Late Pleistocene and Holocene landscape formation in a gully catchment area in Northern Hesse, Germany

Quaternary International xxx (2014) 1e18

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Late Pleistocene and Holocene landscape formation in a gully catchment area in Northern Hesse, Germany €hler a, *, Bodo Damm a, Birgit Terhorst b, Christine Thiel c, d, e, Susanne Do Manfred Frechen e a

ISPA, University of Vechta, Driverstraße 22, 49364 Vechta, Germany Institute of Geography and Geology, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97047 Würzburg, Germany Center for Nuclear Technologies, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Risø Campus, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark d Nordic Laboratory for Luminescence Dating, Department of Geoscience, Aarhus University, Risø Campus, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark e Leibniz Institute for Applied Geophysics, Section, S3: Geochronology and Isotope Hydrology, Stilleweg 2, 30655 Hannover, Germany b c

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Available online xxx

Permanent gully channels under forest are common geomorphological features in Central European low € chergraben gully catchment in Northern Hesse, Germany the mountain areas. In the Rehgraben/Fuchslo Late Pleistocene landscape formation is reconstructed based on periglacial cover beds. In addition, the Holocene landscape development and soil erosion history are investigated using anthropogenic soil sediments and alluvial fan sediments. Until now, a combination of these approaches has not been applied to a gully catchment to this extent. The distribution of the different Quaternary sediments enables the differentiation between Pleistocene and Holocene landforms. Radiocarbon and optically stimulated luminescence dating are applied to add numerical data to the relative ages of the sediments and landforms. The gully channels are oriented along Pleistocene depressions that are built up of periglacial cover beds and intercalated reworked loess. As the gully channels cut through the periglacial cover beds, especially the upper layer, the gully system is of Holocene age. At least two phases of gully erosion are identified in the alluvial fan sediments. The initial gully erosion is dated to the time span between the Late Bronze Age and Roman Times. A second gully erosion phase is dated to the 14th century and may be correlated to the severe precipitation events during this time. Gully erosion started during the Younger Holocene and is connected to human settlement and land use activity. The intense human impact hampers the application of the concept of periglacial cover beds to reconstruct landscape formation and limits it to areas where the periglacial upper layer is still preserved. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Anthropogenic soil sediments Gully erosion Landscape formation Periglacial cover beds

1. Introduction In Central European low mountain areas landforms are often characterized by geomorphological features which result from gully erosion. Gully erosion is defined as a linear soil erosion process caused by concentrated runoff on non-vegetated surfaces leading to the removal of soil material and the formation of erosion channels (Soil Science Society of America, 2008) during or shortly after heavy precipitation events (Poesen, 1993). The detachment of soil material and its transportation is mainly controlled by runoff intensity (Poesen, 1993) and vegetation cover. Therefore, it is directly affected

* Corresponding author. € hler). E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Do

by climatic conditions and land use change (Poesen et al., 2003; Valentin et al., 2005). Before the onset of anthropogenic land use soils were protected from soil erosion by a dense vegetation cover (e.g. Bork,1985; Bork et al.,1998; Dotterweich, 2008; Dreibrodt et al., 2010) and high infiltration capacities of forest soils, which prevented surface runoff (Valentin et al., 2005; Dreibrodt et al., 2010). Intensive soil formation proceeded in a phase of geomorphodynamic and geoecological stability before any human impact on landscape development. Pedogenesis was interrupted and the phase of geomorphodynamic stability ended abruptly as a consequence of human land use activity, starting during the Early Neolithic (Rohdenburg, 1971). Land use was particularly intense in loess regions; therefore, loess landscapes are affected by linear soil erosion in particular due to their sedimentological features (Bork, 1983, 1985; Lang and Bork, 2006).

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Gully erosion is a highly dynamic process that commonly proceeds in a cycle of incision and infilling, with the gully repeatedly forming in the same position (Poesen et al., 2003; Poesen, 2011). Ephemeral gullies may be filled with sediment shortly after their incision (Poesen, 1993; Soil Science Society of America, 2008). Typical (or classical) gullies are more deeply incised and are, therefore, more persistent in the landscape; they are called permanent gullies (Poesen et al., 2003; Valentin et al., 2005; Soil Science Society of America, 2008). Afforestation occasionally disrupted the formation cycle of both infilled and permanent gullies by protecting the first from re-incision and the latter from infilling (e.g. Valentin et al., 2005). Many studies from the past decades have shown that the erosion channels developed in historical times under different climate and/or land use conditions (Valentin et al., 2005). At present, permanent gully erosion is a rare phenomenon in Central Europe (Poesen et al., 2003; Valentin et al., 2005). Verstraeten et al. (2009) state that the importance of both climate change and vegetation cover on soil erosion may be variable and that often the impact of these factors on soil erosion cannot be defined clearly. Based on detailed stratigraphic analyses several phases of soil erosion and gullying have been reconstructed throughout Central Europe (e.g. Bork, 1985; Bork et al., 1998; Schmitt, 2003; Dotterweich, 2005; Dotterweich et al., 2012). Phases of severe gully erosion came about during the first half of the 14th and from the end of the 17th century until the first half of the 19th century. Both phases correspond to the beginning and end of the Little Ice Age, respectively, indicating a climatic impact. In addition, population density was high and the demand for arable land increased, with the consequence of woodland cover being reduced to its lowest extent in the history of Central Europe during Medieval times, leaving surfaces bare and vulnerable to soil erosion (Lang and Bork, 2006; Dotterweich, 2008; Dreibrodt et al., 2010). Numerous studies on historical gully systems in Central Europe have aimed to reconstruct Holocene landscape formation and soil erosion history in particular and have tried to identify the main controlling factors in Central Europe. Infilled or partly infilled gully systems have been studied by Bork (1983, 1985), Bork et al. (1998) and Dotterweich (2005) in Germany, and by Dotterweich et al. (2012) in Poland. Historical gully systems under forest cover have been studied by Bauer (1993), Semmel (1995), Stolz and Grunert (2006) and Stolz (2008) in Germany, by Nachtergaele et al. (2002) and Vanwalleghem et al. (2006, 2003) in Belgium, by Schmitt et al. (2006) in Poland, by Stankoviansky (2003), Papco (2011), Stankoviansky and Ondr cka (2011), Dotterweich et al. bris et al. (2003) in Hungary. (2013) in Slovakia, and by Ga Pleistocene sediments such as periglacial cover beds and loess record the conditions of Pleistocene landscape formation and the paleotopography before the impact by human activity. Different Pleistocene sediments form the parent material for Holocene pedogenesis. Pleistocene sediments and soils hold information on the paleoenvironment and represent the surface conditions at the time of human occupation. Holocene anthropogenic sediments as well as landforms carry information on geomorphodynamic processes and the extent of landscape alteration caused by human impact; they further store information of the impact of extreme climatic events on landscape formation. Besides the formation of gully channels, soil erosion during the Holocene caused the formation of slope depressions in gully catchment areas (Bork, 1983; Bork et al., 1998) and the deposition of alluvial fans by gully erosion events (Poesen et al., 2003; Valentin et al., 2005). On upper slopes and in convex slope positions, soil erosion results in truncated soil profiles. Transported soil material was mainly deposited on slopes as anthropogenic soil €hlich et al., 2005) or in older linear erosion forms sediments (e.g. Fro (e.g. Bork, 1985; Bork et al., 1998; Dotterweich, 2005, 2012).

Together, different Quaternary sediments and soils constitute important archives and serve as tool to reconstruct Quaternary landscape history. Infilled gullies and alluvial fans record single gully erosion events, incision, and accumulation periods. Permanent gully channels under forest provide less information, since soil sediments within the erosion form are absent. In this context, Pleistocene periglacial cover beds may be used to reconstruct the Late Pleistocene landscape formation in Central European low mountain areas and to distinguish between Pleistocene and Holocene sediments and landforms (Semmel, 1968, 2002a; Bibus et al., 2001). The concept of periglacial cover beds, developed by Schilling and Wiefel (1962) and Semmel (1968), has been successfully applied to reconstruct Pleistocene and Holocene landscape history in landslide areas in Austria (e.g. Terhorst et al., 2009) and Germany (e.g. Terhorst, 2007). In general, studies on landscape formation in gully catchment areas have focused on the reconstruction of soil erosion history and on Holocene landscape dynamics. Periglacial cover beds were used to date gully channels to the Holocene (e.g. Bauer, 1993; Moldenhauer, 1995; Stolz, 2008). Until now, Quaternary sediments along gully channels have rarely been investigated. However, the distribution and degree of erosion or absence of Quaternary sediments connected to gully channels provide a very detailed view not only on soil erosion history during the Holocene but also on the Late Pleistocene landscape evolution. The aim of this study is to reconstruct the landscape formation in a gully catchment area by analyzing the different Quaternary sediments with a focus on periglacial cover beds to study the Late Pleistocene landscape formation. In addition, gully formation is investigated with respect to Holocene soil erosion processes. The combination of both approaches has as to yet not been applied to gully catchment areas to this extent. 2. Quaternary sediments as tool to reconstruct landscape formation 2.1. Pleistocene periglacial cover beds Periglacial processes including solifluction, cryoturbation, and eolian sedimentation led to the formation of a multi-layered sediment cover in central European low mountain areas during the last glacial period. In general, three main cover bed units formed under periglacial conditions: the basal layer, the intermediate layer, and the upper layer. Schilling and Wiefel (1962) and Semmel (1968) introduced the concept of periglacial cover beds, and at present, many terms exist for the different sediment layers. However, in this article we use the terminology suggested by Kleber (1992, 1997) and Kleber and Terhorst (2013, and articles therein). Basal layers are widespread, cover almost all slopes of low mountain areas with an increasing thickness downslope and may consist of several sub-layers (Semmel, 1968; AG Boden, 2005). Basal layers often fill older landforms and thereby overprint and reduce the relief intensity of the paleolandscape (Semmel, 1968; Kleber and Scholten, 2013). Basal layers are composed of weathering debris of the surrounding bedrock which mainly underwent shortdistance transport. An allochthonous, silty eolian component is commonly absent (Semmel, 1968; Altermann et al., 1977). Therefore, the basal layers formed before the accumulation of loess (Terhorst et al., 2009) and most likely before the Last Glacial € lkel, 2002); according to Maximum (LGM) (Raab, 1999; Raab and Vo Hülle and Kleber (2013), this represents a minimum age. Intermediate layers superimpose the basal layers in sheltered positions, such as slope depressions, and are related to paleodepressions (e.g. Altermann et al., 1995; AG Boden, 2005; Semmel and Terhorst, 2010). However, Kleber and Scholten (2013) and

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Kleber et al. (2013) state that not shelter from erosion is the driving factor for the distribution of intermediate layers, but that slope depressions simply function as sediment traps. Further, they assume that terrain roughness and vegetation cover are relevant to the distribution patterns of intermediate layers. As the basal layers, intermediate layers show an increase in thickness downslope (Semmel, 1968), and in general, intermediate layers have increased silt and clay contents (e.g. Scholten et al., 2013). In addition to the local sediment component derived from the underlying basal layer(s) and bedrock, intermediate layers are further characterized by a considerable but varying loess or loess loam content, and often show higher clay contents (Scholten et al., 2013). Like basal layers, intermediate layers may consist of several sub-layers (e.g. Sauer, 2002). In some cases, intermediate layers are associated with underlying or intercalated (reworked) loess deposits (e.g. Terhorst et al., 2009). The age of the intermediate layer still remains unclear (Hülle and Kleber, 2013), though Mail€ ander and Veit (2001) argue for a deposition before 14,000 BP based on their studies in Switzerland. The uppermost periglacial cover bed is the upper layer (Semmel, 1964, 1968, 2002b). It superimposes the basal or the intermediate layer, respectively, depending on the slope position. Remarkably, the upper layer shows a constant thickness of 30e70 cm (Terhorst et al., 2009). Unlike basal and intermediate layers, the upper layer cannot be subdivided (Hülle and Kleber, 2013). Upper layers typically consist of bedrock debris and a silty eolian component; it is thought to have formed during the Younger Dryas, because it contains volcanic ash of the Lake Laach eruption in many parts of Central Europe. This eruption was dated to 12,900 BP (Bogaard van den, 1995). In some cases the upper layer was dated to the Oldest or € lkel, 2002). In any case, the the Older Dryas (e.g. Leopold and Vo periglacial upper layer represents the youngest widespread Pleistocene sediment in low mountain areas of Central Europe. For a profound review of the concept of periglacial cover beds see Semmel and Terhorst (2010). Kleber and Terhorst (2013, and articles therein) provide the current state of research. The upper layer represents the Late Pleistocene surface which is still present today unless it has been eroded or covered by anthropogenic soil sediments. Using this knowledge, the upper layer may be used to differentiate between Pleistocene and Holocene landforms (Semmel, 1968, 2002a,b). This approach has been successfully applied to geomorphic forms which could clearly be assigned to either the Holocene or the Pleistocene. Terhorst (2007) and Terhorst et al. (2009) were able to distinguish Pleistocene from Holocene landslides based on the occurrence of the upper layer. Bauer (1993), Semmel (1995) and Stolz (2008) followed the same concept to assign gully channels to the Holocene. 2.2. Holocene sediments To reconstruct soil erosion and gully formation, soil sediments are used, since they record information on geomorphodynamic processes during the Holocene. Both, soil erosion and gully formation are related to human land use activity, which started no earlier than the Early Neolithic and has proceeded in phases of changing intensity until today (Dotterweich, 2008; Dreibrodt et al., 2010). Human-induced soil erosion led to the removal and

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translocation of periglacial cover bed material by surface-runoff, especially of the upper layer and parts of the Holocene soil, resulting in the formation of truncated sediment and soil profiles (e.g. Dreibrodt et al., 2010) and in the formation of linear erosion forms and slope depressions (Thiemeyer, 1988, 1989; Bork et al., 1998). Transported soil material forms anthropogenic soil sediments (anthropogenic layers) that accumulated on concave slopes, foot slopes and paleodepressions (Leopold and Kleber, 2013) or filled older gully channels (Dreibrodt et al., 2010). Concentrated runoff transports soil material downslope; a decrease in slope inclination at foot slopes causes the accumulation of anthropogenic sediments on slopes or as alluvial fans (Dreibrodt et al., 2010). The anthropogenic soil sediments often consist of re-deposited upper layer material. Therefore, a differentiation of the upper layer from anthropogenic layers may be problematic. Charcoal, brick fragments, ceramics, and increased humus contents are regarded as indicators for anthropogenic sediments. Further, pedogenesis may help to distinguish anthropogenic layers from the upper layer €hlich et al., 2005; Leopold and Kleber, 2013). (Semmel, 2002a; Fro 3. Study area €chergraben catchment area lies in The Rehgraben and Fuchslo the subdued mountains of Northern Hesse, Germany (Fig. 1). The catchment area has an expanse of 2.84 km2 and it extends from the plateau (291 m a.s.l.) to the valley of the River Fulda (135 m a.s.l.). The difference in elevation is 156 m, and the maximum slope inclination is 13% (Damm, 2004; Kreikemeier et al., 2004). The bedrock in this area is Early Triassic sandstone (Buntsandstein, sm2) and on the plateau, the sandstone is covered by Tertiary sands and quartzite blocks which in turn are covered by Weichselian loess (Hessisches Landesamt für Bodenforschung, 1997). The slopes are characterized by several Pleistocene sediments including periglacial cover beds, reworked loess, and remnants of Pleistocene gravel terraces of the River Fulda. These various Quaternary sediments form the parent material for Holocene pedogenesis. Luvisols are the most abundant soils in the study area. Cambisols are developed in places where loess is absent or Pleistocene sediments are reduced in thickness. Holocene soil sediments dominate on upslope and mid-slope positions. In the research area the average annual temperature is 7.9
C and an average annual rainfall of 750 mm was measured during the period from 1971 to 2000 (Deutscher Wetterdienst, 2001) representing temperate climate conditions. The studied gully system in the catchment consists of two gullies (Figs. 1 and 3; Table 1). The first gully channel is called Rehgraben, € chergraben. The latter is characterized by a the second gully Fuchslo €chermain channel that branches out in the upper part (Fuchslo €graben I) and a shorter tributary to the main channel (Fuchslo € chergraben share the chergraben II). Both gully channels of Fuchslo lower section and merge with Rehgraben gully at the top of a joint alluvial fan. The gullies reach maximum incision depths of up to 20 m in their lower sections. The gully system forms a tributary to the River Fulda. The alluvial fan of the gully system is deposited in the valley of the River Fulda at the cut bank. It has an asymmetric form and expands approximately 3.5 ha. At its downslope margin, the alluvial fan submerges under floodplain deposits.

Table 1 General characteristics of the studied gully channels. Gully channel

Length [m]

Min. depth [m]

Max. depth [m]

Discharge

In investigated profiles

Rehgraben (RG) €chergraben (FLG) Fuchslo €chergraben I (FLG I) Fuchslo €chergraben II (FLG II) Fuchslo

1000

3

~20

Intermittent

e

1 0.5

~15 ~10

Intermittent Intermittent

FLG I-1 FLG II-1, FLG II-3

800 540

€ hler, S., et al., Late Pleistocene and Holocene landscape formation in a gully catchment area in Northern Please cite this article in press as: Do Hesse, Germany, Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.001

Fig. 1. (a) Map of the study area with the studied catchment area (blue line) and its location in Northern Hesse, Germany (b) and Europe (c) (based on DGK 5, 1:5,000, sheets Rothwesten-Ost, Simmershausen-Ost, Knickhagen, Speele). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

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€ chergraben gully with V- or U-shaped, 10e15 m deep profiles. Photo (a) shows the lower section of Fuchslo €chergraben and (b) the lower section of Fig. 2. Rehgraben and Fuchslo € chergraben under regular conditions without discharge and (d) after weak discharge (S. Rehgraben gully after torrential discharge in April 1994 (B. Damm). (c) shows Fuchslo € hler). Do

Intermittent discharge can be observed in the gully system after long-lasting precipitation and snowmelt; torrential discharge and further incision have been observed after extreme rainfall events (Damm, 2004; Kreikemeier et al., 2004). Fig. 2 shows the gully channels after a heavy runoff event (a) and (b), and under regular conditions without (c) and weak discharge (d).

(HCl) treatment the inorganic carbonate content was measured with a HEKAtech IC-KIT 3100M device in combination with a EuroVector Elemental Analyzer for CHNS-O. Ground soil samples and phosphoric acid were placed in a reaction furnace at 100
C, and the carbon dioxide was measured in a thermal conductivity detector. The carbonate content was then calculated and displayed in percent by the provided Callidus TM 1.0 software.

4. Methods 4.2. Radiocarbon and optically stimulated luminescence dating 4.1. Field and laboratory analyses In the field the spatial distribution of the different Quaternary sediments and soils was investigated using a Pürckhauer hand auger system. This allowed the documentation of sediments and soils up to 3 m below the surface. The description of sediments followed the concept of periglacial cover beds based on Semmel (1968) and AG Boden, 2005. In general, the auger drilling was conducted close to the gully channels. Overall more than 20 sites have been investigated. Based on the results of the auger drillings, representative sites for soil pits were selected. Locations of auger drillings, and soil pits are shown in Fig. 3. The sediment and soil profiles were described according to the German soil mapping manual (AG Boden, 2005) and later transferred to the notations of the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (IUSS, 2006a,b). Samples were taken per horizon or layer from auger cores and soil pits, € chergraben II, auger drillings were conrespectively. For Fuchslo ducted to get more detailed information on the sediment distribution on the slopes. In this case, the soils and periglacial cover beds were described based on differences in soil color, soil texture, and bulk density, and subsequently compared with the investigated soils in the soil pits. In the laboratory, grain size distribution, pH-value (in calcium chloride) and carbonate content were analyzed. The grain size analysis was performed with the combined sieve-sedimentation method according to DIN ISO 11277:2002-08 (DIN, 2008) and as described in Gee and Bauder (1986), and Hartge and Horn (2009). For samples that showed a positive reaction to hydrochloric acid

Charcoal particles taken from anthropogenic sediment, wood, roots, and decomposed organic matter taken from the alluvial fan were radiocarbon dated. Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) was used for sample Erl-18748 (AMS Laboratory Erlangen), while all other samples were dated conventionally at the Leibniz Institute for Applied Geophysics (LIAG), Hannover between 1999 and 2008. The AMS date and the conventional dates were calibrated using the calibration given in Stuiver and Reimer (1993) and Reimer et al. (2009). In the given environmental setting, radiocarbon ages have to be interpreted with care because the dated material is embedded in sediment and provides only indirect information on the deposition €hnscheidt, 1999; Fuchs and Lang, 2009; time (Lang and Ho Dreibrodt et al., 2010); due to repeated translocation of sediment, there may be differences in the age of the dated material and the apparent age (Hoffmann et al., 2008). In addition to radiocarbon dating, three (reworked) loess samples were dated using optically stimulated luminescence dating. Samples were taken by hammering metal tubes into the cleaned sediment wall; the samples were sealed to prevent any light exposure. To obtain a polymineral fine-grained (4e11 mm) fraction, the procedure given in Sprafke et al. (2014) was followed. Of this polymineral fraction, the luminescence signal of feldspar was measured using infra-red light stimulation (hence infra-red stimulated luminescence; IRSL), and the luminescence was measured in the blue-violet wavelength region. For equivalent dose (De) measurements it was made use of an elevated temperature post-IR IRSL protocol (single

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€ chergraben (I and II), RG ¼ Rehgraben (based on DGK 5, 1:5,000, sheets RothwestenFig. 3. Map of the gully system and present day land use of the catchment area. FLG ¼ Fuchslo Ost, Simmershausen-Ost, Knickhagen, Speele).

aliquots regenerative dose procedure), which is described at length in Thiel et al. (2011). The suitability of this protocol to our studied samples was tested by means of a dose recovery test (after 4 h SOL 2 bleaching). The measured to given dose ratio was 1.05 ± 0.02 (after subtraction of a residual signal of about 25 Gy), showing that the

et al., 1987). The measured radionuclide concentrations (Table 2) were converted into dose rates following Olley et al. (1996), including the cosmic dose contribution (Prescott and Hutton, 1994). An a-value of 0.09 ± 0.02 and a water content of 15 ± 5% were used for all samples.

Table 2 Summary of radionuclide concentrations, total dose rates, equivalent doses (De). For all samples, a water content of 15 ± 5% and an a-value of 0.09 ± 0.02 were used. Six aliquots were measured per sample to obtain an average De. The luminescence ages calculated from these data are listed in Table 7. s.e. ¼ standard error. Lab code

Sample

226

H33024 H33025 H33026

FLG II-1 5 FLG II-1 6A FLG II-1 6B

52.8 ± 0.7 49.7 ± 0.8 55.2 ± 0.8

Ra ± s.e. (Bq/kg)

232

Th ± s.e. (Bq/kg)

52.2 ± 0.7 53.3 ± 0.9 56.0 ± 0.7

protocol is suitable to the samples under study. The dose rates were determined from the material immediately around the luminescence samples. The samples were dried, ashed (24 h at 450
C), ground, and subsequently cast in wax. To allow equilibrium between radon and its daughter nuclides, the casts were stored for at least three weeks prior to counting using high-resolution gamma-spectrometry (Murray

40

Total dose rate ± s.e. (Gy/ka)

De ± s.e. (Gy)

559 ± 11 519 ± 13 480 ± 11

4.47 ± 0.36 4.36 ± 0.35 4.45 ± 0.37

98.8 ± 2.6 101.6 ± 4.3 108.6 ± 4.3

K ± s.e. (Bq/kg)

5. Sediments and soils in the catchment area €chergraben I 5.1. Sediments and soils at Rehgraben and Fuchslo The Rehgraben gully is situated in the eastern part of the €chergraben I (FLG I) in the western part catchment area and Fuchslo

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(Fig. 3). The upper parts of both gullies are surrounded by narrow bands of trees and shrubs that separate the gully channels from the adjacent arable land, the lower parts are covered by beech forest (Figs. 2 and 3). For both gully channels a similar sediment distribution can be observed. The gully heads and upper courses are surrounded by silty, charcoal-containing sediments with weakly developed soils. These sediments are interpreted as anthropogenic soil sediments and are >100 cm in thickness. € chergraben I a profile of anthropogenic soil sediments At Fuchslo was investigated. Profile FLG I-1 is located on the upper slope of the catchment area in a small slope depression at the western arm of €chergraben I, close to the gully head (Fig. 3). It represents a Fuchslo characteristic profile of the anthropogenic layer in the upper catchment area. The soil pit is located under forest; however, it lies directly at the border to arable land. Overall, eleven sediment layers were identified (Fig. 4). Below a 40 cm thick brown Ap horizon, eight yellowish brown horizons are deposited in more or less horizontal packages. The uppermost five C horizons show a thin stratification that is clearly visible in horizon 4C. All horizons in this profile contain dispersed charcoal. Brick fragments are present in the Ap horizon and 6C horizon, clearly indicating an anthropogenic impact. In horizon 6C a potsherd made of tempered clay was found. Auger drillings at the bottom of the soil pit revealed three additional horizons. The 9C and 10C horizon are dark yellowish-brown and are rich in bricks and especially charcoal. Below the anthropogenic layers, a pale yellowish-brown, silty horizon with moderate carbonate content is present. Based on the reaction with HCl in the field, it is identified as loess with a carbonate content of 2e10% according to IUSS (2006b). The soil texture of all horizons is characterized by very high silt contents which slightly decrease downwards in the profile (Table 3). Coarse silt is the dominant fraction. Clay contents increase slightly from the Ap horizon to the 4Ce7C horizon. The 8C horizon has the highest silt and lowest clay contents. The pH-value is very low in the upper part of the profile and increases only slightly with depth (Table 3).

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the sediment. Human impact in these parts of the catchment caused a broad modification of both the natural surface conditions and the topsoil. An unambiguous identification of the uppermost sediments as upper layer or anthropogenic layer is not possible since anthropogenic soil sediments often consist of upper layer material with the same characteristics (Semmel, 2002a; Leopold and Kleber, 2013).

€chergraben II 5.2. Sediments and soils at Fuchslo €chergraben 5.2.1. Overview on the sediment distribution at Fuchslo II € chergraben II (FLG II) is the smaller tributary channel to Fuchslo €chergraben I, and lies completely under forest. The gully Fuchslo head is directly connected to the adjacent fields (Fig. 3). The upper € chergraben II are characterized by more than parts of Fuchslo 100 cm thick, yellowish-brown, silty sediments which resemble the anthropogenic sediments documented at the upper parts of €chergraben I. At the lower part of Fuchslo €Rehgraben and Fuchslo chergraben II, the auger drillings revealed different sediments on both gully margins. At the southwestern gully margin the profiles show a lightcolored, approximately 40 cm thick loose sediment. In this sediment an Ah horizon and an E horizon are developed. The topsoil shows no signs of disturbance; charcoal was not found. This uppermost sediment layer is the upper layer. Below the upper layer a reddish-brown, clay-rich intermediate layer was detected, in which a Bt horizon of a Luvisol is developed. On the northwestern gully margin light-colored, silty sediments with dispersed charcoal and varying thicknesses between 80 and >100 cm are present. Soil formation in these sediments is very weak. Based on these findings we conclude that these sediments are anthropogenic. Profiles of the periglacial cover beds and the anthropogenic soil sediments are described in detail in the following.

Table 3 Results for the laboratory analyses of profile FLG I-1. Horizon

Layer

Depth [cm]

Grain size distribution Sand Coarse

Silt Middle

Fine

Total

[%] Ap C 2C 3C 4C 5C 6C 7C 8C

Anthropogenic Anthropogenic Anthropogenic Anthropogenic Anthropogenic Anthropogenic Anthropogenic Anthropogenic Anthropogenic

layer layer layer layer layer layer layer layer layer

0e40 40e55 55e95 95e115 115e130 130e150 150e185 150e250 185e230

0.1 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.0 0.0

Coarse

pH-value

CaCO3 [%]

Corg [%]

3.8 3.8 4.1 4.7 4.9 4.9 4.9 5.0 4.9

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

0.97 0.65 0.40 0.26 0.23 0.26 0.28 0.08 0.14

Clay [%] Middle

Fine

Total

20.8 20.0 22.6 18.8 19.2 19.0 19.3 19.5 14.6

4.7 4.2 1.7 3.6 4.9 4.7 4.8 3.2 2.5

79.6 80.6 79.1 80.5 73.2 74.0 76.1 69.4 89.6

[%] 1.4 2.3 1.3 1.0 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.7 0.0

4.5 10.6 6.0 4.7 5.0 4.8 6.2 9.5 8.8

6.1 13.3 7.7 5.9 6.1 6.1 7.5 10.3 8.8

The Holocene soil is missing and soil formation is weak in the anthropogenic soil sediments. According to IUSS (2006a) the described soil is a Regic Anthrosol. The uppermost 150 cm of anthropogenic soil sediment are typical for the entire upper catchment. At the middle courses of the gully channels sediments with similar characteristics as described above occur on top of clay rich horizons; these are identified as Bt horizons of the Holocene soil. There, the anthropogenic layers vary between 40 and 80 cm in thickness. At the lower parts of the gullies truncated soil profiles and profiles with disturbed topsoil are present. On lower slopes, the intermediate layer is identified based on the high clay contents of

54.1 56.4 54.8 58.2 49.1 50.3 52.0 46.7 72.5

12.6 9.6 11.3 11.6 15.8 15.6 15.2 15.4 4.5

€chergraben II 5.2.2. Periglacial cover beds at Fuchslo In order to investigate the periglacial cover beds at the southwestern gully margin in detail, a soil pit was excavated. Profile FLG II-1 is situated on the middle slope of the catchment area and at the northeast-facing gully wall (Fig. 3). In this position the gully is about eight meters deep and has a U-shaped profile. The slope related to this gully is 240 m long, slightly inclined and forested. Overall, nine horizons were identified in the profile (Fig. 5). The uppermost horizon is a 5 cm thick, dark gray Ah horizon that is characterized by a silty texture and a wavy horizon boundary. Below the Ah horizon, a 40 cm thick, silty E horizon with a pale yellowish-brown color and a loose structure is developed. Silt

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contents of both horizons are very high (>80%; Table 4) with a maximum in the coarse silt fraction. The clay content of the Ah horizon is slightly higher than that of the E horizon. Coarse material and clasts are absent in both horizons. Based on the silty texture, loose structure, and the total thickness of the Ah and E horizons of 45 cm, it is concluded that both horizons developed in the upper layer.

mainly gravel and a few sandstone and quartzite clasts. The fine material is characterized by high contents of middle and fine sand. Silt contents are clearly reduced to ~50%. The lower boundary of the 5C horizon is not exposed in profile FLG II-1 and remains unclear; an auger core revealed at least another 50 cm of the described sediment. The high amount of coarse silt in the 4C and 5C horizons indicates an eolian component of the sediment. Thus, the sediment

Table 4 Results for the laboratory analyses of profile FLG II-1. Horizon

Layer

Depth [cm]

Grain size distribution Sand Coarse

Silt Middle

Fine

Total

Coarse

0.3 0.5 0.2 0.0 2.4 1.5 0.8 17.7 15.2

2.7 2.8 2.4 4.5 5.7 4.6 3.2 10.0 12.2

3.0 3.3 2.6 4.5 8.2 6.1 4.4 31.2 29.2

55.7 56.1 45.4 46.2 51.6 59.0 58.7 37.2 26.6

[%] Ah E 2Bt 2Bw1 2Bw2 3Bw 3C 4C 5C

Upper layer Upper layer Intermediate layer Intermediate layer Intermediate layer Reworked loess Reworked loess Intermediate layer Intermediate layer

0e5 5e45 45e80 80e155 155e190 190e220 220e310 310e315 315e390

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.3 3.5 1.9

pH-value

CaCO3 [%]

Corg [%]

3.9 3.9 3.9 4.3 4.6 4.8 7.6 7.4 7.2

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.7 2.7 0.0

1.04 0.29 0.14 0.10 0.11 0.10 0.76 0.40 0.17

Clay [%] Middle

Fine

Total

19.8 20.3 19.2 19.0 14.3 15.1 17.4 11.7 16.4

5.4 5.2 5.7 6.5 5.6 3.2 4.5 3.6 5.9

80.9 81.7 70.3 71.6 71.5 77.2 80.6 52.5 48.9

[%]

Below the E horizon a 40 cm thick, 2Bt horizon enriched in clay is identified. Clay coatings are present on aggregate surfaces. The 2Bt horizon is reddish-brown and has a strong blocky, subangular soil structure. Below the 2Bt horizon there are two more clay-rich horizons (2Bw1, 2Bw2). The clay content and the number of observed clay coatings decrease downwards. The 2Bw1 and 2Bw2 horizon have a total thickness of 110 cm and are yellowish-brown. The blocky, subangular soil structure is weaker than in the 2Bt horizon. Compared to the E horizon, silt contents are lower in the 2Bt and 2Bw1 horizons (Table 4). The clay contents are high but decrease from 25.5% in the 2Bt horizon to 21.0% in the 2Bw2 horizon. Sand contents increase with depth. The 2Bt, 2Bw1 and 2Bw2 horizons are developed in an intermediate layer; this conclusion is based on the stratigraphic position and the high coarse silt and clay contents, the first representing an eolian component. The stratigraphic boundary between the upper layer and the intermediate layer corresponds to the horizon boundary between the E and 2Bt horizon. The 2Bw2 horizon is overlying a yellowish-brown silty horizon (3Bw). The clay content decreases further and clay coatings are absent. Additionally, the 3Bw horizon is characterized by a layered sediment structure. The 3Bw horizon lies on top of a 90 cm thick, pale yellowish-gray, silty, calcareous sediment (3C). In the 3C horizon thin horizontal layers of sandy material within the silty sediment can be observed. The stratification indicates transport of the loessic material due to slope wash. The silt content increases slightly from the 3Bw horizon to the 3C horizon (Table 4). The clay content is notably reduced compared to the overlying horizons that formed in the intermediate layer. Because of the silty texture, the carbonate content, and the layered structure, the 3C horizon is identified as unweathered redeposited loess. The 3Bw horizon formed in the upper parts of the loess deposit. The boundary between the overlying intermediate layer and the reworked loess deposit is the horizon boundary of the 2Bw2 and 3Bw horizon. However, the identification of the stratigraphic boundary is difficult as the intermediate layer contains neither clasts nor coarse material. Below the reworked loess, the sediment characteristics change abruptly. The 4C horizon consists of more than 50% coarse material dominated by angular sandstone clasts and gravels. The fine fraction shows a notable increase in sand (Table 4). The lowermost horizon (5C) is sandy and contains about 20% coarse material,

13.5 12.3 25.5 23.2 21.0 15.4 15.1 13.8 22.1

is identified as the intermediate layer. According to the position of both intermediate layers, the upper intermediate layer is referred to as younger intermediate layer and the second one as older intermediate layer in the following. The basal layer is not exposed in profile FLG II-1 but was found in the lower parts of the gully wall. It has a high density, contains sandstone clasts and blocks that are aligned to the slope, and sandy fine material. €chergraben II 5.2.3. Anthropogenic soil sediments at Fuchslo A second profile (FLG II-3) was excavated in the opposing €chergraben II. Profile FLG II-3 is northeastern gully wall of Fuchslo situated approximately 30 m downwards of profile FLG II-1 (Fig. 3). The soil pit is located in a middle slope position of the catchment area. The adjacent southwest-facing slope is approximately 100 m long and characterized by a higher slope inclination compared to the opposing slope. Overall, seven horizons can be differentiated in the 190 cm deep soil pit (Fig. 6). The uppermost horizon is an about 8 cm thick, slightly disturbed Ah horizon. Within the Ah horizon bleached particles were observed and a 1e2 cm thick humus-rich horizon is present below the Ah horizon. The underlying 10 cm thick, yellowish-brown Bw horizon has a weak, crumbly soil structure and a silty texture. Below the Bw horizon five C horizons were identified. The uppermost C horizon is 30 cm thick, light yellowish-brown, has a silty texture, and a single grain structure. An accumulation of sandstone clasts is present at the lower horizon boundary. The two underlying horizons (2C, 3C) are yellowishbrown and have a crumbly soil structure. Both horizons are characterized by higher densities compared to the overlying horizons. Dispersed charcoal was found in the upper 110 cm of the profile. The sediment characteristics and weak pedogenesis allow the conclusion that this material is anthropogenic soil sediment. The 4C horizon is darker and shows a strong blocky soil structure. All above mentioned horizons have little coarse material. In contrast, the lowermost horizon (5C) consists of more than 50% coarse material (Table 5). The sandstone clasts and blocks are aligned to the slope. Due to their position in the profile, the density, and the high coarse silt content representing an eolian component the 4C and 5C horizons comprise the intermediate layer. Further, the clasts in the 5C horizon are aligned to the slope which is another characteristic for intermediate layers. Based on the position of the intermediate layer

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Fig. 4. Profile FLG I-1, Regic Anthrosol in 315 cm thick deposit of anthropogenic soil sediments on top of unweathered loess; AL ¼ anthropogenic layer, L ¼ reworked loess.

Fig. 5. Profile FLG II-1, Luvisol in 390 cm thick periclacial cover beds, UL ¼ upper layer, IL ¼ intermediate layer, L ¼ reworked loess. Crosses represent the sampling positions for luminescence dating (1 ¼ sample FLG II-1-5, 2 ¼ sample FLG II-1-6A, 3 ¼ sample FLG II-1-6B).

in the gully wall it is assumed that the described cover bed corresponds to the older intermediate layer which has been described for profile FLG II-1. The sandstone blocks in the lowermost horizon hindered further exposure of the underlying sediments; thus the

basal layer was not reached in this profile. Because unweathered bedrock is present in the lower parts of the gully walls as well as at the gully bottom it is assumed that the basal layer and intermediate layer together are more than 4 m thick.

Table 5 Results for the laboratory analyses of profile FLG II-3. Horizon

Layer

Depth [cm]

Grain size distribution Sand Coarse

Silt Middle

Fine

Total

Coarse

1.3 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.7 1.1

3.7 5.1 5.0 3.7 2.4 4.8 4.0

5.6 6.1 5.9 4.4 3.1 5.4 5.2

59.6 58.0 57.6 58.0 55.4 48.7 51.0

[%] Ah Bw C 2C 3C 4C 5C

Anthropogenic layer Anthropogenic layer Anthropogenic layer Anthropogenic layer Anthropogenic layer Intermediate layer Intermediate layer

0e8 8e20 20e45 45e68 68e130 130e165 165e190

0.4 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1

pH-value

CaCO3 [%]

Corg [%]

3.5 3.5 3.8 3.8 4.1 4.6 4.5

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

2.50 1.20 0.47 0.21 0.14 0.36 0.36

Clay [%] Middle

Fine

Total

21.7 21.1 20.1 19.3 20.8 19.6 19.4

5.9 5.2 4.7 4.8 4.7 6.1 5.4

87.2 84.2 82.2 82.3 80.9 74.4 75.8

[%] 7.9 11.1 11.3 13.4 15.9 21.8 22.8

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Fig. 6. Profile FLG II-3, Regic Anthrosol in anthropogenic sediments (AL) over an intermediate layer (IL). The cross marks the charcoal sample for radiocarbon dating (FLG II-3).

The upper five horizons contain more than 80% silt reaching its maximum in the Ah horizon (Table 5). Coarse silt is the dominant fraction. Clay contents increase with depth from the Ah horizon to the 3C horizon. The low clay content of the Ah horizon corresponds to the bleached soil particles, which indicate initial podsolization. In the lowermost two horizons the silt contents are reduced, whereas the clay content increases. In all horizons the sand fraction contains mainly fine sand with an overall low total sand content. The pH-values of the topsoil are very low (Table 5) even though the soils in the study area are influenced by loess. In summary, the profile shows anthropogenic soil sediments on top of an intermediate layer. According to IUSS (2006a), the soil is a Regic Anthrosol. €chergraben II 5.2.4. Catena and cross section of Fuchslo To obtain information on the distribution of sediments and soils on the slopes connected to profiles FLG II-1 and FLG II-3, several auger drillings were conducted. Fig. 7 shows a catena with selected soil profiles and a cross section depicting the distribution of the documented Pleistocene and Holocene sediments. The position of the catena is given in Fig. 3. The subsurface in the studied area is predominantly built up of Early Triassic sandstone. Unconsolidated Cenozoic sediments and Pleistocene river gravel cover the Early Triassic sandstone in the southernmost part of the catchment area. The northeast-facing slope is built up of periglacial cover beds. The basal layer is deposited on top of the bedrock. It was detected exclusively on the top of the slope and on the foot slope in the gully wall. The thickness of the basal layer increases downslope. It has to be noted that the position of the lower limit of the basal layer in Fig. 7 is hypothetical and based on the general characteristics described for basal layers as given in Semmel (1968), and AG Boden, 2005. On middle and lower slopes the basal layer is covered by the older intermediate layer which contains terrace gravel. As for the basal layer, the thickness and position of the lower layer boundary is reconstructed based on the general knowledge on its characteristics. On top of the older intermediate layer loess is abundant from upper middle slope positions to the foot slope. The thickness of the

loess layer increases from at least 20 cm on the upper slope to 120 cm on the foot slope. In the gully wall the loess deposit is clearly identified as reworked loess. The younger intermediate layer overlies the loess. As for the underlying sediments, the thickness of the younger intermediate layer increases downslope. On the lowermost slope, where the slope inclination increases abruptly (at 220 m in Fig. 7), the thickness of the younger intermediate layer decreases downslope. The uppermost sediment is the upper layer; throughout the slope it has a thickness of about 45 cm. The distribution of the periglacial cover beds on the northeastfacing slope is summarized as follows: i) The uppermost slope is characterized by sequences of two periglacial cover beds consisting of the upper layer on top of the basal layer, ii) in upper slope positions three-layer sediment sequences are developed with an upper layer over an intermediate layer, both covering the basal layer, and iii) on middle and lower slopes multiple-layer sequences of Pleistocene sediments occur consisting of the upper layer on top of a sequence of two intermediate layers with intercalated reworked loess and an underlying basal layer. The overall thickness of periglacial cover beds increases from at least 150 cm on the uppermost slope to more than 600 cm in foot slope positions. On the northeast-facing slope, complete Holocene soils are developed in periglacial cover beds; the thickness increases downslope. On the uppermost slope Cambisols are present with the Ah and Bw horizons developed in the upper layer. Elsewhere, Luvisols are developed with the Ah and E horizons in the upper layer, the Bt horizons in the younger intermediate layer. Sediment and soil distribution and characteristics on the opposing €chergraben II differ considerably southwest-facing slope of Fuchslo from the sediments described above. The basal layer was only found in the gully wall and is comparable to the opposing gully wall. On top of the basal layer an intermediate layer is present that can be traced up to mid-slope positions and corresponds to the older intermediate layer found on the northeast-facing slope. On the upper and middle slopes a loess deposit reaches at least 200 cm in thickness. About 30 m away from the gully margin a steepening of the slope is observed, where the slope inclination remarkably increases downslope (at 260 m in Fig. 7). In this position, remnants of a buried Bt horizon are present below a 15e30 cm thick layer of anthropogenic soil sediment. Decalcified loess underlies the Bt horizon. In foot slope positions the loess deposit is not present. The intermediate layer is superimposed by anthropogenic soil sediments containing charcoal (Fig. 6). All auger cores show weak soil formation. On the upper slopes pedogenesis formed 50 cm thick Cambisols in loess. On the foot slope Regic Anthrosols are present, which show weak podsolization within the uppermost 15 cm. The Holocene soil is almost completely missing on the southwest-facing slope. These findings explain the difference in elevation of the gully margins. The southwestern gully margin is about two meters higher than the northeastern gully margin where the periglacial cover beds and the Holocene soil are preserved. 5.3. Characteristics of the alluvial fan sediments In a construction trench at the eastern part of the alluvial fan, two profiles at different depths (Fig. 8) were investigated. These have partly been presented in a previous study (Englhard et al., 2010). Profile A is located in the eastern part of the alluvial fan within a short distance from the adjacent slope (Fig. 3). It extends from 133.6 m a.s.l. to 131.1 m a.s.l. and lies almost completely below the present water table of the River Fulda (133.5 m a.s.l.). Before the installation of a barrage downstream the water level was about 1.5 m lower. The distance to the gully outlet is approximately 200 m. Profile A consists of three sediment layers: The uppermost layer is a 110 cm thick deposit of construction waste, excavation

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residues, and backfill. It overlies an 80 cm thick layer of mixed alluvial fan sediments, slope sediments, and excavation residues. Both anthropogenic layers contain cut oak and alder logs. The lowermost layer is characterized by grayish-brown, clay-rich, silty sediment with low sand contents (8%e18%; Table 6). In this layer, fossil wood and in situ roots were found.

11

this age has to be understood as the maximum age of the anthropogenic layer. Organic matter found in floodplain sediments and in alluvial fan sediments was also radiocarbon dated. In profile A of the alluvial fan three samples were taken from floodplain deposits (Table 7). Rotten, fossil wood taken at a depth of 210 cm was dated to 1170e1385 cal. AD (KW 2). A branch of wood was dated to the

Table 6 Grain size distributions for the alluvial fan sediments. Sample

Sampled material

Depth [cm]

Grain size distribution Sand Coarse

Silt Middle

Fine

Total

Coarse

1.2 1.0 0.2 2.4

17.1 7.4 29.5 36.3

18.3 8.7 31.5 38.7

41.3 38.6 38.8 30.1

[%] KW1 KW3 KW6 KW7

Floodplain sediment Floodplain sediment Fan sediment Fan sediment

190 260 330 450

0.0 0.3 0.0 0.2

Clay [%] Middle

Fine

Total

18.4 26.1 12.5 8.9

5.6 8.1 4.2 4.0

65.3 72.8 59.7 43.0

[%]

Profile B is situated 50 m to the west of profile A. It extends from 131.1 to 127.9 m a.s.l. In total five layers are identified in the profile. The uppermost four layers are reddish-brown sandy sediments which consist of floodplain material admixed with alluvial fan sediments. Compared to profile A silt contents decrease and sand contents increase simultaneously with depth. In addition, the number of sandstone and quartzite clasts increases notably compared to profile A, and the size of clasts and blocks increases with depth. The sedi-

16.2 18.6 14.5 18.3

present (KW4; pmC 137.3 ± 0.7) and a similar age was measured for in situ roots found at the bottom of profile A (KW5; pmC 118.8 ± 0.7). Another three samples were taken from alluvial fan sediments in profile B. Decomposed branches (KW9) from a depth of 350 cm were dated to 1305e1425 cal. AD. Between the depths of 480 cm and 510 cm decomposed branches (KW10) have an age of 895 to 560 cal. BC, and decomposed organic matter (KW11) was dated to 105 cal. BCe45 cal. AD.

Table 7 Radiocarbon dating results. The ages from KW 2 to KW11 were taken from Englhard et al. (2010). AMS ¼ accelerator mass spectrometry; conv. ¼ conventional technique. Lab code

Sample

Sediment type

Depth [cm] Dating method Dated material

Erl-18748 HV-25721 Hv-25720 Hv-23146 Hv-23144 Hv-23145 Hv-23143

FLG-II-3 KW2 KW 4 KW 5 KW 9 KW 10 KW 11

Anthropogenic layer Floodplain sediment Floodplain sediment Floodplain sediment Alluvial fan sediment Alluvial fan sediment Alluvial fan sediment

110 210 260 260 330e360 480e510 510e520

14

C 14 C 14 C 14 C 14 C 14 C 14 C

(AMS) (conv.) (conv.) (conv.) (conv.) (conv.) (conv.)

Charcoal Fossil wood Wood, rotten In situ roots Decomposed branches Decomposed branches Decomposed organic matter

ments contain several remains of fossil organic matter between a depth of 330 and 520 cm. At a depth of 360 cm a layer of potsherds was found (Fig. 9; Englhard et al., 2010). In the lowermost part of the profile, the Early Triassic sandstone is exposed. In summary, both profiles are located in the transition area of the alluvial fan and the floodplain of the River Fulda. Sediments in the lower parts of profile A are floodplain sediments due to their color, soil texture, and the lack of coarse material and clasts. Profile B represents a sediment sequence that is clearly affected by alluvial fan sediments. The sediments deposited by the gully system show higher sand contents and contain coarse material as well as clasts, which partly have edge lengths of more than 1 m. These clasts originate exclusively from the gully catchment area (Englhard et al., 2010). 5.4. Numerical dating results and artefacts 5.4.1. Radiocarbon ages Charcoal from profile FLG II-3 was used for radiocarbon dating. The sample was taken from the lowermost part of the anthropogenic soil sediment; the position of the sample is shown in Fig. 6. The charcoal has an age of 1120 cal. BCe980 cal. BC; this corresponds to the Late Bronze Age. As organic material may be €hnscheidt, 1999; Lang, 2003), reworked several times (Lang and Ho

d13C ‰

14

23.7 28.3 26.3 26.7 25.5 26.6 27.6

2874 ± 45 BP 745 ± 100 BP

C-age years BP

14

C-content pmC Calibrated C-age cal…

137.3 ± 0.7 118.8 ± 0.7 565 ± 75 BP 2615 ± 90 BP 2035 ± 50 BP

BC 1120e980 AD 1170e1385 n.a. n.a. AD 1305e1425 BC 895e560 BC BC 105e45 AD

The dated material in profile A was sampled in floodplain sediments and provides no information on gully erosion events. Sample KW2 was dated to medieval times. However, the related floodplain sediments have to be much younger because the underlying sediments were dated to the present (KW4, KW5) within situ roots representing the former surface (Englhard et al., 2010). The lowermost alluvial fan sediment was deposited at the transition of Iron Age and Roman time. It has to be noted that the overlying sediments contains organic matter which is about 800 years older and dated to the transition of the Iron Age and Bronze Age. The age inversion is probably caused by reworking of sediments in the alluvial fan or in the gully channels as described by Lang and € hnscheidt (1999) for an alluvial fan in southwest Germany. In Ho the upper part of profile B, fossil wood was dated to the Late Middle Ages. During the first half of the 14th century extreme rainfall events caused severe gully erosion on arable land all over Central Europe (e.g. Bork and Bork, 1987; Bork et al., 1998) and gully erosion events during this time are expected. 5.4.2. Luminescence ages of reworked loess In total three samples were taken from reworked loess in profile FLG II-1 for luminescence dating. Sample FLG II-1-5 was taken in the uppermost, decalcified part of the loess deposit (3Bw horizon).

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Sample FLG II-1-6A was collected from the uppermost part of the unweathered reworked loess and sample FLG II-1-6B from the lowermost part of the reworked loess deposit (3C horizon). The positions of the samples are indicated in Fig. 5. The ages increase from 22.1 ± 1.9 ka in the Bw horizon to 24.4 ± 2.3 ka at the bottom of the loess deposit (Table 8). Within errors, all ages fall into the LGM.

€hnscheidt, 1999; Hoffmann time of the sediment (e.g. Lang and Ho et al., 2008; Dreibrodt et al., 2010), because they might have been relocated several times. However, in any case the potsherds indicate an Early Neolithic settling in the catchment area. Further, cut alder and oak logs were found in alluvial fan sediment that show axe marks which are typical for the Iron Age (Englhard et al., 2010).

Table 8 Luminescence dating results for the reworked loess in profile FLG II-1. Lab code

Sample

Sediment type

Depth [cm]

Dating method

Dated material

pIRIR290-age [ka]

H33024

FLG-II-1 5

205

pIRIR290

feldspar

22.1 ± 1.9

H33025 H33026

FLG-II-1 6A FLG-II-1 6B

Reworked loess (decalcified) Reworked loess Reworked loess

235 300

pIRIR290 pIRIR290

feldspar feldspar

23.3 ± 2.2 24.4 ± 2.3

5.4.3. Artefacts In the alluvial fan sediments in profile B, a layer of potsherds was detected which horizontally stretches over several meters. The artefacts are made of tempered clay and were assigned to the Early Neolithic Linear Pottery Culture (Fig. 9; Englhard et al., 2010). A similar artefact was found in profile FLG I-1 at a depth of 150 cm (Fig. 4). Like the radiocarbon dated charcoal in profile FLG II-3, the potsherds cannot provide reliable information on the deposition

6. Discussion 6.1. General distribution pattern of Quaternary sediments and soils In the research area the natural sediments and Holocene soils are largely altered, eroded, covered or replaced by anthropogenic soil sediments. In upper slope positions and on top of the plateau truncated profiles are present in convex positions of the catchment

€ chergraben II. The cross section is displayed with vertical exaggeration. Question marks indicate uncertain layer boundaries. Fig. 7. Catena and cross section of Fuchslo

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Fig. 8. Profiles A and B from the alluvial fan (modified from Englhard et al., 2010).

Fig. 9. Potsherds sampled in the alluvial fan. They were assigned to the Linear Pottery Culture (Englhard et al., 2010). A similar potsherd was discovered in anthropogenic soil sediments in the upper catchment area in profile FLG I-1 (Fig. 4).

area. In some parts of the upper catchment area remnants of the Bt horizon are preserved below anthropogenic sediments. In many places the complete Holocene soil and most parts of the underlying loess deposit are eroded. Anthropogenic sediments are found on upper and middle slopes on arable land and under forest, respectively, indicating that the expanse of agricultural land was larger in the past. In general, eroded material has been transported and stored within the catchment area. The thickness of the anthropogenic layers varies with slope position and slope inclination. Ac€hlich et al. (2005), the storage of these sediments on cording to Fro slopes is typical for catchments affected by soil erosion in subdued mountains. On steeper forested upper and middle slopes anthropogenic layers cover the Bt horizon of the Holocene soil, which developed in the intermediate layer. In the upper catchment area the upper layer has been completely eroded and is replaced by anthropogenic soil sediments. In general, soil formation in anthropogenic sediments is weak. Thin Ah horizons (<5 cm) are developed in anthropogenic sediments in upslope positions. Anthropogenic soil sediments on middle slopes show weak pedogenesis with less than 15 cm thick soils. Initial brunification in truncated loess profiles and podsolization in anthropogenic soil sediments are found. Podsolization is frequently observed in anthropogenic layers, since the relocated, already decalcified material has a low buffering capacity (Semmel, 2002b), though podsolization is not expected in loess affected areas. However, the Luvisol in profile FLG I-1 has a pHvalue of 3.8 in the E horizon and translocated soil material in anthropogenic soil sediments may facilitate podsolization because of their chemical properties (for pH-values see Tables 3 and 5). Complete, intact periglacial cover beds with an undisturbed upper

€ hler, S., et al., Late Pleistocene and Holocene landscape formation in a gully catchment area in Northern Please cite this article in press as: Do Hesse, Germany, Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.001

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layer have only been found on the northeast-facing slope along €chergraben II. In general, Luvisols are developed in periFuchslo glacial cover beds. The widespread distribution of anthropogenic soil sediments reflects the long and intense land use history of the catchment area. Similar sediment and soil distributions have been reported by Moldenhauer et al. (2010) for a gully catchment area in the Odenwald Mountains, Germany. 6.2. Late Pleistocene and Holocene landscape formation in the gully catchment area 6.2.1. Late Pleistocene landscape formation The distribution of periglacial cover beds and their characteristics, especially on the northeast-facing slope, enabled the reconstruction of the Late Pleistocene landscape evolution at €chergraben II. We developed a model of Late Pleistocene Fuchslo landscape formation which is shown in Fig. 10. Prior to the deposition of the periglacial cover beds, the paleotopography of the studied slope depression was characterized by a wide open valley developed in Early Triassic sandstone. During the Late Pleistocene, presumably before the LGM, sandstone debris was transported downslope by solifluction processes and formed the basal layer as indicated by its high density and the alignment of clasts (see Section 2.1). On the upper parts of the northeast-facing

slope, the basal layer consists of Pleistocene river gravel which were deposited during the Early Pleistocene according to Amthauer (1972). After the formation of the basal layer eolian material was deposited. This is deduced from the high coarse silt contents of the older intermediate layer. The older intermediate layer on the northeast-facing slope contains fine material, Pleistocene river gravel, and low contents of sandstone, whereas the corresponding layer on the southwest-facing slope mainly consists of sandstone clasts and blocks. The layers are enriched in coarse silt and result from reworked and further transported eolian material that was mixed with basal layer material due to solifluction and slope wash processes. The basal layer and the older intermediate layer form a thicker sediment sequence on the northeast-facing foot slope compared to the southwest-facing gully wall. This might be due to the different lengths of the slopes: The northeast-facing slope is 1.5 times longer than the opposing one. Erosion processes are more intense on longer slopes and the source area for sediment is simply larger. In addition, it is assumed that the basal layer and the older intermediate layer filled the former bottom line of the slope depression. The new bottom line is now situated farther to the northeast. Kleber and Schellenberger (1998) describe a similar situation for a slope depression in the Frankenwald Mountains, Germany. Though

€ chergraben II with initial situation (1), deposition of the periglacial cover beds except the upper layer (2), erosion of the Fig. 10. Late Pleistocene landscape development of Fuchslo younger intermediate layer (3), and accumulation of the upper layer (4).

€ hler, S., et al., Late Pleistocene and Holocene landscape formation in a gully catchment area in Northern Please cite this article in press as: Do Hesse, Germany, Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.001

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no numerical ages are available for the older intermediate layer, it is assumed that the older intermediate layer is older than the overlying deposit of reworked loess. Loess accumulation in the catchment area started after the formation of the older intermediate layer. After the eolian deposition of the loess, parts of the sediment were eroded in the upper catchment area, transported by slope wash processes and subsequently deposited within slope depressions. This is deduced from the stratification and sand content of the reworked loess. The deposition of the loess was dated to ~26 and 20 ka. Based on the luminescence age of the loess, the overlying younger intermediate layer formed after ~20 ka and before the deposition of the upper layer during the Younger Dryas (12,700e11,600; Litt et al., 2003). On the lower parts of the northeast-facing slope, the thickness of the younger intermediate layer decreases abruptly. In addition, the slope inclination increases downslope (at 220 m in the cross section in Fig. 7). These findings lead to the conclusion that parts of the younger intermediate layer have been eroded by concentrated runoff at the valley bottom during the Late Glacial, forming a gullylike surface feature. Late Pleistocene linear erosion has already been documented by Semmel (1968) in Hesse, and Werner (1979) in the Taunus Mountains, Germany. Werner (1979) has assumed a phase of intensified fluvial erosion for the Late Würm Glacial, because the linear erosion forms were covered by the upper layer. Late Pleistocene erosion has further been assumed for gully catchment areas in the central Russian plain (Belyaev et al., 2005). The Pleistocene landscape formation ends with the deposition of the periglacial upper layer during the Younger Dryas. In summary, a pre-existing Pleistocene valley was partly filled by periglacial cover beds during the Late Pleistocene. The formation of elongated slope depressions during that time is characteristic for Central European low mountain areas (Semmel, 1968, 1985). As a consequence of erosion on upper slopes and accumulation on lower slopes, the relief intensity of the paleolandscape was reduced. Kleber and Scholten (2013) have reported this for the basal layer in particular. 6.2.2. Holocene landscape formation and phases of gully erosion With the onset of the Holocene and its dense vegetation cover, Holocene soil formation started in the Pleistocene sediments. Vegetation protected the surface from soil erosion until the onset of Neolithic land use. Based on the presented results we developed a model of five stages of Holocene landscape formation with two € chergraben II (Fig. 11). gully erosion phases at Fuchslo During the Early Holocene and until the first human impact, the Pleistocene surface and thus the periglacial cover beds were protected from soil erosion by vegetation. We suppose that humans first settled in the catchment area during the Early Neolithic, as evidenced by artefacts of the Linear Pottery Culture in the upper catchment area and in the alluvial fan. Nevertheless, intense soil erosion and gully erosion events during this time are unlikely. Dotterweich (2008) has stated that Neolithic soil erosion occurred in loess regions on a small scale but not as a dominant process. Larger areas of arable land are likely for the Bronze and Iron Age. A Bronze Age settling near the catchment area has been documented €vel, 1994) and two Bronze Age (Müller-Karpe, 1980; Jockenho tumuli are preserved within the catchment area. Cut alder and oak logs with axe marks discovered in the alluvial fan indicate an Iron Age settlement. At some time the southwest-facing slope at €chergraben II was cleared in order to extend the arable land. Fuchslo We assume that deforestation started on the plateau and that arable land was extended to the slopes due to population growth. It is possible that the opposing slope has never been cleared, or at least only for a very short time. According to Semmel (2002a) the presence of the upper layer which shows no signs of extensive

15

disturbance of the topsoil due to agricultural use indicates weak anthropogenic impact. After the deforestation of the southwest-facing slope soil erosion started and led to the formation of a first gully channel between the Late Bronze Age and the Early Roman times. This age makes the gully system comparable to gullies studied in Belgium by Vanwalleghem et al. (2006). In their study, the first incision of the gullies has been dated to the Bronze Age and it has been stated that Bronze Age gullies are amongst the oldest dated gullies in Europe. The exact form and depth of this gully cannot be reconstructed; however, the gully was apparently not as deeply incised as the current one, because the older intermediate layer has not been eroded during this first gully erosion phase and was detected at the gully bottom. Presumably the gully erosion events during this phase were less intense. In addition, infilling with sediment prior to renewed incision might have hampered deeper incision. Simultaneously, soil erosion took place on the slope and the gully was later partly filled with Holocene anthropogenic soil €chersediments. A comparison of the two gully walls of Fuchslo graben II reveals a difference in altitude of about 2 m. On the southwest-facing slope about 2 m of soil and sediment have been eroded during the Holocene, which is comparable to the average loss of 2.3 m of soil mentioned by Lang and Bork (2006) for loess regions in southern Lower Saxony, Germany. Charcoal taken from the anthropogenic soil sediment within the older gully channel was dated to the Late Bronze Age, which indicates rather a Late Bronze Age settling of the catchment area than a date of deposition for the anthropogenic layer. It cannot be excluded that the anthropogenic soil sediment is much younger. Dotterweich (2008) has summarized that gully erosion was rare from the Bronze Age to Roman times in Central Europe. Nevertheless, sediments of the alluvial fan contain organic material which was radiocarbon dated to the transition of Bronze Age and Iron Age as well as to the transition of the Iron Age to the Roman times. Although the ages from the material found in the sediments are not in chronological order, we assume gully erosion during both periods. After the infilling of the first gully (older gully in the following) with anthropogenic soil sediments, a second gully erosion phase has initiated the formation of the contemporary gully channel. As the gully cuts through anthropogenic sediments at the northeastern gully margin it has to be younger than the sediment. In the alluvial fan organic matter found in a relatively thick sediment layer was radiocarbon dated to the Late Middle Ages. During the first half of the 14th century, extreme precipitation events caused gully erosion on agricultural land all over Central Europe (Bork, 1985; Bork and Bork, 1987; Bork et al., 1998). Bork (1985) has investigated old gully channels in southern Lower Saxony and has stated that the deepest gullies incised within years to decades during medieval times. Both the age of the alluvial fan sediments and the depth of the gully channels let us conclude that the initial incision € chergraben II took place during the Late Middle Ages. of Fuchslo After the incision of the gully channel, the arable land on the slopes was abandoned and the surface was stabilized again by forest. Historical maps show that the slopes of the catchment area have been reforested at least since the middle of the 19th century; the gully channels are depicted in their current form (Kurfürstlich Hessischer Generalstab, 1859). Later infilling of the gully channel was prevented because the related sediment source was cut off due to reforestation of the adjacent slopes, as described by Bork (1985) and Bork et al. (1998). Later gully erosion events cannot be reconstructed due to the loss of younger alluvial fan sediments. We conclude that gully erosion events occurred repeatedly during the last seven centuries and caused further incision of the gully channels to their present form and depth. A phase of severe gully erosion is expected for the early 18th to the middle of the 19th

€ hler, S., et al., Late Pleistocene and Holocene landscape formation in a gully catchment area in Northern Please cite this article in press as: Do Hesse, Germany, Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.001

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€ chergraben II with (1) stable geomorphodynamic conditions before human impact, (2) a first gully erosion phase, (3) infilling of Fig. 11. Holocene landscape development of Fuchslo the gully channel with anthropogenic soil sediments, (4) a second gully erosion phase, and (5) present day situation.

century (Dotterweich, 2008). During that time gully erosion activity increased all over Central Europe (Stankoviansky, 2003; Stolz and Grunert, 2006; Dotterweich et al., 2013). The latest gully erosion event in the studied gully system occurred in April 1994 (Fig. 2a, b). As a consequence of extreme rainfall in the catchment area torrential discharge eroded and transported approximately 16,000 m3 of debris which were subsequently deposited at the gully outlet (Damm, 2004; Kreikemeier et al., 2004).

7. Conclusions This study confirmed that periglacial cover beds enable the reconstruction of Late Pleistocene landscape formation and that the upper layer may be used to differentiate between Holocene and Pleistocene landforms. However, the approach is limited due to the intensity of human impact in the studied area, i.e. the applied method may only be used where the upper layer is still preserved. A

€ hler, S., et al., Late Pleistocene and Holocene landscape formation in a gully catchment area in Northern Please cite this article in press as: Do Hesse, Germany, Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.001

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more detailed chronostratigraphy is provided by the use of numerical dating as well as by archeological findings. In total, five different layers of periglacial sediments have been found in this study area, each recording the process of transportation and accumulation, and indicating paleoecological conditions during their formation. The study further shows that the reconstruction of Late Pleistocene to Holocene landscape formation of permanent gully systems under forest is possible, even when detailed archives like gully infillings are missing. € chergraben II, it is concluded Based on the findings at Fuchslo €that the entire gully system including Rehgraben and Fuchslo chergraben I developed during the Holocene, whereas each gully channel is oriented along a smoothly inclined Late Pleistocene valley. These recent slope depressions have a complex formation history. Old Pleistocene valleys were partly filled with periglacial cover beds. However, erosion and accumulation phases alternated, as evidenced by the younger intermediate layer. The Holocene landscape formation is mainly characterized by soil erosion and accumulation of soil sediments on slopes. Two contrary effects were observed for the Holocene landscape development: i) Erosion of soil material on upper slopes and the accumulation of anthropogenic soil sediments on middle and lower slope positions resulted in a smoother relief. ii) The incision of gully channels and the sediment transport out of the catchment area, results in more pronounced relief. Based on radiocarbon dates of the alluvial fan sediments, at least two gully erosion phases were identified, though the alluvial fan sediments have been largely removed. The first gully erosion phase was dated to the time span between the end of the Late Bronze Age and the Roman time. If gullying started during the Bronze Age, according to Vanwalleghem et al. (2006) the gully system is amongst the oldest gully systems in Europe. The second gully erosion phase is connected to severe soil erosion events during the first half of the 14th century; this period is known for its extreme precipitation events. Since then until today, recurring gully erosion events caused further incision of the gully channels to their present depth. Acknowledgments The German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) is acknowledged for supporting parts of this study (project DA 452/1-1/1-2). Furthermore, we like to thank Claudia Dornieden, Monika Kolbeck, and Anette Janßen from the ISPA laboratory for the extensive laboratory analyses, Philipp Maurischat and Nina Springer (University of Vechta), as well as Luca Ebner and Tobias Sprafke (University of Würzburg) for support during fieldwork. Furthermore, we like to thank the reviewers for their detailed comments and suggestions on how to improve the manuscript. References AG Boden, 2005. Bodenkundliche Kartieranleitung KA-5. Schweizerbart, Hannover, 438 Seiten. Altermann, M., Mautschke, J., Erbe, C., Pretzschel, M., 1977. Kennzeichnung der quart€ aren Deckschichten im Unterharz, vol. 121(2). Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen, pp. 95e110. €den, Landnutzung, Natur- und Altermann, M., Steininger, M., Abdank, H., 1995. Bo €sserschutz im o €stlichen Harz, vol. 77. Mitteilungen der Deutschen BodGewa enkundlichen Gesellschaft, pp. 155e206. €ttinger Amthauer, H., 1972. Untersuchungen zur Talgeschichte der Oberweser. In: Go Geographische Abhandlungen, vol. 59, 99 Seiten. €stlichen Taunus in Bauer, A.W., 1993. Bodenerosion in den Waldgebieten des o historischer und heutiger Zeit. In: Frankfurter Geowissenschaftliche Arbeiten, D, vol. 14, pp. 1e194. Belyaev, V.R., Eremenko, E.A., Panin, A.V., Belyaev, Y.R., 2005. Stages of late Holocene gully development in the central Russian plain. International Journal of Sediment Research 20 (3), 224e232.

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€ hler, S., et al., Late Pleistocene and Holocene landscape formation in a gully catchment area in Northern Please cite this article in press as: Do Hesse, Germany, Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.001