- Email: [email protected]
Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review
G Model
ARTICLE IN PRESS
JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17
Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Contents lists available at www.sciencedirect.com
Journal of the European Ceramic Society journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jeurceramsoc
Review article
Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review Hongjian Wang, Huatay Lin, Chengyong Wang ∗ , Lijuan Zheng, Xiaoyue Hu School of Electromechanical Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 5 July 2016 Received in revised form 23 October 2016 Accepted 24 October 2016 Available online xxx Keywords: Structural ceramics Laser drilling Pulse width Quality characteristics Computational approaches
a b s t r a c t Structural ceramics are becoming widely popular in numerous fields because of high mechanical and physical properties. It is of great difficulty for conventional techniques to machine brittle and hard materials. As one of nontraditional machining methods, laser beam machining has emerged as an effective technique for drilling of ceramics. This paper reviews the research work on laser drilling of structural ceramics from its different pulse width. Lasers have been discussed to understand effects of critical experimental parameters on the quality characteristics and physical mechanisms involved in drilling ceramics. In addition, it is held that heat and liquid-assisted laser processing serves as a useful method to improve processing quality. Computational approaches of ANSYS and COMSOL are used to predict laser input parameters’ effects on quality of hole and describe the physical phenomena during processing. Comments on laser drilling of ceramics developments and future directions are provided at the end. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents 1. 2.
3.
4.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 Laser drilling of structural ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 2.1. Laser drilling with millisecond (ms) laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 2.2. Laser drilling with nanosecond (ns) laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 2.3. Laser drilling with picosecond (ps) and femtosecond (fs) laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 Computer approaches with ANSYS and COMSOL software in laser drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 3.1. ANSYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 3.2. COMSOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
1. Introduction Structural ceramics play an important role in several applications due to their excellent properties like high hardness, high strength, good thermal resistance and chemical stability [1,2–5]. However, it is difficult to machine due to the brittle and hard nature of ceramics. Traditional processing ways of ceramics are not only time-consuming but also laborious. Under such circumstances, various nontraditional machining methods have been adopted in processing ceramics, including ultrasonic machining (USM) [6],
∗ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Wang).
electrical-discharge machining (EDM) [7], laser beam machining (LBM) [8] and laser assisted machining (LAM) [9–11]. As one of the advances machining methods, LBM is considered a desired machining technique on account of non-conduct processing, low production costs, flexibility and its ability to process variable parameters with high accuracy [12]. LBM has been applied in many aspects of industry and life [13]. The schematic of LBM is shown in Fig. 1 [14]. Pulsed lasers have been used in drilling of structural ceramics. Fig. 2 presents laser-material interaction of a pulsed laser beam [15]. The circularity, taper angle of hole and heat affected zone (HAZ), cracks at surface and wall near hole are often used to characterize the quality of hole. To obtain the desired hole, laser drilling generally involves a great many of controllable parameters such as pulse width, energy density, repetition frequency and
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031 0955-2219/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model
ARTICLE IN PRESS
JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17 2
H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Fig. 1. Schematic of laser beam machining system [14].
LBM is a very efficient processing way [20]. The results obtained are used to investigate the effect of each factor on the quality of hole.
2.1. Laser drilling with millisecond (ms) laser
Fig. 2. Laser-matter interaction of a pulsed laser beam [15].
focal plane position. For optimization purposes, modelling and simulation is indispensable [16], such as experimental methods [14], analytical methods [17] and artificial intelligence methods [18]. This paper provides a review on laser drilling of structural ceramics with millisecond (ms), nanosecond (ns), picosecond (ps) and femtosecond (fs) lasers in order to predict the significant factors and effects on the quality characteristics. Heat and liquid-assisted laser drilling techniques are discussed. Computational approaches with ANSYS and COMSOL for the determination of optimum laser drilling have also been described. The paper is ended with concluding the laser drilling of ceramics developments and outlining the trend for future research. 2. Laser drilling of structural ceramics Laser drilling produces better quality with shorter pulse width and higher peak intensity due to the change in mechanism of material removal [19]. Ultrashort pulse laser has less thermal damage to material because the thermal diffusion depth is equal to or less than optical penetration depth [13]. The experiments have been conducted by various researchers with different laser parameters using ms, ns, ps and fs lasers. Shorter pulse laser is helpful to improve the quality of machining but at higher cost. Auxiliary method assisted
Sciti and Bellosi [21] have performed the experimental study for laser drilling of silicon carbide (SiC) using CO2 laser with laser power (0.5 and 1 kW), pulse duration (0.5–2 ms), lens focal length (95.3, 63.5, 31.8 mm) taken as process variables. Their study revealed that SiC can be removed by melting and vaporization through various reactions [22]. The center distance of micro-holes achieved about 200 m on the sample surface. The desired effects of holes in the range of 80–100 m were obtained at 0.5 kW of laser power and 1 ms of pulse duration. They also found that the relationship among microstructural and pulse duration, energy density. As shown in Fig. 3a, the regular circle hole were obtained. The section of hole tended to be cylindrical rather than conic with the increasing pulse duration (Fig. 3b). Silicate-like dendrite crystals can be observed evidently on the wall surface at the high energy density but not at low energy density (Fig. 3c) and the inner wall was covered glassy-like bubbles (Fig. 3d). Kacar et al. [23] have experimentally investigated the effect of variation of pulse duration (0.5–8 ms), peak power (0.5–11 kW) on the holes of the alumina ceramic substrates. Their work found that the average taper angle would change from positive to negative value with the increase peak power and pulse duration (Fig. 4). The diameters of exit hole proportionally change with the pulse duration at fixed peak power, but the diameters of entrance hole do not have this tendency (Fig. 5). Results showed that higher value of pulse duration would lead to cause more resolidified material. The thickness also affects the amount of resolidfied materials by influencing the time of drilling. Millisecond pulsed Nd:YAG laser drilling of different thickness (5 and 10.5 mm) of alumina ceramics by varying laser peak power (5–9 kW), pulse duration (1–6 ms), number of pulses (10–100), repetition rate (5–20 Hz) and focal plane position (0–4 mm) was investigated by Hanon et al. [24]. Their experimental results showed that the depth of hole and the recast layer at the wall and the entrance of hole increase with increasing number of the pulses. They also found that columnar grains face towards the hole walls and that stress of columnar structures accelerates the cracking of materials when at cooling.
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
3
Fig. 3. Microstructural features of hole obtained in SiC with a pulse duration (2 ms), laser power (0.5 kW) and the lens focal length (31.8 mm): (a) hole entry; (b) hole section; (c) silicate–like dendrite crystals obtained on debris area; (d) hole inside walls [21].
A laser drilling research on 8.3 mm-thick partially stabilized tetragonal zirconia (PTSZ) was carried out by Murray and Tyrer [25] with the employment of laser which pulsed lengths is 0.1–20 ms. Localized heating techniques by plasma system were used to reduce the level of recast layer micro-cracking with the thermal gradients decrease (Fig. 6). The heat source in thermally enhanced machining should be controllable and rapid heating in local area is allowable [26]. As is shown in Fig. 7, effects of thermal gradients of the interaction zone of laser beams and materials on the micro-cracking of the substrate are different when the localized heating methods adopted or not adopted in laser drilling of PTSZ. They have found that micro-cracking reduced 1.2 times by the localized plasma heating during laser drilling using optimized drilling parameters of repetition frequency (200 Hz), pulse width (0.6 ms), pulse energy (3.2 J) and drilling time (0.75 s). Therefore, thermal effect has a great influence on ceramic processing. The difference of laser drilling on sintered ceramics and green body is obvious. Guo et al. [27] have presented a novel spatter-free laser drilling technology by adopting gelcast green body of alumina. Variation of diameter and depth of hole was recorded by varying pulse repetition rate (1–30 Hz) keeping pulse energy (10 J), pulse duration (0.2 ms) and focus diameter (0.1 mm) at constant value for each test. They have found that the diameter and depth of hole increased with the increase in pulse repetition rate and pulse number. A higher value of dimensions of hole were presented by drilling on green
body than sintered ceramics (Fig. 8). This methods obtained dense and homogeneous parts without micro-cracks and may be adapted to laser drilling of various materials. Liquid assisted LBM is a potential method on machining ceramic [28,29–31]. Lu and Yuan [31] have studied laser drilling of alumina ceramic through low-pressure water jet assisted method by controlling the laser pulse (0.1–10 ms), the current (100–400 A), laser frequency (0–100 Hz), pressure of auxiliary gas (0–0.5 MPa) and speed of water jet (0–28 m/s). They have found that laser drilling assisted by low pressure water jet can reduce the recast layer and micro-cracks due to the fact that water jet is able to remove molten slags and cool the surface of ceramics. Their research mainly focused on effects of auxiliary gas pressure (Fig. 9), pulse energy (Fig. 10) and repeated frequency (Fig. 11) on the quality of hole using pulse width of 0.8 ms, drilling speed of 0.8 mm/s and waterjet velocity of 12 m/s. Results indicated that the processing parameters were obviously affected the aperture of hole and the thickness of recast layer. The desired quality can be obtained at auxiliary gas pressure of 0.3–0.4 MPa, pulse energy of 200 A and repeated frequency of 45 Hz. Adjustment of the path of jet and laser properly can realize the three dimensional micro channel processing [32]. For laser drilling, different laser ablation path affects machining quality and time. Lee and Cheng [33] have used the laser circular cutting to hole processing on Al2 O3 ceramic. Their experimental results showed that taper of laser drilling hole was greater than
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model
ARTICLE IN PRESS
JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17 4
H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Fig. 6. Schematic of localized heating techniques by plasma system [25].
Fig. 4. Variation of the average taper angle as a function of (a) the peak power at the constant laser pulse duration of 2 ms; (b) the laser pulse duration at the constant laser peak power of 6 kW [23].
Fig. 5. Variation of the average hole diameters as a function of the laser pulse duration for the entrance of the hole and the exit of the hole. The peak power of the used laser is fixed at 6 kW [23].
those obtained by circular cutting (Fig. 12), but the former was less time-consuming. 2.2. Laser drilling with nanosecond (ns) laser Nedialkov et al. [34] have investigated the effects of pulsed irradiation on material modification using 6 ns pulsed laser drilling of AlN ceramics. An irregular shape of hole formed as a result of fracturing of AlN at intensities below the threshold and a regular smooth hole on AlN obtained above the threshold observed in laser drilling. The N element was expelled from the material and Al stayed in the form of Al2 O3 . Neutral atoms and clusters were the main composition in the processed materials at the intensities near
the threshold. Material composition of original and heat affected zone is shown in Fig. 13. The removal mechanism of material processing can be affected by the value of laser fluence [35]. Bharatish et al. [36] examined the effect of frequency (2.5–7.5 kHz), laser power (150–240 W), scanning speed (2.5–3.5 mm/s), hole diameter (1–2 mm) on the hole circularity and HAZ in laser drilling of alumina. Their research found that the entrance circularity proportional increased with laser power but decreased with hole diameter. However, the exit circularity increased with both laser power and hole diameter. HAZ can be reduced by increasing the pulse frequency when the laser power was fixed and taper decreased by increasing the laser power when the pulse frequency was fixed. The optimized parameter at 7.5 kHz, 240 W, 3.85 mm/s and 1 mm can achieve the entrance circularity of 0.963, exit circularity of 0.965, minimum HAZ of 0.55 mm and minimum taper of 0.3511. Biswas et al. [37,38] have investigated effects of lamp current, pulse frequency, pulse width, air pressure and focal length on the circularity and taper in laser drilling of TiN-Al2 O3 ceramics. Conclusions have been drawn that the optimal parameters of hole taper, circularity at entry and exit are different. The comprehensive optimum values are higher lamp current, moderate pulse frequency, lower pulse width, moderate air pressure and positive focal length. The research team have optimized the process of laser drilling of Al-Al2 O3 interpenetrating phase composite to obtain desired hole quality [39]. It was found that lamp current and pulse frequency was the most significant factors which affect the hole diameter and taper. The minimum taper of hole, 0.0126 rad can be achieved with lamp current (23.6818 A), pulse frequency (2.3409 kHz) and air pressure (2.3409 kg/cm2 ). The hole diameters at entry and exit are 80.4809 m (minimum) and 51.7472 m (maximum). Liquid assisted laser processing is not only effective for ms laser, but for ns laser. Iwatani et al. [40] have carried out the laser drilling experiment of SiC by using ns Nd:YAG laser under water with different processing parameters. The experimental set up is shown in Fig. 14. Their study indicated that the depth of hole increases with the increase the pulse number nonlinearly (Fig. 15a) and that the etch rate decreases with the increase water film thickness (Fig. 15b). In addition, hole diameter increases rapidly at the value of laser fluence above 10 J/cm2 (Fig. 15c) and cracks can be observed when the pulse number reaches a value. Their findings showed that laser drilling under water can create holes without debris, HAZ and cracks. The multiple reflection can be reduced by water and was conducive to deeper drilling. The optimal parameter was suggested to be the laser fluence less than 10 J/cm2 and water thickness of 1 mm. Wee et al. [41] have performed laser drilling of SiC with a pulsed width of 25 ns ultraviolet laser in air, water and methanol. The experimental set up (Fig. 16) was used to study the
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
5
Fig. 7. Entry region of laser drilling of PTSZ with plasma heating: (a) at an ambient temperature; (b) at 1300 ◦ C [25].
Fig. 8. Hole diameter and depth between green body and sintered ceramics: (a) average entrance hole diameter with variation in pulse repetition rate; (b) hole depth depending on the number of pulses [27].
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17 6
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Fig. 9. Surface and inwall morphologies of ceramics at different auxiliary gas pressure: (a) 0 MPa; (b) 0.1 MPa; (c) 0.3 MPa; (d) 0.4 MPa [31].
Fig. 10. Surface and inwall morphologies of ceramics at different pulse energy: (a) 160 A; (b) 200 A; (c) 260 A; (d) 300 A [31].
effect of stagnant water, flowing stream and alcohol compared with air environment on laser machining quality. The results showed that redeposition reduced at the processing zone as a result of the cooling liquid. As is shown in Fig. 17, materials melted and exploded due to the bubbles formed when the liquid is superheated, which may be the materials removal mechanism [42]. They also found that alcohol was a better environment to improve the quality of laser drilling of SiC as a result of the fact that ablated materials can be removed away quickly by the faster evaporation of alcohol and that the suggested depth under solvent was 500 m.
2.3. Laser drilling with picosecond (ps) and femtosecond (fs) laser Wang et al. [43] have investigated ps laser drilling of C/SiC in air environment. In their experiment, holes were processed with methods of trepanning and helical drilling. They found that the
depth of holes decreased with the laser scanning speed increasing, but there was only little of change in diameter (Fig. 18). A donut shape can be observed on the surface of materials with spacing at 0.2 mm and scanning speed at 1000 mm/s (Fig. 19). Single ring line and helical lines scanning were used to study the effect of laser energy density on the laser drilling of C/SiC by Liu et al. [44]. Ripples on the material uniformly distributed at 0.001 and 0.01 J/mm2 . The ripple substructure disappeared at a critical value of 0.10 J/mm2 for single ring line mode. However, for helical lines mode, micro pores appeared randomly at 0.10 J/mm2 and strips, bubble pits were found at 1.4 J/mm2 . The higher oxygen content can be detected in the debris and the depth of holes increased with the energy density increasing for both single ring line and helical lines scanning while the later had more advantages in laser drilling of hole. Further study showed effects of energy density and feed speed on hole drilling in different thickness (2, 3 mm) of C/SiC [45].
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
7
Fig. 11. Surface and inwall morphologies of ceramics at different repeated frequency: (a) 15 Hz; (b) 25 Hz; (c) 45 Hz; (d) 65 Hz [31].
Fig. 12. Comparison of taper angles in 300-m holes produced by circular cutting and laser drilling [33].
The exit circularity of holes decreased with the decrease of energy density while there was little change on the circularity of the entry side (Fig. 20). As for 3 mm-thick samples, effects on the roundness of holes is the same even when the feeding speed increases. However, there is no influence of feeding speed on the quality of hole for samples of 2 mm thickness (Fig. 21). Zhang et al. [46] have optimized the processing parameters of ps laser drilling of C/SiC. It indicated that better quality of hole can be achieved with smaller helical line spacing and helical line width. The machining time is crucial to through hole processing since the laser energy can be impeded by debris and plasma in the laser process. In fs laser drilling of alumina, the percussion and trepanning drilling techniques were used by Li et al. [47]. They demonstrated that the better quality of hole can be drilled by near infrared fs laser than the ultraviolet ns laser even if the ablation rates was not obviously different because of the different mechanism of laser ablation [35]. Their experiments showed that cracks free resolidified layer only 30 nm adhered on the walls of holes. Wang et al. [48] have investigated the effects of processing parameters on the quality of hole by using fs laser. They obtained very clean 150 m diameter holes on 381 m thick alumina ceramics and straight 125 m diameter holes on 625 m thick alumina samples. Zhang et al. [49] have performed the fs laser drilling of TiC ceramic
Fig. 13. Material composition of heat affected and original zone: (a) numbers 1–5 indicate the different regions near the drilled hole; (b) the relative N and O concentration in regions 1–5 [34].
by helical drilling in air. Their study indicated that depth of hole increased and decreased then with the increase of laser energy density at the value 0.51 J/mm2 . Higher energy density was con-
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17 8
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Fig. 14. Schematic of the experimental set up [40].
ducive to eliminating the parallel grooves on the surface of TiC. Laser drilling of through holes can be produced at energy density of 0.51–1.53 J/mm2 . Repetition rate has the similar effects on hole depth. The influence of repetition rate and energy density on laser drilling of TiC was further studied [50]. It was found that the geometry of circular rings were less affected by repetition rate. The width of circular rings would increase with energy density at range of 2.55 × 10−2 –1.27 × 10−1 J/mm2 and fixed at 40 m when energy density is above 7.64 × 10−1 J/mm2 . Different morphology on the TiC surface can be observed with energy density increasing. Fs laser was used for drilling of SiC with alcohol assisted by Li et al. [51]. Alcohol was dropped on the samples before laser drilling and experimental setup was shown in Fig. 22. The introduction of liquid was different from the sprayed method [52], stagnant [40] and flowing method [41]. Results show that alcohol cooling and
Fig. 16. Schematic representation of experimental set up: (a) flowing stream with a thin film layer of 1 mm; (b) stagnant liquids with a thin film layer of 500 mm [41].
Fig. 15. Relationship between via dimensions, etching rate and processing parameters: (a) via depth and pulse number; (b) etching rate and water film thickness; (c) via diameter and laser fluence, pulse energy [40].
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
9
Fig. 17. Interaction between pulsed laser and water [42].
Fig. 18. Dependencies of the diameters and depths of the circular holes fabricated after cleaning on the laser scanning speed [43].
volatilization boost deeper and cleaner holes. Better quality holes are achieved with the involvement of alcohol compared with those taken process merely in air (Fig. 23). The rate of hole processing can be faster by the chemical reaction [54,55] happening at the zone of laser drilling and the region of irradiation can be completely removed. Chemical selective etching has fast removal rate, high precision and control flexibility advantages. Combining with laser, it is a kind of promising hybrid processing method. 3. Computer approaches with ANSYS and COMSOL software in laser drilling Modelling and simulation techniques of laser drilling is indispensable for the desired quality of holes. In laser drilling of structural ceramics, series of physical phenomena are included in the machining process, such as melting and sublimation, vaporization and dissociation, plasma formation, laser ablation [12]. Combination with software applications based on modelling and simulation can help better understand the interaction of laser and material, thus optimizing the process parameters and obtaining the ideal processing quality. 3.1. ANSYS Yan et al. [56–58] conducted researches on laser processing of alumina ceramics with the help of ANSYS. A two-dimension axisymmetric finite element model (FEM) was applied to examine effects of laser parameters, such as peak power, pulse duty cycle and
Fig. 19. SEM images of a donut shape drilled with helical lines in air: (a) before cleaning; (b) after cleaning 30 min in an ultrasonic bath with alcohol [43].
repetition rate on the hole diameter and spatter deposition [58]. The simulated temperature field and hole profile are in good agreement with experimental results (Fig. 25). It can be found that hole diameter and spatter deposition was significantly affected by the zone size and temperature of the melt front. The model was improved to calculate temperature at melt front (Fig. 26) and velocity of melt zone ejection. The simulation results were validated by experiment and the hole of 0.01◦ taper, 1.6 mm2 area of spatter deposition were attained at optimized processing parameters. Hanon et al. [24] have simulated the laser drilling process of alumina by applying ANSYS FLUENT mode. The temperature distribution and the crater dimensions as a function of the laser parameters was calculated to investigate the drilling process theoretically. It turned out that the depth of the hole was controllable by adjusting the peak power and pulse width when using a single pulse. Mishra and Yadava [59,60] have developed a model for laser percussion drilling alumina ceramics. Optical properties, phase change and temperature-dependent thermal properties are included in this model. The conclusions indicated that the taper of hole decreases but the material remove rate increases with the increase of pulse width, pulse frequency, peak power and thickness of samples. The thickness of HAZ increases with the increase of pulse width and frequency. However, it decreases with the increase of peak power and ceramic thickness. Combined with Artificial Neural Network (ANN) (Fig. 27), better qualities of hole with reducing taper and HAZ can be obtained. Meanwhile the material removal rate increased due to the adoption of non-linear and adaptive model [60]. Chen et al.
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17 10
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Fig. 20. The SEM micrographs of microholes holes drilling with various energy densities in 2 mm and 3 mm thickness C/SiC samples: (a) entry side and (b) exit side for 2 mm thickness samples; (c) exit side for 3 mm thickness samples [45].
[61] established a model to research effects of laser parameters on the hole quality of alumina and the flowchart was shown in Fig. 28. Results revealed that the temperature increases to the maximal value at the center and surface of the hole (Fig. 29). Thermal damage was found no trace in the laser processing region. In addition to cooling, the reaction of liquid with material can play a positive role in laser drilling. Hydrofluoric acid and nitric acid etched SiC ceramics with fs laser drilling by Khuat et al. [53]. The acid etching was arranged after the laser irradiation (Fig. 24). Through hole on the 0.4 mm thickness alumina ceramic was obtained at laser fluence of 5.10 J/cm2 , pulse width of 1 ms, frequency of 20 kHz and pulse number higher than 9. Due to the physical change of material, such as melting and vaporization, the results exhibited slight differences between simulation and experiment. 3.2. COMSOL Samant and Dahotre have developed a mathematical model to predict the number of pulses and corresponding time needed for laser drilling to create the desired depth on silicon nitride [62],
alumina [63], magnesia [64] and silicon carbide [65] by using heat transfer mode in COMSOL. As shown in Fig. 30, energy absorption, ablation, melting, removal and evaporation of material can be taken into account by analyzing differences in physical phenomena of laser machining [66]. Physical phenomenon can be conversed to the state change of material. Combined melt expulsion and evaporation, the removal of ceramics can be predicted in the laser drilling. The pulse ON and OFF times during operation time (Fig. 31), the saturation pressure [67], the recoil pressure [68] and the effective laser beam radius [69] have a great influence on the simulation results. The effect of plasma is an essential factor in laser drilling [70] but it is not considered in these studies due to the low laser intensity. Vora et al. [71] have investigated the single pulse laser drilling of alumina using heat transfer mode coupled with fluid flow mode, twostep modelling approach. Recoil pressure, marangoni convection and surface tension associated with processing parameters which affected the surface topography were studied in their research (Fig. 32). Simulation found that the liquid pile up increased due to the strong velocity gradient and that better surface finish can be achieved with less material removal. Multi-pulse laser was used to
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
11
Fig. 21. The SEM micrographs of microholes drilling with various feeding speeds in 2 mm and 3 mm thickness C/SiC samples: (a) entry side and (b) exit side for 2 mm thickness samples; (c) exit side for 3 mm thickness samples [45].
Fig. 22. Schematic of experimental setup [51].
study the evolution of surface topography in drilling of alumina further (Fig. 33) [72]. The results indicated that the solidified material on the wall inside the hole as a result of recoil pressure was insufficient to eject the melt material. The roughness on surface increased with the increasing laser energy density. Vora and Dahotre [73]
have explored the surface topography in three-dimensional laser processing of alumina. They have found that drilling quality was affected by micro-cracks seriously in HAZ caused by thermal damage. Thermal residual stresses analysis is an effective method to control or even eliminate the adverse factors [74].
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
12
Fig. 23. Microstructural features of the top surface of hole in laser drilling of SiC: (a) In air; (b) Alcohol–assisted; (c) After alcohol washing [51].
Fig. 24. The schematic diagram of fabricating through hole in SiC: (a) experiment setup for laser irradiation; (b) experiment setup for chemical etching [53].
Fig. 25. The cross–section view of a hole drilled by the experiment (left side) and simulated by FEM (right side) [58].
4. Conclusions LBM has been demonstrated as a practical tool for the highquality drilling holes in ceramics. The quality of laser drilling is affected by variety of parameters, such as laser power, number of pulses, pulse width, repetition rate, type and pressure of assisted gas. Desired quality characteristics of hole are minimum values of taper, HAZ, recast layer, micro-cracks and maximum values of circularity. The optimal processing quality can be obtained with the discovery of the influence of each factor on the material processing. Auxiliary method assisted LBM is a promising technology. Localized heating technique is a useful way to reduce the level of recast layer micro-cracking by decreasing the thermal gradients. Liquid-
assisted processing is an effective approach in laser drilling due to the cooling and evaporating process which reduces the recast layer and removes molten slags. Acid etching method is also a potential way to remove the laser irradiation zone. Modelling and simulation with ANSYS and COMSOL can provide a reliable prediction of laser input parameters effects on quality of hole and help to understand the physical phenomena included in the drilling process. Future research is expected to pay more attention to improving the quality and efficiency in laser drilling of structural ceramics, developing multi-assisted techniques and establishing a more realistic mathematical model to simulate the physic with more accuracy via assistance of software.
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17
ARTICLE IN PRESS 13
Fig. 26. The temperature elevations at melt front for various laser parameters: (a) peak powers; (b) pulse duty cycles; (c) pulse repetition rates [58].
H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17 14
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Fig. 27. Configuration of the proposed ANN model [60].
Fig. 29. Temperature distributions for the entrance hole for different parameters: (a) laser fluences; (b) laser pulse durations [61].
Fig. 28. Flowchart for the thermal analysis [61].
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
15
Fig. 30. Stepwise procedure for prediction of machining parameters [66].
Fig. 31. Schematic of pulse ON-OFF [63].
Fig. 33. Schematic of laser machining processes: (a) multiple-pulse laser machining process; (b) evolution of surface topography [72].
Fig. 32. Two–step modeling approach to predict the surface profile: (a) prediction of solid–vapor and solid–liquid interface by level–set method; (b) prediction of crater and melt pool dimensions; (c) flow of molten material due to various boundary conditions; (d) prediction of surface profile after solidification [71].
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17 16
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the financial support from Natural Science Foundation of China-Guangdong Joint Fund (grant No. U140120111), Guangdong Innovative and Entrepreneurial Research Team Program (grant No. 2013G061).
References [1] F.C. Peillon, F. Thevenot, Microstructural designing of silicon nitride related to toughness, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 22 (3) (2002) 271–278. [2] J.L. Shi, B.S. Li, T.S. Yen, Mechanical properties of Al2 O3 particle-Y-TZP matrix composite and its toughening mechanism, J. Mater. Sci. 28 (15) (1993) 4019–4022. [3] P. Hu, Z. Wang, Flexural strength and fracture behavior of ZrB2 -SiC ultra-high temperature ceramic composites at 1800 ◦ C, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 30 (4) (2010) 1021–1026. [4] S.G. Huang, K. Vanmeensel, O.J.A. Malek, O.V.D. Biest, J. Vleugels, Microstructure and mechanical properties of pulsed electric current sintered B4 C-TiB2 composites, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 528 (3) (2011) 1302–1309. [5] B. Zou, C.Z. Huang, J.P. Song, Z.Y. Liu, L. Liu, Y. Zhao, Mechanical properties and microstructure of TiB2 -TiC composite ceramic cutting tool material, Int. J. Refract. Met. Hard Mater. 35 (2012) 1–9. [6] Z.C. Li, Y. Jiao, T.W. Deines, Z.J. Pei, C. Treadwell, Rotary ultrasonic machining of ceramic matrix composites: feasibility study and designed experiments, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 45 (12–13) (2005) 1402–1411. [7] I. Puertas, C.J. Luis, A study on the electrical discharge machining of conductive ceramics, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 153–154 (22) (2004) 1033–1038. [8] A.N. Samant, N.B. Dahotre, Three-dimensional laser machining of structural ceramics, J. Manuf. Process. 12 (1) (2010) 1–7. [9] D. Dhupal, B. Doloi, B. Bhattacharyya, Pulsed Nd:YAG laser turning of micro–groove on aluminum oxide ceramic (Al2 O3 ), Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 48 (2) (2008) 236–248. [10] B. Yang, X. Shen, S. Lei, Mechanisms of edge chipping in laser–assisted milling of silicon nitride ceramics, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 49 (3) (2009) 344–350. [11] M. Kumar, S. Melkote, G. Lahoti, Laser–assisted microgrinding of ceramics, CIRP Ann. Manuf. Technol. 60 (1) (2011) 367–370. [12] A.N. Samant, N.B. Dahotre, Laser machining of structu- ral ceramics—a review, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 29 (6) (2009) 969–993. [13] J. Meijer, Laser beam machining (LBM), state of the art and new opportunities, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 149 (1) (2004) 2–17. [14] A.S. Kuar, B. Doloi, B. Bhattacharyya, Modelling and analysis of pulsed Nd:YAG laser machining characteristics during micro–drilling of zirconia (ZrO2 ), Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 46 (12–13) (2006) 1301–1310. [15] J.P. Desbiens, P. Masson, ArF excimer laser microma- chining of Pyrex, Sic and PZT for rapid prototyping of MEMS components, Sens. Actuators A Phys. 136 (2) (2007) 554–563. [16] P. Parandoush, A. Hossain, A review of modeling and simulation of laser beam machining, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 85 (7) (2014) 135–145. [17] R. Aloke, V. Girish, R.F. Scrutton, P.A. Molian, A model for prediction of dimensional tolerances of laser cut holes in mild steel thin plates, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 37 (8) (1997) 1069–1078. [18] B.F. Yousef, G.K. Knopf, E.V. Bordatchev, S.K. Nikumb, Neural network modelling and analysis of the material removal process during laser machining, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 22 (1) (2003) 41–53. [19] X.L. Chen, X.B. Liu, Short pulsed laser machining: how short is short enough? J. Laser Appl. 11 (11) (1999) 268–272. [20] S.Z. Chavoshi, X.C. Luo, Hybrid micro-machining processes: a review, Precis. Eng. 41 (2015) 1–23. [21] D. Sciti, A. Bellosi, Laser induced surface drilling of silicon carbide, Appl. Surf. Sci. 180 (1–2) (2001) 92–101. [22] I. Shigematsu, K. Kanayama, A. Tsuge, M. Nakamura, Analysis of constituents generated with laser machining of Si3 N4 and SiC, J. Mater. Sci. Lett. 17 (9) (1998) 737–739. [23] E. Kacar, M. Mutlu, E. Akman, A. Demir, L. Candan, T. Canel, V. Gunay, T. Sınmazcelik, Characterization of the drilling alumina ceramic using Nd:YAG pulsed laser, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 209 (4) (2009) 2008–2014. [24] M.M. Hanon, E. Akman, B. Genc Oztoprak, M. Gunes, Z.A. Taha, K.I. Hajim, E. Kacar, O. Gundogdu, A. Demir, Experimental and theoretical investigation of the drilling of alumina ceramic using Nd:YAG pulsed laser, Opt. Laser Technol. 44 (4) (2012) 913–922. [25] A.J. Murray, J.R. Tyrer, Nd:YAG laser drilling of 8.3 mm thick partially stabilized tetragonal zirconia–control of recast layer microcracking using localized heating techniques, J. Laser Appl. 11 (4) (1999) 179–184. [26] S. Sun, M. Brandt, M.S. Dargusch, Thermally enhanced machining of hard–to–machine materials—a review, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 50 (8) (2010) 663–680. [27] D. Guo, K. Cai, J.L. Yang, Y. Huang, Spatter–free laser drilling of alumina ceramics based on gelcasting technology, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 23 (8) (2003) 1263–1267. [28] G.F. Yuan, W. Zheng, X.H. Chen, Contrast test of KOH solutions jet-assisted laser etching on Al2 O3 ceramics, Adv. Mater. Res. 472–475 (2012) 2476–2479.
[29] G.F. Yuan, J.H. Wang, Experimental study of low- pressure water jet assisted laser processing of Al2 O3 ceramic, Adv. Mater. Res. 652–654 (2013) 2363–2368. [30] C.Y. Chen, G.F. Yuan, The optimization and experiment of the low-pressure water jet assisted laser etching on Al2 O3 ceramic, Adv. Mater. Res. 760–762 (2013) 806–810. [31] P.W. Lu, G.F. Yuan, Experimental study of low–pressure water jet assisted laser drilling on Al2 O3 ceramic, Appl. Mech. Mater. 599–601 (2014) 22–26. [32] D.J. Hwang, T.Y. Choi, C.P. Grigoropoulos, Liquid-assisted femtosecond laser drilling of straight and three-dimensional microchannels in glass, Appl. Phys. A 79 (3) (2004) 605–612. [33] Y.C. Lee, M.H. Cheng, CO2 laser processing on ceramic substrates of light emitting diode assisted by compressed gas, Mach. Sci. Technol. 19 (2015) 400–415. [34] N. Nedialkov, M. Sawczak, R. Jendrzejewski, P. Atanasov, M. Martin, G. Sliwinski, Analysis of surface and material modifications caused by laser drilling of AlN ceramics, Appl. Surf. Sci. 254 (4) (2007) 893–897. [35] S. Mishra, V. Yadava, Laser beam micromachining (LBMM)—a review, Opt. Lasers Eng. 73 (2015) 89–122. [36] A. Bharatish, H.N.N. Murthy, B. Anand, C.D. Madhusoodana, G.S. Praveena, M. Krishna, Characterization of hole circularity and heat affected zone in pulsed CO2 laser drilling of alumina ceramics, Opt. Laser Technol. 53 (2013) 22–32. [37] R. Biswas, A.S. Kuar, S.K. Biswas, S. Mitra, Effects of process parameters on hole circularity and taper in pulsed Nd:YAG laser microdrilling of TiN–Al2 O3 composites, Mater. Manuf. Process 25 (6) (2010) 503–514. [38] R. Biswas, A.S. Kuar, S.K. Biswas, S. Mitra, Characterization of hole circularity in pulsed Nd:YAG laser micro–drilling of TiN–Al2 O3 composites, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 51 (9) (2010) 983–994. [39] R. Biswas, A.S. Kuar, S. Mitra, Process optimization in Nd:YAG laser microdrilling of alumina?aluminium interpenetrating phase composite, J. Mater. Res. Technol. 4 (3) (2015) 323–332. [40] N. Iwatani, D.D. Hong, K. Fushinobu, Optimization of near–infrared laser drilling of silicon carbide under water, Int. J. Heat Mass Trans. 71 (3) (2014) 515–520. [41] L. Wee, E.K. Ling, W.T. Chi, G.C. Lim, Solvent–assisted laser drilling of silicon carbide, Int. J. Appl. Ceram. Technol. 8 (6) (2011) 1263–1276. [42] C.H. Tsai, C.C. Li, Investigation of underwater laser drilling for brittle substrates, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 209 (6) (2009) 2838–2846. [43] C.H. Wang, L.T. Zhang, Y.S. Liu, G.H. Cheng, Q. Zhang, K. Hua, Ultra–short pulse laser deep drilling of C/SiC composites in air, Appl. Phys. A 111 (4) (2013) 1213–1219. [44] Y.S. Liu, C.H. Wang, W.N. Li, X.J. Yang, Q. Zhang, L.F. Cheng, L.T. Zhang, Effect of energy density on the machining character of C/SiC composites by picosecond laser, Appl. Phys. A 116 (3) (2013) 1221–1228. [45] Y.S. Liu, C.H. Wang, W.N. Li, L.T. Zhang, X.J. Yang, G.H. Cheng, Q. Zhang, Effect of energy density and feeding speed on micro–hole drilling in C/SiC composites by picosecond laser, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 214 (12) (2014) 3131–3140. [46] R.H. Zhang, W.N. Li, Y.S. Liu, C.H. Wang, J. Wang, X.J. Yang, L.F. Cheng, Machining parameter optimization of C/SiC composites using high power picosecond laser, Appl. Surf. Sci. 330 (2015) 321–331. [47] C.D. Li, S. Lee, S. Nikumb, Femtosecond laser drilling of alumina wafers, J. Electron. Mater. 38 (9) (2009) 2006–2012. [48] X.C. Wang, H.Y. Zheng, P.L. Chu, J.L. Tan, K.M. Teh, T. Liu, Bryden C.Y. Ang, G.H. Tay, Femtosecond laser drilling of alumina ceramic substrates, App. Phys. A 101 (2) (2010) 271–278. [49] Y. Zhang, Y.Q. Wang, J.Z. Zhang, Y.S. Liu, X.J. Yang, Q. Zhang, Micromachining features of TiC ceramic by femtosecond pulsed laser, Ceram. Int. 41 (5) (2015) 6525–6533. [50] Y. Zhang, Y.Q. Wang, J.Z. Zhang, Y.S. Liu, X.J. Yang, W.N. Li, Effects of laser repetition rate and fluence on micromachining of TiC ceramic, Mater. Manuf. Process. 31 (7) (2016) 832–837. [51] C.X. Li, X. Shi, J.H. Si, T. Chen, F. Chen, S.X. Liang, Z.X. Wu, X. Hou, Alcohol–assisted photoetching of silicon carbide with a femtosecond laser, Opt. Commun. 282 (1) (2009) 78–80. [52] J.J.J. Kaakkunen, M. Silvennoinen, K. Paivasaari, P. Vahimaa, Water–assisted femtosecond laser pulse ablation of high aspect ratio holes, Phys. Procedia 12 (1) (2011) 88–93. [53] V. Khuat, Y.C. Ma, J.H. Si, T. Chen, F. Chen, X. Hou, Fabrication of through holes in silicon carbide using femtosecond laser irradiation and acid etching, Appl. Surf. Sci. 289 (2014) 529–532. [54] M. Steinert, J. Acker, S. Oswald, K. Wetzig, Study on the mechanism of silicon etching in HNO3 -rich HF/HNO3 mixtures, J. Phys. Chem. C 111 (5) (2007) 2133–2140. [55] J. Zhu, Z. Liu, X.L. Wu, L.L. Xu, W.C. Zhang, P.K. Chu, Luminescent small-diameter 3C-SiC nanocrystals fabricated via a simple chemical etching method, Nanotechnology 18 (36) (2007) 13635–13640. [56] Y.Z. Yan, L. Li, K. Sezer, W. Wang, D. Whitehead, L.F. Ji, Y. Bao, Y.J. Jiang, CO2 laser underwater machining of deep cavities in alumina, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc 31 (15) (2011) 2793–2807. [57] Y.Z. Yan, L. Li, K. Sezer, D. Whitehead, L.F. Ji, Y. Bao, Y.J. Jiang, Experimental and theoretical investigation of fibre laser crack–free cutting of thick–section alumina, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 51 (12) (2011) 859–870. [58] Y.Z. Yan, L.F. Ji, Y. Bao, Y.J. Jiang, An experimental and numerical study on laser percussion drilling of thick–section alumina, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 212 (6) (2012) 1257–1270.
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
[59] S. Mishra, V. Yadava, Modelling of hole taper and heat affected zone due to laser beam percussion drilling, Mach. Sci. Technol. 17 (2) (2013) 270–291. [60] S. Mishra, V. Yadava, Modeling and optimization of laser beam percussion drilling of thin aluminum sheet, Opt. Laser Technol. 48 (6) (2013) 461–474. [61] M.F. Chen, W.T. Hsiao, M.C. Wang, K.Y. Yang, Y.F. Chen, A theoretical analysis and experimental verification of a laser drilling process for a ceramic substrate, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 81 (2) (2015) 1723–1732. [62] A.N. Samant, N.B. Dahotre, Ab initio physical analysis of single dimensional laser machining of silicon nitride, Adv. Eng. Mater. 10 (10) (2008) 978–981. [63] A.N. Samant, N.B. Dahotre, Computational predictions in single–dimensional laser machining of alumina, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 48 (12–13) (2008) 1345–1353. [64] A.N. Samant, N.B. Dahotre, An integrated computational approach to single–dimensional laser machining of magnesia, Opt. Lasers Eng. 47 (5) (2009) 570–577. [65] A.N. Samant, C. Daniel, R.H. Chand, C.A. Blue, N.B. Dahotre, Computational approach to photonic drilling of silicon carbide, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 45 (7) (2009) 704–713. [66] A.N. Samant, N.B. Dahotre, Differences in physical phenomena governing laser machining of structural ceramics, Ceram. Int. 35 (5) (2009) 2093–2097. [67] X. Xu, D.A. Willis, Non-equilibrium phase change in metal induced by nanosecond pulsed laser irradiation, J. Heat Trans. 124 (2002) 293–298.
17
[68] S.I. Anisimov, Vaporization of metal absorbing laser radiation, J. Exp. Theor. Phys. 27 (1) (1968) 182–183. [69] K. Salonitis, A. Stournaras, G. Tsoukantas, P. Stavropoulos, G. Chryssolouris, A theoretical and experimental investigation on limitations of pulsed laser drilling, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 183 (1) (2007) 96–103. [70] C.Y. Ho, J.K. Lu, A closed form solution for laser drilling of silicon nitride and alumina ceramics, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 140 (1–3) (2003) 260–263. [71] H.D. Vora, S. Santhanakrishnan, S.P. Harimkar, S.K.S. Boetcher, N.B. Dahotre, Evolution of surface topography in one–dimensional laser machining of structural alumina, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 32 (16) (2012) 4205–4218. [72] H.D. Vora, S. Santhanakrishnan, S.P. Harimkar, S.K.S. Boetcher, N.B. Dahotre, One–dimensional multipulse laser machining of structural alumina: evolution of surface topography, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 68 (1) (2013) 69–83. [73] H.D. Vora, N.B. Dahotre, Surface topography in three–dimensional laser machining of structural alumina, J. Manuf. Process. 19 (2015) 49–58. [74] A. Bharatish, H.N.N. Murthy, G. Aditya, B. Anand, B.S. Satyanarayana, M. Krishna, Evaluation of thermal residual stresses in laser drilled alumina ceramics using micro–Raman spectroscopy and COMSOL multiphysics, Opt. Laser Technol. 70 (2015) 76–84.
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
ARTICLE IN PRESS
JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17
Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Contents lists available at www.sciencedirect.com
Journal of the European Ceramic Society journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jeurceramsoc
Review article
Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review Hongjian Wang, Huatay Lin, Chengyong Wang ∗ , Lijuan Zheng, Xiaoyue Hu School of Electromechanical Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 5 July 2016 Received in revised form 23 October 2016 Accepted 24 October 2016 Available online xxx Keywords: Structural ceramics Laser drilling Pulse width Quality characteristics Computational approaches
a b s t r a c t Structural ceramics are becoming widely popular in numerous fields because of high mechanical and physical properties. It is of great difficulty for conventional techniques to machine brittle and hard materials. As one of nontraditional machining methods, laser beam machining has emerged as an effective technique for drilling of ceramics. This paper reviews the research work on laser drilling of structural ceramics from its different pulse width. Lasers have been discussed to understand effects of critical experimental parameters on the quality characteristics and physical mechanisms involved in drilling ceramics. In addition, it is held that heat and liquid-assisted laser processing serves as a useful method to improve processing quality. Computational approaches of ANSYS and COMSOL are used to predict laser input parameters’ effects on quality of hole and describe the physical phenomena during processing. Comments on laser drilling of ceramics developments and future directions are provided at the end. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents 1. 2.
3.
4.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 Laser drilling of structural ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 2.1. Laser drilling with millisecond (ms) laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 2.2. Laser drilling with nanosecond (ns) laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 2.3. Laser drilling with picosecond (ps) and femtosecond (fs) laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 Computer approaches with ANSYS and COMSOL software in laser drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 3.1. ANSYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 3.2. COMSOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
1. Introduction Structural ceramics play an important role in several applications due to their excellent properties like high hardness, high strength, good thermal resistance and chemical stability [1,2–5]. However, it is difficult to machine due to the brittle and hard nature of ceramics. Traditional processing ways of ceramics are not only time-consuming but also laborious. Under such circumstances, various nontraditional machining methods have been adopted in processing ceramics, including ultrasonic machining (USM) [6],
∗ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Wang).
electrical-discharge machining (EDM) [7], laser beam machining (LBM) [8] and laser assisted machining (LAM) [9–11]. As one of the advances machining methods, LBM is considered a desired machining technique on account of non-conduct processing, low production costs, flexibility and its ability to process variable parameters with high accuracy [12]. LBM has been applied in many aspects of industry and life [13]. The schematic of LBM is shown in Fig. 1 [14]. Pulsed lasers have been used in drilling of structural ceramics. Fig. 2 presents laser-material interaction of a pulsed laser beam [15]. The circularity, taper angle of hole and heat affected zone (HAZ), cracks at surface and wall near hole are often used to characterize the quality of hole. To obtain the desired hole, laser drilling generally involves a great many of controllable parameters such as pulse width, energy density, repetition frequency and
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031 0955-2219/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model
ARTICLE IN PRESS
JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17 2
H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Fig. 1. Schematic of laser beam machining system [14].
LBM is a very efficient processing way [20]. The results obtained are used to investigate the effect of each factor on the quality of hole.
2.1. Laser drilling with millisecond (ms) laser
Fig. 2. Laser-matter interaction of a pulsed laser beam [15].
focal plane position. For optimization purposes, modelling and simulation is indispensable [16], such as experimental methods [14], analytical methods [17] and artificial intelligence methods [18]. This paper provides a review on laser drilling of structural ceramics with millisecond (ms), nanosecond (ns), picosecond (ps) and femtosecond (fs) lasers in order to predict the significant factors and effects on the quality characteristics. Heat and liquid-assisted laser drilling techniques are discussed. Computational approaches with ANSYS and COMSOL for the determination of optimum laser drilling have also been described. The paper is ended with concluding the laser drilling of ceramics developments and outlining the trend for future research. 2. Laser drilling of structural ceramics Laser drilling produces better quality with shorter pulse width and higher peak intensity due to the change in mechanism of material removal [19]. Ultrashort pulse laser has less thermal damage to material because the thermal diffusion depth is equal to or less than optical penetration depth [13]. The experiments have been conducted by various researchers with different laser parameters using ms, ns, ps and fs lasers. Shorter pulse laser is helpful to improve the quality of machining but at higher cost. Auxiliary method assisted
Sciti and Bellosi [21] have performed the experimental study for laser drilling of silicon carbide (SiC) using CO2 laser with laser power (0.5 and 1 kW), pulse duration (0.5–2 ms), lens focal length (95.3, 63.5, 31.8 mm) taken as process variables. Their study revealed that SiC can be removed by melting and vaporization through various reactions [22]. The center distance of micro-holes achieved about 200 m on the sample surface. The desired effects of holes in the range of 80–100 m were obtained at 0.5 kW of laser power and 1 ms of pulse duration. They also found that the relationship among microstructural and pulse duration, energy density. As shown in Fig. 3a, the regular circle hole were obtained. The section of hole tended to be cylindrical rather than conic with the increasing pulse duration (Fig. 3b). Silicate-like dendrite crystals can be observed evidently on the wall surface at the high energy density but not at low energy density (Fig. 3c) and the inner wall was covered glassy-like bubbles (Fig. 3d). Kacar et al. [23] have experimentally investigated the effect of variation of pulse duration (0.5–8 ms), peak power (0.5–11 kW) on the holes of the alumina ceramic substrates. Their work found that the average taper angle would change from positive to negative value with the increase peak power and pulse duration (Fig. 4). The diameters of exit hole proportionally change with the pulse duration at fixed peak power, but the diameters of entrance hole do not have this tendency (Fig. 5). Results showed that higher value of pulse duration would lead to cause more resolidified material. The thickness also affects the amount of resolidfied materials by influencing the time of drilling. Millisecond pulsed Nd:YAG laser drilling of different thickness (5 and 10.5 mm) of alumina ceramics by varying laser peak power (5–9 kW), pulse duration (1–6 ms), number of pulses (10–100), repetition rate (5–20 Hz) and focal plane position (0–4 mm) was investigated by Hanon et al. [24]. Their experimental results showed that the depth of hole and the recast layer at the wall and the entrance of hole increase with increasing number of the pulses. They also found that columnar grains face towards the hole walls and that stress of columnar structures accelerates the cracking of materials when at cooling.
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
3
Fig. 3. Microstructural features of hole obtained in SiC with a pulse duration (2 ms), laser power (0.5 kW) and the lens focal length (31.8 mm): (a) hole entry; (b) hole section; (c) silicate–like dendrite crystals obtained on debris area; (d) hole inside walls [21].
A laser drilling research on 8.3 mm-thick partially stabilized tetragonal zirconia (PTSZ) was carried out by Murray and Tyrer [25] with the employment of laser which pulsed lengths is 0.1–20 ms. Localized heating techniques by plasma system were used to reduce the level of recast layer micro-cracking with the thermal gradients decrease (Fig. 6). The heat source in thermally enhanced machining should be controllable and rapid heating in local area is allowable [26]. As is shown in Fig. 7, effects of thermal gradients of the interaction zone of laser beams and materials on the micro-cracking of the substrate are different when the localized heating methods adopted or not adopted in laser drilling of PTSZ. They have found that micro-cracking reduced 1.2 times by the localized plasma heating during laser drilling using optimized drilling parameters of repetition frequency (200 Hz), pulse width (0.6 ms), pulse energy (3.2 J) and drilling time (0.75 s). Therefore, thermal effect has a great influence on ceramic processing. The difference of laser drilling on sintered ceramics and green body is obvious. Guo et al. [27] have presented a novel spatter-free laser drilling technology by adopting gelcast green body of alumina. Variation of diameter and depth of hole was recorded by varying pulse repetition rate (1–30 Hz) keeping pulse energy (10 J), pulse duration (0.2 ms) and focus diameter (0.1 mm) at constant value for each test. They have found that the diameter and depth of hole increased with the increase in pulse repetition rate and pulse number. A higher value of dimensions of hole were presented by drilling on green
body than sintered ceramics (Fig. 8). This methods obtained dense and homogeneous parts without micro-cracks and may be adapted to laser drilling of various materials. Liquid assisted LBM is a potential method on machining ceramic [28,29–31]. Lu and Yuan [31] have studied laser drilling of alumina ceramic through low-pressure water jet assisted method by controlling the laser pulse (0.1–10 ms), the current (100–400 A), laser frequency (0–100 Hz), pressure of auxiliary gas (0–0.5 MPa) and speed of water jet (0–28 m/s). They have found that laser drilling assisted by low pressure water jet can reduce the recast layer and micro-cracks due to the fact that water jet is able to remove molten slags and cool the surface of ceramics. Their research mainly focused on effects of auxiliary gas pressure (Fig. 9), pulse energy (Fig. 10) and repeated frequency (Fig. 11) on the quality of hole using pulse width of 0.8 ms, drilling speed of 0.8 mm/s and waterjet velocity of 12 m/s. Results indicated that the processing parameters were obviously affected the aperture of hole and the thickness of recast layer. The desired quality can be obtained at auxiliary gas pressure of 0.3–0.4 MPa, pulse energy of 200 A and repeated frequency of 45 Hz. Adjustment of the path of jet and laser properly can realize the three dimensional micro channel processing [32]. For laser drilling, different laser ablation path affects machining quality and time. Lee and Cheng [33] have used the laser circular cutting to hole processing on Al2 O3 ceramic. Their experimental results showed that taper of laser drilling hole was greater than
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model
ARTICLE IN PRESS
JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17 4
H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Fig. 6. Schematic of localized heating techniques by plasma system [25].
Fig. 4. Variation of the average taper angle as a function of (a) the peak power at the constant laser pulse duration of 2 ms; (b) the laser pulse duration at the constant laser peak power of 6 kW [23].
Fig. 5. Variation of the average hole diameters as a function of the laser pulse duration for the entrance of the hole and the exit of the hole. The peak power of the used laser is fixed at 6 kW [23].
those obtained by circular cutting (Fig. 12), but the former was less time-consuming. 2.2. Laser drilling with nanosecond (ns) laser Nedialkov et al. [34] have investigated the effects of pulsed irradiation on material modification using 6 ns pulsed laser drilling of AlN ceramics. An irregular shape of hole formed as a result of fracturing of AlN at intensities below the threshold and a regular smooth hole on AlN obtained above the threshold observed in laser drilling. The N element was expelled from the material and Al stayed in the form of Al2 O3 . Neutral atoms and clusters were the main composition in the processed materials at the intensities near
the threshold. Material composition of original and heat affected zone is shown in Fig. 13. The removal mechanism of material processing can be affected by the value of laser fluence [35]. Bharatish et al. [36] examined the effect of frequency (2.5–7.5 kHz), laser power (150–240 W), scanning speed (2.5–3.5 mm/s), hole diameter (1–2 mm) on the hole circularity and HAZ in laser drilling of alumina. Their research found that the entrance circularity proportional increased with laser power but decreased with hole diameter. However, the exit circularity increased with both laser power and hole diameter. HAZ can be reduced by increasing the pulse frequency when the laser power was fixed and taper decreased by increasing the laser power when the pulse frequency was fixed. The optimized parameter at 7.5 kHz, 240 W, 3.85 mm/s and 1 mm can achieve the entrance circularity of 0.963, exit circularity of 0.965, minimum HAZ of 0.55 mm and minimum taper of 0.3511. Biswas et al. [37,38] have investigated effects of lamp current, pulse frequency, pulse width, air pressure and focal length on the circularity and taper in laser drilling of TiN-Al2 O3 ceramics. Conclusions have been drawn that the optimal parameters of hole taper, circularity at entry and exit are different. The comprehensive optimum values are higher lamp current, moderate pulse frequency, lower pulse width, moderate air pressure and positive focal length. The research team have optimized the process of laser drilling of Al-Al2 O3 interpenetrating phase composite to obtain desired hole quality [39]. It was found that lamp current and pulse frequency was the most significant factors which affect the hole diameter and taper. The minimum taper of hole, 0.0126 rad can be achieved with lamp current (23.6818 A), pulse frequency (2.3409 kHz) and air pressure (2.3409 kg/cm2 ). The hole diameters at entry and exit are 80.4809 m (minimum) and 51.7472 m (maximum). Liquid assisted laser processing is not only effective for ms laser, but for ns laser. Iwatani et al. [40] have carried out the laser drilling experiment of SiC by using ns Nd:YAG laser under water with different processing parameters. The experimental set up is shown in Fig. 14. Their study indicated that the depth of hole increases with the increase the pulse number nonlinearly (Fig. 15a) and that the etch rate decreases with the increase water film thickness (Fig. 15b). In addition, hole diameter increases rapidly at the value of laser fluence above 10 J/cm2 (Fig. 15c) and cracks can be observed when the pulse number reaches a value. Their findings showed that laser drilling under water can create holes without debris, HAZ and cracks. The multiple reflection can be reduced by water and was conducive to deeper drilling. The optimal parameter was suggested to be the laser fluence less than 10 J/cm2 and water thickness of 1 mm. Wee et al. [41] have performed laser drilling of SiC with a pulsed width of 25 ns ultraviolet laser in air, water and methanol. The experimental set up (Fig. 16) was used to study the
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
5
Fig. 7. Entry region of laser drilling of PTSZ with plasma heating: (a) at an ambient temperature; (b) at 1300 ◦ C [25].
Fig. 8. Hole diameter and depth between green body and sintered ceramics: (a) average entrance hole diameter with variation in pulse repetition rate; (b) hole depth depending on the number of pulses [27].
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17 6
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Fig. 9. Surface and inwall morphologies of ceramics at different auxiliary gas pressure: (a) 0 MPa; (b) 0.1 MPa; (c) 0.3 MPa; (d) 0.4 MPa [31].
Fig. 10. Surface and inwall morphologies of ceramics at different pulse energy: (a) 160 A; (b) 200 A; (c) 260 A; (d) 300 A [31].
effect of stagnant water, flowing stream and alcohol compared with air environment on laser machining quality. The results showed that redeposition reduced at the processing zone as a result of the cooling liquid. As is shown in Fig. 17, materials melted and exploded due to the bubbles formed when the liquid is superheated, which may be the materials removal mechanism [42]. They also found that alcohol was a better environment to improve the quality of laser drilling of SiC as a result of the fact that ablated materials can be removed away quickly by the faster evaporation of alcohol and that the suggested depth under solvent was 500 m.
2.3. Laser drilling with picosecond (ps) and femtosecond (fs) laser Wang et al. [43] have investigated ps laser drilling of C/SiC in air environment. In their experiment, holes were processed with methods of trepanning and helical drilling. They found that the
depth of holes decreased with the laser scanning speed increasing, but there was only little of change in diameter (Fig. 18). A donut shape can be observed on the surface of materials with spacing at 0.2 mm and scanning speed at 1000 mm/s (Fig. 19). Single ring line and helical lines scanning were used to study the effect of laser energy density on the laser drilling of C/SiC by Liu et al. [44]. Ripples on the material uniformly distributed at 0.001 and 0.01 J/mm2 . The ripple substructure disappeared at a critical value of 0.10 J/mm2 for single ring line mode. However, for helical lines mode, micro pores appeared randomly at 0.10 J/mm2 and strips, bubble pits were found at 1.4 J/mm2 . The higher oxygen content can be detected in the debris and the depth of holes increased with the energy density increasing for both single ring line and helical lines scanning while the later had more advantages in laser drilling of hole. Further study showed effects of energy density and feed speed on hole drilling in different thickness (2, 3 mm) of C/SiC [45].
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
7
Fig. 11. Surface and inwall morphologies of ceramics at different repeated frequency: (a) 15 Hz; (b) 25 Hz; (c) 45 Hz; (d) 65 Hz [31].
Fig. 12. Comparison of taper angles in 300-m holes produced by circular cutting and laser drilling [33].
The exit circularity of holes decreased with the decrease of energy density while there was little change on the circularity of the entry side (Fig. 20). As for 3 mm-thick samples, effects on the roundness of holes is the same even when the feeding speed increases. However, there is no influence of feeding speed on the quality of hole for samples of 2 mm thickness (Fig. 21). Zhang et al. [46] have optimized the processing parameters of ps laser drilling of C/SiC. It indicated that better quality of hole can be achieved with smaller helical line spacing and helical line width. The machining time is crucial to through hole processing since the laser energy can be impeded by debris and plasma in the laser process. In fs laser drilling of alumina, the percussion and trepanning drilling techniques were used by Li et al. [47]. They demonstrated that the better quality of hole can be drilled by near infrared fs laser than the ultraviolet ns laser even if the ablation rates was not obviously different because of the different mechanism of laser ablation [35]. Their experiments showed that cracks free resolidified layer only 30 nm adhered on the walls of holes. Wang et al. [48] have investigated the effects of processing parameters on the quality of hole by using fs laser. They obtained very clean 150 m diameter holes on 381 m thick alumina ceramics and straight 125 m diameter holes on 625 m thick alumina samples. Zhang et al. [49] have performed the fs laser drilling of TiC ceramic
Fig. 13. Material composition of heat affected and original zone: (a) numbers 1–5 indicate the different regions near the drilled hole; (b) the relative N and O concentration in regions 1–5 [34].
by helical drilling in air. Their study indicated that depth of hole increased and decreased then with the increase of laser energy density at the value 0.51 J/mm2 . Higher energy density was con-
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17 8
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Fig. 14. Schematic of the experimental set up [40].
ducive to eliminating the parallel grooves on the surface of TiC. Laser drilling of through holes can be produced at energy density of 0.51–1.53 J/mm2 . Repetition rate has the similar effects on hole depth. The influence of repetition rate and energy density on laser drilling of TiC was further studied [50]. It was found that the geometry of circular rings were less affected by repetition rate. The width of circular rings would increase with energy density at range of 2.55 × 10−2 –1.27 × 10−1 J/mm2 and fixed at 40 m when energy density is above 7.64 × 10−1 J/mm2 . Different morphology on the TiC surface can be observed with energy density increasing. Fs laser was used for drilling of SiC with alcohol assisted by Li et al. [51]. Alcohol was dropped on the samples before laser drilling and experimental setup was shown in Fig. 22. The introduction of liquid was different from the sprayed method [52], stagnant [40] and flowing method [41]. Results show that alcohol cooling and
Fig. 16. Schematic representation of experimental set up: (a) flowing stream with a thin film layer of 1 mm; (b) stagnant liquids with a thin film layer of 500 mm [41].
Fig. 15. Relationship between via dimensions, etching rate and processing parameters: (a) via depth and pulse number; (b) etching rate and water film thickness; (c) via diameter and laser fluence, pulse energy [40].
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
9
Fig. 17. Interaction between pulsed laser and water [42].
Fig. 18. Dependencies of the diameters and depths of the circular holes fabricated after cleaning on the laser scanning speed [43].
volatilization boost deeper and cleaner holes. Better quality holes are achieved with the involvement of alcohol compared with those taken process merely in air (Fig. 23). The rate of hole processing can be faster by the chemical reaction [54,55] happening at the zone of laser drilling and the region of irradiation can be completely removed. Chemical selective etching has fast removal rate, high precision and control flexibility advantages. Combining with laser, it is a kind of promising hybrid processing method. 3. Computer approaches with ANSYS and COMSOL software in laser drilling Modelling and simulation techniques of laser drilling is indispensable for the desired quality of holes. In laser drilling of structural ceramics, series of physical phenomena are included in the machining process, such as melting and sublimation, vaporization and dissociation, plasma formation, laser ablation [12]. Combination with software applications based on modelling and simulation can help better understand the interaction of laser and material, thus optimizing the process parameters and obtaining the ideal processing quality. 3.1. ANSYS Yan et al. [56–58] conducted researches on laser processing of alumina ceramics with the help of ANSYS. A two-dimension axisymmetric finite element model (FEM) was applied to examine effects of laser parameters, such as peak power, pulse duty cycle and
Fig. 19. SEM images of a donut shape drilled with helical lines in air: (a) before cleaning; (b) after cleaning 30 min in an ultrasonic bath with alcohol [43].
repetition rate on the hole diameter and spatter deposition [58]. The simulated temperature field and hole profile are in good agreement with experimental results (Fig. 25). It can be found that hole diameter and spatter deposition was significantly affected by the zone size and temperature of the melt front. The model was improved to calculate temperature at melt front (Fig. 26) and velocity of melt zone ejection. The simulation results were validated by experiment and the hole of 0.01◦ taper, 1.6 mm2 area of spatter deposition were attained at optimized processing parameters. Hanon et al. [24] have simulated the laser drilling process of alumina by applying ANSYS FLUENT mode. The temperature distribution and the crater dimensions as a function of the laser parameters was calculated to investigate the drilling process theoretically. It turned out that the depth of the hole was controllable by adjusting the peak power and pulse width when using a single pulse. Mishra and Yadava [59,60] have developed a model for laser percussion drilling alumina ceramics. Optical properties, phase change and temperature-dependent thermal properties are included in this model. The conclusions indicated that the taper of hole decreases but the material remove rate increases with the increase of pulse width, pulse frequency, peak power and thickness of samples. The thickness of HAZ increases with the increase of pulse width and frequency. However, it decreases with the increase of peak power and ceramic thickness. Combined with Artificial Neural Network (ANN) (Fig. 27), better qualities of hole with reducing taper and HAZ can be obtained. Meanwhile the material removal rate increased due to the adoption of non-linear and adaptive model [60]. Chen et al.
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17 10
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Fig. 20. The SEM micrographs of microholes holes drilling with various energy densities in 2 mm and 3 mm thickness C/SiC samples: (a) entry side and (b) exit side for 2 mm thickness samples; (c) exit side for 3 mm thickness samples [45].
[61] established a model to research effects of laser parameters on the hole quality of alumina and the flowchart was shown in Fig. 28. Results revealed that the temperature increases to the maximal value at the center and surface of the hole (Fig. 29). Thermal damage was found no trace in the laser processing region. In addition to cooling, the reaction of liquid with material can play a positive role in laser drilling. Hydrofluoric acid and nitric acid etched SiC ceramics with fs laser drilling by Khuat et al. [53]. The acid etching was arranged after the laser irradiation (Fig. 24). Through hole on the 0.4 mm thickness alumina ceramic was obtained at laser fluence of 5.10 J/cm2 , pulse width of 1 ms, frequency of 20 kHz and pulse number higher than 9. Due to the physical change of material, such as melting and vaporization, the results exhibited slight differences between simulation and experiment. 3.2. COMSOL Samant and Dahotre have developed a mathematical model to predict the number of pulses and corresponding time needed for laser drilling to create the desired depth on silicon nitride [62],
alumina [63], magnesia [64] and silicon carbide [65] by using heat transfer mode in COMSOL. As shown in Fig. 30, energy absorption, ablation, melting, removal and evaporation of material can be taken into account by analyzing differences in physical phenomena of laser machining [66]. Physical phenomenon can be conversed to the state change of material. Combined melt expulsion and evaporation, the removal of ceramics can be predicted in the laser drilling. The pulse ON and OFF times during operation time (Fig. 31), the saturation pressure [67], the recoil pressure [68] and the effective laser beam radius [69] have a great influence on the simulation results. The effect of plasma is an essential factor in laser drilling [70] but it is not considered in these studies due to the low laser intensity. Vora et al. [71] have investigated the single pulse laser drilling of alumina using heat transfer mode coupled with fluid flow mode, twostep modelling approach. Recoil pressure, marangoni convection and surface tension associated with processing parameters which affected the surface topography were studied in their research (Fig. 32). Simulation found that the liquid pile up increased due to the strong velocity gradient and that better surface finish can be achieved with less material removal. Multi-pulse laser was used to
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
11
Fig. 21. The SEM micrographs of microholes drilling with various feeding speeds in 2 mm and 3 mm thickness C/SiC samples: (a) entry side and (b) exit side for 2 mm thickness samples; (c) exit side for 3 mm thickness samples [45].
Fig. 22. Schematic of experimental setup [51].
study the evolution of surface topography in drilling of alumina further (Fig. 33) [72]. The results indicated that the solidified material on the wall inside the hole as a result of recoil pressure was insufficient to eject the melt material. The roughness on surface increased with the increasing laser energy density. Vora and Dahotre [73]
have explored the surface topography in three-dimensional laser processing of alumina. They have found that drilling quality was affected by micro-cracks seriously in HAZ caused by thermal damage. Thermal residual stresses analysis is an effective method to control or even eliminate the adverse factors [74].
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
12
Fig. 23. Microstructural features of the top surface of hole in laser drilling of SiC: (a) In air; (b) Alcohol–assisted; (c) After alcohol washing [51].
Fig. 24. The schematic diagram of fabricating through hole in SiC: (a) experiment setup for laser irradiation; (b) experiment setup for chemical etching [53].
Fig. 25. The cross–section view of a hole drilled by the experiment (left side) and simulated by FEM (right side) [58].
4. Conclusions LBM has been demonstrated as a practical tool for the highquality drilling holes in ceramics. The quality of laser drilling is affected by variety of parameters, such as laser power, number of pulses, pulse width, repetition rate, type and pressure of assisted gas. Desired quality characteristics of hole are minimum values of taper, HAZ, recast layer, micro-cracks and maximum values of circularity. The optimal processing quality can be obtained with the discovery of the influence of each factor on the material processing. Auxiliary method assisted LBM is a promising technology. Localized heating technique is a useful way to reduce the level of recast layer micro-cracking by decreasing the thermal gradients. Liquid-
assisted processing is an effective approach in laser drilling due to the cooling and evaporating process which reduces the recast layer and removes molten slags. Acid etching method is also a potential way to remove the laser irradiation zone. Modelling and simulation with ANSYS and COMSOL can provide a reliable prediction of laser input parameters effects on quality of hole and help to understand the physical phenomena included in the drilling process. Future research is expected to pay more attention to improving the quality and efficiency in laser drilling of structural ceramics, developing multi-assisted techniques and establishing a more realistic mathematical model to simulate the physic with more accuracy via assistance of software.
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17
ARTICLE IN PRESS 13
Fig. 26. The temperature elevations at melt front for various laser parameters: (a) peak powers; (b) pulse duty cycles; (c) pulse repetition rates [58].
H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17 14
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Fig. 27. Configuration of the proposed ANN model [60].
Fig. 29. Temperature distributions for the entrance hole for different parameters: (a) laser fluences; (b) laser pulse durations [61].
Fig. 28. Flowchart for the thermal analysis [61].
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
15
Fig. 30. Stepwise procedure for prediction of machining parameters [66].
Fig. 31. Schematic of pulse ON-OFF [63].
Fig. 33. Schematic of laser machining processes: (a) multiple-pulse laser machining process; (b) evolution of surface topography [72].
Fig. 32. Two–step modeling approach to predict the surface profile: (a) prediction of solid–vapor and solid–liquid interface by level–set method; (b) prediction of crater and melt pool dimensions; (c) flow of molten material due to various boundary conditions; (d) prediction of surface profile after solidification [71].
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17 16
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the financial support from Natural Science Foundation of China-Guangdong Joint Fund (grant No. U140120111), Guangdong Innovative and Entrepreneurial Research Team Program (grant No. 2013G061).
References [1] F.C. Peillon, F. Thevenot, Microstructural designing of silicon nitride related to toughness, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 22 (3) (2002) 271–278. [2] J.L. Shi, B.S. Li, T.S. Yen, Mechanical properties of Al2 O3 particle-Y-TZP matrix composite and its toughening mechanism, J. Mater. Sci. 28 (15) (1993) 4019–4022. [3] P. Hu, Z. Wang, Flexural strength and fracture behavior of ZrB2 -SiC ultra-high temperature ceramic composites at 1800 ◦ C, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 30 (4) (2010) 1021–1026. [4] S.G. Huang, K. Vanmeensel, O.J.A. Malek, O.V.D. Biest, J. Vleugels, Microstructure and mechanical properties of pulsed electric current sintered B4 C-TiB2 composites, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 528 (3) (2011) 1302–1309. [5] B. Zou, C.Z. Huang, J.P. Song, Z.Y. Liu, L. Liu, Y. Zhao, Mechanical properties and microstructure of TiB2 -TiC composite ceramic cutting tool material, Int. J. Refract. Met. Hard Mater. 35 (2012) 1–9. [6] Z.C. Li, Y. Jiao, T.W. Deines, Z.J. Pei, C. Treadwell, Rotary ultrasonic machining of ceramic matrix composites: feasibility study and designed experiments, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 45 (12–13) (2005) 1402–1411. [7] I. Puertas, C.J. Luis, A study on the electrical discharge machining of conductive ceramics, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 153–154 (22) (2004) 1033–1038. [8] A.N. Samant, N.B. Dahotre, Three-dimensional laser machining of structural ceramics, J. Manuf. Process. 12 (1) (2010) 1–7. [9] D. Dhupal, B. Doloi, B. Bhattacharyya, Pulsed Nd:YAG laser turning of micro–groove on aluminum oxide ceramic (Al2 O3 ), Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 48 (2) (2008) 236–248. [10] B. Yang, X. Shen, S. Lei, Mechanisms of edge chipping in laser–assisted milling of silicon nitride ceramics, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 49 (3) (2009) 344–350. [11] M. Kumar, S. Melkote, G. Lahoti, Laser–assisted microgrinding of ceramics, CIRP Ann. Manuf. Technol. 60 (1) (2011) 367–370. [12] A.N. Samant, N.B. Dahotre, Laser machining of structu- ral ceramics—a review, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 29 (6) (2009) 969–993. [13] J. Meijer, Laser beam machining (LBM), state of the art and new opportunities, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 149 (1) (2004) 2–17. [14] A.S. Kuar, B. Doloi, B. Bhattacharyya, Modelling and analysis of pulsed Nd:YAG laser machining characteristics during micro–drilling of zirconia (ZrO2 ), Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 46 (12–13) (2006) 1301–1310. [15] J.P. Desbiens, P. Masson, ArF excimer laser microma- chining of Pyrex, Sic and PZT for rapid prototyping of MEMS components, Sens. Actuators A Phys. 136 (2) (2007) 554–563. [16] P. Parandoush, A. Hossain, A review of modeling and simulation of laser beam machining, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 85 (7) (2014) 135–145. [17] R. Aloke, V. Girish, R.F. Scrutton, P.A. Molian, A model for prediction of dimensional tolerances of laser cut holes in mild steel thin plates, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 37 (8) (1997) 1069–1078. [18] B.F. Yousef, G.K. Knopf, E.V. Bordatchev, S.K. Nikumb, Neural network modelling and analysis of the material removal process during laser machining, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 22 (1) (2003) 41–53. [19] X.L. Chen, X.B. Liu, Short pulsed laser machining: how short is short enough? J. Laser Appl. 11 (11) (1999) 268–272. [20] S.Z. Chavoshi, X.C. Luo, Hybrid micro-machining processes: a review, Precis. Eng. 41 (2015) 1–23. [21] D. Sciti, A. Bellosi, Laser induced surface drilling of silicon carbide, Appl. Surf. Sci. 180 (1–2) (2001) 92–101. [22] I. Shigematsu, K. Kanayama, A. Tsuge, M. Nakamura, Analysis of constituents generated with laser machining of Si3 N4 and SiC, J. Mater. Sci. Lett. 17 (9) (1998) 737–739. [23] E. Kacar, M. Mutlu, E. Akman, A. Demir, L. Candan, T. Canel, V. Gunay, T. Sınmazcelik, Characterization of the drilling alumina ceramic using Nd:YAG pulsed laser, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 209 (4) (2009) 2008–2014. [24] M.M. Hanon, E. Akman, B. Genc Oztoprak, M. Gunes, Z.A. Taha, K.I. Hajim, E. Kacar, O. Gundogdu, A. Demir, Experimental and theoretical investigation of the drilling of alumina ceramic using Nd:YAG pulsed laser, Opt. Laser Technol. 44 (4) (2012) 913–922. [25] A.J. Murray, J.R. Tyrer, Nd:YAG laser drilling of 8.3 mm thick partially stabilized tetragonal zirconia–control of recast layer microcracking using localized heating techniques, J. Laser Appl. 11 (4) (1999) 179–184. [26] S. Sun, M. Brandt, M.S. Dargusch, Thermally enhanced machining of hard–to–machine materials—a review, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 50 (8) (2010) 663–680. [27] D. Guo, K. Cai, J.L. Yang, Y. Huang, Spatter–free laser drilling of alumina ceramics based on gelcasting technology, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 23 (8) (2003) 1263–1267. [28] G.F. Yuan, W. Zheng, X.H. Chen, Contrast test of KOH solutions jet-assisted laser etching on Al2 O3 ceramics, Adv. Mater. Res. 472–475 (2012) 2476–2479.
[29] G.F. Yuan, J.H. Wang, Experimental study of low- pressure water jet assisted laser processing of Al2 O3 ceramic, Adv. Mater. Res. 652–654 (2013) 2363–2368. [30] C.Y. Chen, G.F. Yuan, The optimization and experiment of the low-pressure water jet assisted laser etching on Al2 O3 ceramic, Adv. Mater. Res. 760–762 (2013) 806–810. [31] P.W. Lu, G.F. Yuan, Experimental study of low–pressure water jet assisted laser drilling on Al2 O3 ceramic, Appl. Mech. Mater. 599–601 (2014) 22–26. [32] D.J. Hwang, T.Y. Choi, C.P. Grigoropoulos, Liquid-assisted femtosecond laser drilling of straight and three-dimensional microchannels in glass, Appl. Phys. A 79 (3) (2004) 605–612. [33] Y.C. Lee, M.H. Cheng, CO2 laser processing on ceramic substrates of light emitting diode assisted by compressed gas, Mach. Sci. Technol. 19 (2015) 400–415. [34] N. Nedialkov, M. Sawczak, R. Jendrzejewski, P. Atanasov, M. Martin, G. Sliwinski, Analysis of surface and material modifications caused by laser drilling of AlN ceramics, Appl. Surf. Sci. 254 (4) (2007) 893–897. [35] S. Mishra, V. Yadava, Laser beam micromachining (LBMM)—a review, Opt. Lasers Eng. 73 (2015) 89–122. [36] A. Bharatish, H.N.N. Murthy, B. Anand, C.D. Madhusoodana, G.S. Praveena, M. Krishna, Characterization of hole circularity and heat affected zone in pulsed CO2 laser drilling of alumina ceramics, Opt. Laser Technol. 53 (2013) 22–32. [37] R. Biswas, A.S. Kuar, S.K. Biswas, S. Mitra, Effects of process parameters on hole circularity and taper in pulsed Nd:YAG laser microdrilling of TiN–Al2 O3 composites, Mater. Manuf. Process 25 (6) (2010) 503–514. [38] R. Biswas, A.S. Kuar, S.K. Biswas, S. Mitra, Characterization of hole circularity in pulsed Nd:YAG laser micro–drilling of TiN–Al2 O3 composites, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 51 (9) (2010) 983–994. [39] R. Biswas, A.S. Kuar, S. Mitra, Process optimization in Nd:YAG laser microdrilling of alumina?aluminium interpenetrating phase composite, J. Mater. Res. Technol. 4 (3) (2015) 323–332. [40] N. Iwatani, D.D. Hong, K. Fushinobu, Optimization of near–infrared laser drilling of silicon carbide under water, Int. J. Heat Mass Trans. 71 (3) (2014) 515–520. [41] L. Wee, E.K. Ling, W.T. Chi, G.C. Lim, Solvent–assisted laser drilling of silicon carbide, Int. J. Appl. Ceram. Technol. 8 (6) (2011) 1263–1276. [42] C.H. Tsai, C.C. Li, Investigation of underwater laser drilling for brittle substrates, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 209 (6) (2009) 2838–2846. [43] C.H. Wang, L.T. Zhang, Y.S. Liu, G.H. Cheng, Q. Zhang, K. Hua, Ultra–short pulse laser deep drilling of C/SiC composites in air, Appl. Phys. A 111 (4) (2013) 1213–1219. [44] Y.S. Liu, C.H. Wang, W.N. Li, X.J. Yang, Q. Zhang, L.F. Cheng, L.T. Zhang, Effect of energy density on the machining character of C/SiC composites by picosecond laser, Appl. Phys. A 116 (3) (2013) 1221–1228. [45] Y.S. Liu, C.H. Wang, W.N. Li, L.T. Zhang, X.J. Yang, G.H. Cheng, Q. Zhang, Effect of energy density and feeding speed on micro–hole drilling in C/SiC composites by picosecond laser, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 214 (12) (2014) 3131–3140. [46] R.H. Zhang, W.N. Li, Y.S. Liu, C.H. Wang, J. Wang, X.J. Yang, L.F. Cheng, Machining parameter optimization of C/SiC composites using high power picosecond laser, Appl. Surf. Sci. 330 (2015) 321–331. [47] C.D. Li, S. Lee, S. Nikumb, Femtosecond laser drilling of alumina wafers, J. Electron. Mater. 38 (9) (2009) 2006–2012. [48] X.C. Wang, H.Y. Zheng, P.L. Chu, J.L. Tan, K.M. Teh, T. Liu, Bryden C.Y. Ang, G.H. Tay, Femtosecond laser drilling of alumina ceramic substrates, App. Phys. A 101 (2) (2010) 271–278. [49] Y. Zhang, Y.Q. Wang, J.Z. Zhang, Y.S. Liu, X.J. Yang, Q. Zhang, Micromachining features of TiC ceramic by femtosecond pulsed laser, Ceram. Int. 41 (5) (2015) 6525–6533. [50] Y. Zhang, Y.Q. Wang, J.Z. Zhang, Y.S. Liu, X.J. Yang, W.N. Li, Effects of laser repetition rate and fluence on micromachining of TiC ceramic, Mater. Manuf. Process. 31 (7) (2016) 832–837. [51] C.X. Li, X. Shi, J.H. Si, T. Chen, F. Chen, S.X. Liang, Z.X. Wu, X. Hou, Alcohol–assisted photoetching of silicon carbide with a femtosecond laser, Opt. Commun. 282 (1) (2009) 78–80. [52] J.J.J. Kaakkunen, M. Silvennoinen, K. Paivasaari, P. Vahimaa, Water–assisted femtosecond laser pulse ablation of high aspect ratio holes, Phys. Procedia 12 (1) (2011) 88–93. [53] V. Khuat, Y.C. Ma, J.H. Si, T. Chen, F. Chen, X. Hou, Fabrication of through holes in silicon carbide using femtosecond laser irradiation and acid etching, Appl. Surf. Sci. 289 (2014) 529–532. [54] M. Steinert, J. Acker, S. Oswald, K. Wetzig, Study on the mechanism of silicon etching in HNO3 -rich HF/HNO3 mixtures, J. Phys. Chem. C 111 (5) (2007) 2133–2140. [55] J. Zhu, Z. Liu, X.L. Wu, L.L. Xu, W.C. Zhang, P.K. Chu, Luminescent small-diameter 3C-SiC nanocrystals fabricated via a simple chemical etching method, Nanotechnology 18 (36) (2007) 13635–13640. [56] Y.Z. Yan, L. Li, K. Sezer, W. Wang, D. Whitehead, L.F. Ji, Y. Bao, Y.J. Jiang, CO2 laser underwater machining of deep cavities in alumina, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc 31 (15) (2011) 2793–2807. [57] Y.Z. Yan, L. Li, K. Sezer, D. Whitehead, L.F. Ji, Y. Bao, Y.J. Jiang, Experimental and theoretical investigation of fibre laser crack–free cutting of thick–section alumina, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 51 (12) (2011) 859–870. [58] Y.Z. Yan, L.F. Ji, Y. Bao, Y.J. Jiang, An experimental and numerical study on laser percussion drilling of thick–section alumina, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 212 (6) (2012) 1257–1270.
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031
G Model JECS-10895; No. of Pages 17
ARTICLE IN PRESS H. Wang et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
[59] S. Mishra, V. Yadava, Modelling of hole taper and heat affected zone due to laser beam percussion drilling, Mach. Sci. Technol. 17 (2) (2013) 270–291. [60] S. Mishra, V. Yadava, Modeling and optimization of laser beam percussion drilling of thin aluminum sheet, Opt. Laser Technol. 48 (6) (2013) 461–474. [61] M.F. Chen, W.T. Hsiao, M.C. Wang, K.Y. Yang, Y.F. Chen, A theoretical analysis and experimental verification of a laser drilling process for a ceramic substrate, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 81 (2) (2015) 1723–1732. [62] A.N. Samant, N.B. Dahotre, Ab initio physical analysis of single dimensional laser machining of silicon nitride, Adv. Eng. Mater. 10 (10) (2008) 978–981. [63] A.N. Samant, N.B. Dahotre, Computational predictions in single–dimensional laser machining of alumina, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 48 (12–13) (2008) 1345–1353. [64] A.N. Samant, N.B. Dahotre, An integrated computational approach to single–dimensional laser machining of magnesia, Opt. Lasers Eng. 47 (5) (2009) 570–577. [65] A.N. Samant, C. Daniel, R.H. Chand, C.A. Blue, N.B. Dahotre, Computational approach to photonic drilling of silicon carbide, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 45 (7) (2009) 704–713. [66] A.N. Samant, N.B. Dahotre, Differences in physical phenomena governing laser machining of structural ceramics, Ceram. Int. 35 (5) (2009) 2093–2097. [67] X. Xu, D.A. Willis, Non-equilibrium phase change in metal induced by nanosecond pulsed laser irradiation, J. Heat Trans. 124 (2002) 293–298.
17
[68] S.I. Anisimov, Vaporization of metal absorbing laser radiation, J. Exp. Theor. Phys. 27 (1) (1968) 182–183. [69] K. Salonitis, A. Stournaras, G. Tsoukantas, P. Stavropoulos, G. Chryssolouris, A theoretical and experimental investigation on limitations of pulsed laser drilling, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 183 (1) (2007) 96–103. [70] C.Y. Ho, J.K. Lu, A closed form solution for laser drilling of silicon nitride and alumina ceramics, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 140 (1–3) (2003) 260–263. [71] H.D. Vora, S. Santhanakrishnan, S.P. Harimkar, S.K.S. Boetcher, N.B. Dahotre, Evolution of surface topography in one–dimensional laser machining of structural alumina, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 32 (16) (2012) 4205–4218. [72] H.D. Vora, S. Santhanakrishnan, S.P. Harimkar, S.K.S. Boetcher, N.B. Dahotre, One–dimensional multipulse laser machining of structural alumina: evolution of surface topography, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 68 (1) (2013) 69–83. [73] H.D. Vora, N.B. Dahotre, Surface topography in three–dimensional laser machining of structural alumina, J. Manuf. Process. 19 (2015) 49–58. [74] A. Bharatish, H.N.N. Murthy, G. Aditya, B. Anand, B.S. Satyanarayana, M. Krishna, Evaluation of thermal residual stresses in laser drilled alumina ceramics using micro–Raman spectroscopy and COMSOL multiphysics, Opt. Laser Technol. 70 (2015) 76–84.
Please cite this article in press as: H. Wang, et al., Laser drilling of structural ceramics—A review, J Eur Ceram Soc (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.10.031