H4 38-35

Hengelo

43.5-40.0

GI6-10, GS7-11 GI12

M AN U

23.5-22.0 23.0-22.0

AC C

EP

TE D

1. Ice core dates are before 2ka AD; based on analysis of NGRIP, GRIP and GISP2 cores (from Rasmussen et al. 2014: 14-28).

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

List of Figures Figure 1. The north Spanish provinces of Asturias, Cantabria, Vizcaya and Guipúzcoa showing the locations of the 47 sites used in the analyses presented.

RI PT

Figure 2. Box plot of retouch frequency cross-classified with analytical unit with medians and mid-spreads indicated and individual assemblages shown as colored dots (shaded in B/W print version) that indicate the prevalence of backed bladelets among retouched pieces (see Table 4).

SC

Figure 3. Scatter plot showing retouch frequency cross-classified with modern elevation and distance from modern coast for each culture/stratigraphic unit (see Table 4). Red circles are assemblages with retouch frequencies ≤ 0.10; blue circles are assemblages with retouch frequencies > 0.10. Grey dots are assemblages without sufficient information to calculate retouch frequency.

M AN U

Figure 4. Calibrated radiocarbon summed probability density curves for six culture/stratigraphic units referred to in text (L/M and U Magdalenian combined). Light grey polygons show probability curves for individual dates. Figure 5. Combined summed probability density curves for each culture/stratigraphic unit. Rescaled ∆18O values proportional to paleotemperatures and glacial ice volume from the relevant portions of the GISP2 (red) and NGRIP2 (blue) ice cores generated from recalibrated dates in Rasmussen et al. (2008) shown for comparison.

AC C

EP

TE D

Figure 6. Summed probability density curve of calibrated 14C dates from the north Spanish coast (solid line) with the duration of six culture/stratigraphic units (Table 5) indicated (vertical dotted lines). Rescaled ∆18O values proportional to paleotemperatures and glacial ice volume from the relevant portions of the GISP2 (red) and NGRIP2 (blue) ice cores generated from recalibrated dates in Rasmussen et al. (2008) shown for comparison.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Tito Bustillo La Lloseta El Cierro

Cueva Oscura

La Riera Cueto de la Mina Bricia El Pendo

Cova Rosa

Rascaño

El Juyo

La Chora

Abittaga Santimamiñe

Ermittia Urtiaga

Los Azules Entrefoces

Asturias

Chufín

Cantabria Sopeña

TE D

Las Caldas

Amalda

Altamira

La Paloma El Conde

M AN U

SC

RI PT

Figure 1. The north Spanish provinces of Asturias, Cantabria, Vizcaya and Guipúzcoa showing the locations of the 47 sites used in the analyses presented.

El Castillo

EP

Morín Piélago I-II

AC C

Otero

Erralla Abauntz

País Vasco

Zatoya

El Valle

Aitzbitarte I-IV

Mirón Silibranka Bolinkoba

Navarra

Agarre Aitzbeltz

Ekain

RI PT

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

Figure 2. Box plot of retouch frequency cross-classified with analytical unit with medians and mid-spreads indicated and individual assemblages shown as colored dots (shaded in B/W print version) that indicate the prevalence of backed bladelets among retouched pieces (see Table 4).

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

Figure 3. Scatter plot showing retouch frequency cross-classified with modern elevation and distance from modern coast for each culture/stratigraphic unit (see Table 4). Red circles are assemblages with retouch frequencies ≤ 0.10; blue circles are assemblages with retouch frequencies > 0.10. Grey dots are assemblages without sufficient information to calculate retouch frequency.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

Figure 4. Calibrated radiocarbon summed probability density curves for six culture/stratigraphic units referred to in text (L/M and U Magdalenian combined). Light grey polygons show probability curves for individual dates.

M AN U

SC

RI PT

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

AC C

EP

TE D

Figure 5. Combined summed probability density curves for each culture/stratigraphic unit. Rescaled ∆18O values proportional to paleotemperatures and glacial ice volume from the relevant portions of the GISP2 (red) and NGRIP2 (blue) ice cores generated from recalibrated dates in Rasmussen et al. (2008) shown for comparison.

Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) Gravettian

Late Upper Paleolithic (LUP)

Solutrean

Magdalenian

Meso.

Azil.

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

Aurignacian

SC

RI PT

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Figure 6. Summed probability density curve of calibrated 14C dates from the north Spanish coast (solid line) with the duration of six culture/stratigraphic units (Table 5) indicated (vertical dotted lines). Rescaled ∆18O values proportional to paleotemperatures and glacial ice volume from the relevant portions of the GISP2 (red) and NGRIP2 (blue) ice cores generated from recalibrated dates in Rasmussen et al. (2008) shown for comparison.

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT