Legal implications of the exploration & uses of the Moon & other celestial bodies

Acta Astronautica Vol. 30, pp. 4 2 3 - 4 4 2 , 1993 Printed in Great Britain

0094-5765/93 $6.00 + 0.00 Pergamon Press Ltd

L E G A L I M P L I C A T I O N S OF T H E E X P L O R A T I O N & U S E S OF T H E M O O N & O T H E R C E L E S T I A L B O D I E S

Dr.

N.M.

Matte,

O.C.,

Q.C.,

F.R.S.C.*

Director Emeritus, Institute of Air & Space Law McGill University, Montreal conduct and activities on the Moon and other celestial bodies is examined, and the impact of the principle n~cessit~ fait loi ("necessity makes law") on these issues is looked into.

Abstract Various studies, taking into account the progress of technology, envision Humankind's return to the Moon during the first decades of the 21st century, followed by the exploration of other celestial bodies; a flight to Mars is already anticipated. Of course, these missions will have to be governed by rules of law. This paper is devoted to an overview of the legal implications that could arise with respect to the exploration and uses of the Moon and other celestial bodies. Inter alia, it examines issues like the applicability of the current space treaties to settlements on and explorations of the celestial bodies, the projects being considered for robotic explorations and possible human settlements that could be established on the Moon and beyond, the effectiveness of the Moon Agreement, the need for its review, the proposed international regime for the Moon, the concept of the Common Heritage of Mankind and its applicability on the Moon, preservation of the environment, and co-related matters. Regulation of human

I. I n t r o d u c t i o n

On 20 July 1989, the day which marked the twentieth anniversary of Apollo XI, President George Bush announced America's Space Exploration Initiative (SEI). I The SEI has been called a "vision", one that would "return us to the Moon to stay, and onward to Mars by 2019 ''2 on the fiftieth anniversary of Man's first landing on the Moon. We all hope, of course, tha£ this vision is realized. However, this gigantic project is subject to bold technology. Moreover, the social scientists and space lawyers should ensure that these missions are performed within, and governed by, the rules of law. An exercise in this direction was begun after Man's walk o n the Moon. It was realized that the provisions laid out in the Outer Space Treaty of 19673 did not correspond to the new expectations - anticipated in a

* Copyright (c) 1992 by the author. Published by the International Astronautical Federation with permission.

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more concrete form - from this conquest. It was from this viewpoint that proposals were m a d e to the U n i t e d N a t i o n s 4 for an international treaty concerning the Moon to be drafted. On 29 N o v e m b e r 1971, the United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution 2 7 7 0 (XXVI) a n d r e q u e s t e d the C o m m i t t e e on t h e P e a c e f u l U s e s of Outer Space (COPUOS) to consider the question of elaborating a draft international treaty concerning t h e Moon. T h e e x p e c t a t i o n s of l o n g or s h o r t - t e r m b e n e f i t s to be d e r i v e d , whether economic, p e a c e f u l or n o n - a g g r e s s i v e , the military and reconnaissance a d v a n t a g e s in t h e i n t e r e s t s of the developing countries as well as those of most industrialized s t a t e s - be it exploitation of natural r e s o u r c e s or p o l i t i c a l p r e s t i g e - explained the requests for preparing a Moon treaty, as q u i c k l y as p o s s i b l e . 5 D e s p i t e the d i l i g e n t s p e e d a n d a t t e m p t s m a d e to r e a c h an agreement, many years passed before a result was achieved. On 5 December 1979 an "Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies" was adopted by the Genera i Assembly, and opened for signature thirteen days later. 6 Thus, as we p l a n our t r i p s to the M o o n (and t h e n to M a r s ) , we ought keep in mind the international legal framework that already exists. However while many general principles c a n be f o u n d in t h e o t h e r s p a c e t r e a t i e s 7 - it h a s o f t e n b e e n c o n s i d e r e d t h a t m o s t l y - if not o n l y - the M o o n A g r e e m e n t is

l i k e l y to p l a y a p r o m i n e n t r o l e or s e r v e as an e x a m p l e of the k i n d of legal r u l e s g o v e r n i n g the f u t u r e e x p l o r a t i o n and use of the M o o n and o t h e r c e l e s t i a l bodies and related activities, in o u t e r space. U n f o r t u n a t e l y ~ as m a t t e r s n o w stand, it s e e m s t h a t t h i s is n o t t h e r o l e the Moon Agreement is likely to p l a y : it b e i n g i g n o r e d so far by t h e m a j o r players in the anticipated space ventures, it might be d i s m i s s e d as of no consequence. In the twelve years gone by since it was opened for s i g n a t u r e , only 8 S t a t e s h a v e r a t i f i e d the M o o n Agreement. 8 The major space powers, United States and R u s s i a , h a v e not b e c o m e p a r t i e s to it. W h y t h i s is so - a n d what; if a n y t h i n g - can be d o n e to r e m e d y t h i s s i t u a t i o n , w i l l be considered below. But, b e f o r e b e g i n n i n g t h e d i s c u s s i o n of t h e existing and future legal i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e e x p l o r a t i o n and u s e s of t h e M o o n and o t h e r celestial bodies, it w o u l d be useful to give a brief description of some of the activities that could be undertaken, on the M o o n / M a r s t in t h e y e a r s to come° II.

A

Return to the Moon a Journey to Mars

and

T h e SEI is to p r o v i d e a f o c u s so as to a l l o w the U n i t e d States "to gain control of [her] d e s t i n y in s p a c e " . 9 Inter alia, the SEI will involve m i s s i o n s by r o b o t s and h u m a n s ; it is aimed at advancing s c i e n c e a n d e n g i n e e r i n g a n d at re-establishing the l e a d e r s h i p of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s in space; the SEI w i l l p r o v i d e d i r e c t and

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indirect benefits to us on earth; it is i n t e n d e d to p u s h the c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n of s p a c e to the f o r e f r o n t ; etc. I° Thus, a plan has been p l a c e d b e f o r e us, a p l a n to go to the M o o n and Mars, to stay there, to e x p l o r e them, and to exploit their resources. There is no d o u b t t h a t t h e s e b o d i e s are r i c h in n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s . The Moon, for example, has aluminium, calcium, iron, silicon, and s m a l l a m o u n t s of chromium, m a g n e s i u m , m a n g a n e s e , and t i t a n i u m , n In addition, it has o x y g e n and sulphur, w h i c h along with other minerals w i l l a l l o w for the m a n u f a c t u r e of ceramics, concrete, and metallic compounds which could be u s e d to b u i l d r o a d s and h o u s i n g and o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s . Iz An American company, C a r b o t e k Inc. of H o u s t o n has come out w i t h a p r o c e s s w h e r e b y o x y g e n can be e x t r a c t e d from l u n a r m a t e r i a l s , n The o x y g e n can be used, by M o o n settlers, as fuel and as air, and the w a s t e p r o d u c t s of the p r o c e s s could be made use of as b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s . 14 Then, it is estimated that a stable i s o t o p e of h e l i u m - h e l i u m - 3 a r o u n d 1 m i l l i o n tons of w h i c h e x i s t s just b e l o w the M o o n ' s surface, can be used to generate power. 15 Detailed research has also been undertaken regarding the planning of a "Lunar Power System" whereby solar energy would be collected on the s u r f a c e of the M o o n and b e a m e d d o w n to earth. 16 To add briefly to the above enumerations, zero g r a v i t y d e r i v e d d r u g s and o t h e r materials, the geological h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d s of the M o o n

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that c o u l d t h r o w light on the o r i g i n s of the u n i v e r s e , the a b s e n c e of any a t m o s p h e r e that would greatly enhance the utility of telescopes in astronomy, etc., 17 are other a t t r a c t i o n s that lie on or in the e a r t h ' s n a t u r a l satellite. The attractions that Mars holds for us are many. In addition to its natural resources, it is b e l i e v e d that life m a y h a v e e x i s t e d on t h a t planet, in its past. 18 This a l o n e c o u l d be a r e a s o n for t r a v e l to Mars. The q u e s t i o n now a r i s e s w h e t h e r we h a v e the w h e r e w i t h a l to u n d e r t a k e t h e s e m i s s i o n s . At the present moment, it is d o u b t f u l if e i t h e r the m o n e y or the t e c h n o l o g y e x i s t s to send humans to the Moon and t h e r e a f t e r to Mars, as per the SEI scenario. 19 However, it is c e r t a i n that, at t h i s m o m e n t in time, we are technically c a p a b l e of s e n d i n g r o b o t s to these celestial bodies, as p r e c u r s o r s to h u m a n m i s s i o n s . By way of assisting and c o m p l e m e n t i n g h u m a n p r e s e n c e on t h e s e bodies, p l a n s are b e i n g m a d e to launch such m i s s i o n s to the Moon, 2° and to Mars, 21 and this has thus led to the d e v e l o p m e n t of a u t o m a t i o n and robotic (A&R) t e c h n o l o g i e s , zz Robotic missions would g a t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n v i t a l for human missions; for example, they w o u l d o b t a i n g e o l o g i c a l , g r a v i t a t i o n a l and a t m o s p h e r i c data, assist in choosing landing sites, study the c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n s of the c e l e s t i a l bodies, v i b r a t i o n in the M a r t i a n crust, and so on. z3 Unfortunately, latest reports indicate that the U n i t e d S t a t e s may have to c u r t a i l even t h e s e

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activities, due to lack of funds and possibly due to unfavourable reaction by t h e A m e r i c a n p u b l i c . 24 In a d d i t i o n t o t h e U n i t e d States, other countries intend to s e n d r o b o t i c m i s s i o n s to t h e Moon and Mars. For example, R u s s i a h a s p l a n s to s e n d r o b o t s a n d s c i e n t i f i c d e v i c e s to M a r s , with some such instruments being provided by France, cameras by G e r m a n y , and the European Space Agency making a financial contribution towards a computer m e m o r y . ZS J a p a n is aiming for a 1996 satellite l a u n c h to Mars, to i n v e s t i g a t e Martian solar w i n d s , z6 Initially, the Russian effort ran into financial problems, but France and Germany have a g r e e d to a i d t h e m i s s i o n s . 27 Presuming then, that in time, humans do go to the Moon/Mars, and settle there, the next problem that will have to be addressed is : what resources a r e - or c o u l d be made available so as to enable us to stay on these b o d i e s a n d e x p l o r e and e x p l o i t them ? The consensus is that, once our astronauts have reached the Moon/Mars, the best w a y of m a i n t a i n i n g them there is to see that they become self-reliant, self-sufficient, using the materials and m i n e r a l s t h e y f i n d at h a n d to wean themselves from earthb a s e d s u p p o r t . 2s As o n e a u t h o r h a s a p t l y p u t it, " I T ] h e l u n a r b a s e i n h a b i t a n t s m u s t be g i v e n technological, political and philosophical capabilities to e x p a n d t h e b a s e at t h e i r o w n rate, for t h e i r o w n n e e d s , a n d in t h e i r o w n way. The l u n a r b a s e m u s t n o t be f o r c e d

into a m o d e w h e r e e x p a n s i o n of l i v i n g a r e a is d e p e n d e n t on t h e Earth-bound fabrication of another tin can, or on the p o l i t i c s of b u d g e t s a n d l a u n c h schedules. The base crew must be able to expand their quarters or resources using local materials ,,z9 It h a s b e e n a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t an a b u n d a n c e of p o w e r is a n o t h e r e s s e n t i a l t h a t w o u l d be n e e d e d to e n s u r e t h e s u r v i v a l of a b a s e on t h e M o o n or M a r s 3° and it h a s b e e n argued that nuclear technology would be preferable, for reasons of cost, long life-time and reliability, for use in t r a n s p o r t a t i o n to a n d f r o m the celestial b o d i e s in q u e s t i o n , and for u s e in p o w e r s y s t e m s t h e r e o n . 31 T h e u s e of n u c l e a r p o w e r in space is a very c o n t r o v e r s i a l issue. T h e d a n g e r the nuclearization of space p o s e s to t h e e n v i r o n m e n t s of b o t h o u t e r s p a c e a n d of e a r t h ~ a n d t h e f e a r t h a t it w i l l be u s e d for m i l i t a r y n o n - p e a c e f u l p u r p o s e s in o u t e r s p a c e a r e b u t two o b j e c t i o n s that have been put f o r w a r d a g a i n s t t h e u s e of nuclear power in s p a c e . 32 However, the practical advantages of h a v i n g n u c l e a r powered energy sources cannot be denied, for the reasons given in the preceding paragraph. Hence, it is t i m e the international community had another look at the use of n u c l e a r p o w e r in o u t e r space. A c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e f a c t t h a t as we~ on earth, do n o t w a n t a repeat of the Cosmos 954 i n c i d e n t , 33 we c o u l d consider the s a f e u s e of n u c l e a r p o w e r for the j o u r n e y to Mars, and also for its very carefully

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r e g u l a t e d use on the M o o n / M a r s . III. The M o o n A g r e e m e n t Before embarking on a discussion of the Moon A g r e e m e n t , a q u i c k look at the o t h e r s p a c e t r e a t i e s 34 a s s u r e us of t h e i r a p p l i c a b i l i t y to the activities discussed above. 35 T h e O u t e r Space T r e a t y generally regulates the activities of humans - and t h e i r m a c h i n e s - in o u t e r s p a c e and o n the c e l e s t i a l bodies. The Rescue Agreement, the L i a b i l i t y C o n v e n t i o n , and the Registration Convention are detailed elaborations of c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c p r o v i s i o n s of the O u t e r S p a c e Treaty. As regards the Moon Agreement, it w a s seen a b o v e t h a t it was a d o p t e d in 1979, a b o u t 8 y e a r s a f t e r the U.N. General Assembly requested C O P U O S to b e g i n w o r k on a d r a f t treaty for the Moon. The "tortuous progress of d e l i b e r a t i o n s ''36 was a r e s u l t of d i f f e r e n c e s of o p i n i o n w i t h r e s p e c t to, b a s i c a l l y , three issues. T h e s e w e r e the issues concerning the s c o p e of the treaty, information to be furnished concerning activities on the Moon, and the m a n n e r in which the M o o n 's natural r e s o u r c e s s h o u l d be used. T h e r e was g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t , however, t h a t the q u e s t i o n of the use of the M o o n ' s n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s was the m o s t i m p o r t a n t factor, and it w a s this issue that h e l d up the conclusion of the treaty. Consensus was finally r e a c h e d w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e s e s u b j e c t s and the A g r e e m e n t was o p e n e d for s i g n a t u r e . However, as s t a t e d above, just a h a n d f u l

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of S t a t e s are p a r t i e s to it. 37 The m o s t i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n for t h i s s t a t e of a f f a i r s is the refusal of the United States to accede to the A g r e e m e n t . Her r a t i f i c a t i o n is being delayed, or opposed outright, by her private industry, w h i c h has a r t i c u l a t e d c o n c e r n that, by r a t i f y i n g the Agreement, the U n i t e d S t a t e s would be abandoning major interests without obtaining anything in return. 38 This argument stems from the controversial "Common Heritage of M a n k i n d " (CHM) concept, and the so-called "international regime", t h a t is to be formed, to e x p l o i t the CHM. Before beginning a d i s c o u r s e on the CHM concept, a g e n e r a l e x a m i n a t i o n of the m o r e i m p o r t a n t A r t i c l e s of the M o o n A g r e e m e n t c o u l d p r o v e to be an instructive exercise, to determine which of these p r o v i s i o n s c o u l d be amended, if n e e d e d to m a k e the t r e a t y m o r e clear. The Agreement an elaboration of certain p r i n c i p l e s p r o v i d e d for in the Outer Space Treaty is a c o m p o s i t e of g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s and specific provisions outlining permissible activity on the M o o n and o t h e r c e l e s t i a l bodies. T h e r e are t h r e e key provisions in the Moon Agreement which serve to e s t a b l i s h s t a t e c o n d u c t for the Moon and other celestial bodies. A r t i c l e IV (i) provides, inter alia, that the e x p l o r a t i o n and use of the M o o n shall be "the p r o v i n c e of all m a n k i n d and shall be c a r r i e d out for the b e n e f i t and in the i n t e r e s t s of all c o u n t r i e s " .

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How this benefit is to be m e a s u r e d a n d w h e n and h o w it is to be p a s s e d to t h e s e c o u n t r i e s is not explained in the Agreement. This is one provision that requires elucidation to m a k e it m o r e comprehensible. The s e c o n d k e y p r i n c i p l e of the Agreement is that freedom of scientific investigation must be undertaken without d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a n d on the b a s i s of e q u a l i t y a n d in a c c o r d a n c e with international law (Art. VI, para. i) . The third p r i n c i p l e is t h a t the M o o n and its natura i resources are declared to be the common h e r i t a g e of m a n k i n d (Art. XI, para. I). We w i l l come b a c k to A r t i c l e XI later. Thus, we h a v e a treaty t h a t aims at t h e r e g u l a t i o n and c o n d u c t of h u m a n a c t i v i t i e s on the Moon and other celestial bodies. 39 T h e r e f o r e , it m i g h t be said that, in theory, a legal r e g i m e for M a r s a l r e a d y exists. But this is n e i t h e r here nor there, because the major space powers are not p a r t y to t h e M o o n A g r e e m e n t ; the treaty does not create either obligations or r i g h t s for them, without their consent. 4o A l t h o u g h the r u l e s set out in the treaty can b e c o m e b i n d i n g on third S t a t e s t h r o u g h i n t e r n a t i o n a l custom, 41 there is no doubt that, at least w i t h r e s p e c t to the CHM principle (the one m a i n issue t h a t has k e p t the U n i t e d S t a t e s from r a t i f y i n g the A g r e e m e n t ) , no norm of international customary law has yet been formed. 4z It is not to be denied that, though the CHM concept is, to some, nothing

m o r e t h a n a m e r e s t a t e m e n t of attitude, it is, to others, a recognized, even if nascent, p r i n c i p l e of i n t e r n a t i o n a l law. The CHM concept is incorporated into A r t i c l e XI, the "heart" of the A g r e e m e n t , ~3 w i t h o u t w h i c h the t r e a t y w o u l d m e r e l y s e r v e to d e f i n e and to d e v e l o p t h e p r o v i s i o n s of the other space treaties, "in r e l a t i o n to the m o o n and other c e l e s t i a l bodies". T h e M o o n A g r e e m e n t has the d i s t i n c t i o n of b e i n g the first t r e a t y in force to g i v e effect, in i n t e r n a t i o n a l law, to the CHM concept. It has a l s o been g i v e n n o r m a t i v e r e c o g n i t i o n in the U n i t e d N a t i o n s C o n v e n t i o n on the L a w of the Sea. 4~ Five "elements" of the common heritage principle have been identified, in g e n e r a l : a) the area u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n c a n n o t be s u b j e c t to a p p r o p r i a t i o n ; b) all c o u n t r i e s m u s t s h a r e in its m a n a g e m e n t ; c) t h e r e m u s t be an a c t i v e s h a r i n g of the b e n e f i t s r e a p e d f r o m the e x p l o i t a t i o n of r e s o u r c e s ; d) the area m u s t be dedicated to exclusively p e a c e f u l p u r p o s e s ; and, e) the area must be preserved for future g e n e r a t i o n s . 45 The distinctive characteristic of the C o m m o n Heritage principle is the c o m m i t m e n t t h a t all c o u n t r i e s m u s t share in the m a n a g e m e n t of the area in which the exploitable natural resources are found. T h i s r e s o l u t i o n has been expressed in the Moon Agreement in Article XI, paragraphs (5), ~6 (6)i ~7 and (7). ~ The "international regime" that the States Parties to the Moon Agreement "undertake to establish", as soon as

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exploitation of the natural r e s o u r c e s of the m o o n b e c o m e s "feasible", is the key t h a t holds the solution to the f u t u r e of the M o o n A g r e e m e n t . It is to t h i s a s p e c t of A r t i c l e XI, we now a d d r e s s o u r s e l v e s .

IV. The International Regime a) P r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n A r t i c l e XVIII of the M o o n Agreement provides for the r e v i s i o n or the r e v i e w of the M o o n A g r e e m e n t ten y e a r s a f t e r it has c o m e into force. 49 T h i s t e n t h y e a r will be 1994. We thus have before us an opportunity to make the A g r e e m e n t m o r e a c c e p t a b l e to the international community. T h i s c h a n c e s h o u l d not be lost. However - before embarking on a discussion on what p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n s may lie w i t h r e g a r d to a r e v i s i o n of the A g r e e m e n t - we h a v e to k e e p in m i n d one v e r y i m p o r t a n t fact. Present technology may not allow practical implementation of a f u l l - s c a l e e x p l o i t a t i o n of moon resources. It has been p o i n t e d out that we are yet to identify lunar surface t e c h n o l o g i e s . 5o In fact, the new N A S A a d m i n i s t r a t o r , D a n i e l S. Goldin, has a d m i t t e d that the r e t u r n to the M o o n and the trip to Mars "would take d e c a d e s and r e q u i r e a g r e a t e r depth of planning than is c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e " . 51 Therefore, taking into c o n s i d e r a t i o n what was said in the preceding paragraph although we could, in our imaginations, let our t e c h n o l o g i e s take us, w i t h o u t r e s t r a i n t , in all d i r e c t i o n s in o u t e r s p a c e - we ought, as we t o d a y c o n t e m p l a t e r e g u l a t i o n of

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the a n t i c i p a t e d j o u r n e y s to the celestial bodies, heed the p r i n c i p l e n~cessit~ fait loi ( n e c e s s i t y m a k e s law). Thus, we m u s t m a k e r u l e s not for w h a t is fantasized, but for w h a t is required. Let us not r e g u l a t e in h a s t e so t h a t our c h i l d r e n may r e p e n t at l e i s u r e ! It is o b v i o u s that, today, the CHM, is one area w h e r e the p r i n c i p l e n~cessit~ fair loi can be - and should be applied. It is n e c e s s a r y t h a t the insecurity created by Article XI's CHM components (international control and s h a r i n g of benefits) t h a t h a v e been the p r i n c i p a l c a u s e s for U.S. n o n - r a t i f i c a t i o n of the A g r e e m e n t , be c l e a r e d up. M o r e importantly, c r e a t i n g legal c e r t a i n t y w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e s e i s s u e s m a y w e l l lead to a joint i n t e r n a t i o n a l e f f o r t to develop the technology to profitably exploit the r e s o u r c e s of the moon. It is Article XI, p a r a g r a p h 5 w h i c h lays d o w n the sequence in which an i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e g i m e is to be created : only in the e v e n t that the e x p l o i t a t i o n of the m o o n ' s n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s are "about to become feasible", then the S t a t e s P a r t i e s to the Agreement "undertake to establish an international regime ... to govern the exploitation" of these resources. Currently, only the U n i t e d States and, possibly, the R u s s i a n Federation, h a v e the m e a n s to u n d e r t a k e f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s into the " e x p l o i t a t i o n potential" of the moon's resources. The U.S. has even demonstrated its ability to p l a c e men and m a t e r i a l s on the moon to c o n d u c t such studies.

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A substantial financial i n v e s t m e n t w i l l be r e q u i r e d for merely making a feasibility study, even assuming that c u r r e n t t e c h n o l o g y p e r m i t s such an u n d e r t a k i n g . In the long run, at least w h e r e the U n i t e d States is c o n c e r n e d , private i n d u s t r y w i l l p l a y a p a r t in t h i s venture, and in f u t u r e r e s o u r c e e x p l o i t a t i o n . Indeed, it is a w e l l - a c c e p t e d fact t h a t if p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e t a k e s an i n t e r e s t in the SEI, it will d e v e l o p q u i c k l y . 5z However, it is t h i s p r i v a t e s e c t o r t h a t has b e e n the m o s t vociferous in o p p o s i n g U.S. r a t i f i c a t i o n of the A g r e e m e n t , b e c a u s e it is not w i l l i n g to i n v e s t large sums of money on a moon p r o j e c t , and t h e r e a f t e r not get an adequate return. An international regime set up after substantial investments h a v e b e e n m a d e in e x p l o r i n g the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of e x p l o i t i n g the r e s o u r c e s of the moon, c o u l d p o s s i b l y h i n d e r the e f f o r t s of U.S. i n d u s t r y to c o l l e c t any profits made from its lunar p r o j e c t s . As s e e n above, this legal u n c e r t a i n t y has k e p t the United States from r a t i f y i n g the Agreement. It m u s t be kept in m i n d that, if there is no exploration, we will not be able to determine when "exploitation is about to become feasible", to use the w o r d i n g of A r t i c l e XI (5). M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y - as the p r o v i s i o n is c u r r e n t l y p h r a s e d - if an international regime is established before the near f e a s i b i l i t y of e x p l o i t a t i o n is determined, this could be r e g a r d e d a v i o l a t i o n of A r t i c l e XI (5) ' Thus, in the 1994 review,

w h a t is r e q u i r e d is that the Agreement be revised or modified, so as to f i r s t c r e a t e the "international regime". This r e g i m e w o u l d u n d e r t a k e to explore the Moon, make a feasibility study of the e x p l o i t a t i o n of the r e s o u r c e s of the moon, conduct any exploitation, and ultimately share out the b e n e f i t s derived. Conditions for m e m b e r s h i p in the regime, c o n t r i b u t i o n s to be made, the method of d i s t r i b u t i n g profits, if any, etc. w o u l d all be p r e d e t e r m i n e d by the a g r e e m e n t that would form the i n t e r n a t i o n a l regime, and thus lend c e r t a i n t y to the endeavour. Thus, it is r e c o m m e n d e d that the s e q u e n c e of events, as c u r r e n t l y laid out in A r t i c l e XI, p a r a g r a p h 5, be modified, so t h a t the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e g i m e is not made conditional on the a n t i c i p a t e d f e a s i b i l i t y of the expioitation of the Moon's resources. O n c e it has been f i n a l i z e d that an i n t e r n a t i o n a l regime should be formed, the next issue to be decided would concern its structure. Any attempt to discuss possible m e c h a n i s m s to r e g u l a t e lunar e x p l o i t a t i o n s h o u l d take into c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t r u c t u r e s which have a l r e a d y been s u c c e s s f u l in the use of o u t e r space for e c o n o m i c purposes. One such o r g a n i z a t i o n is the Internat iona~ T e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s U n i o n (ITU), w h i c h p r o v i d e s the t e c h n i c a l management and machinery to ensure optimum use of the g e o s t a t i o n a r y o r b i t and radio frequencies. However, the ITU could be an u n s u i t a b l e model because it coordinate~3

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individual national efforts, and resource utilization depends on the S t a t e 's technical and financial c a p a b i l i t i e s . 5a T h e i n v e s t m e n t in m o n e y a n d t i m e required, to f u l l y e x p l o r e and e x p l o i t lunar n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , is g l o b a l in nature, n e e d i n g the a t t e n t i o n of m o r e t h a n just one State. However, it m u s t be said h e r e t h a t the ITU p r o v i d e s an excellent example of the principle of n~cessit~ fait loi. At the ITU, law e x p a n d e d with technology and its application through periodic World Administrative Radio C o n f e r e n c e s : all m e m b e r S t a t e s b e n e f i t as such from equitable, economic, efficacious, and interference-free radio communications through ITU 's c o n t r o l of the r a d i o s p e c t r u m and the g e o s t a t i o n a r y orbit. 54 It is t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of ITU t h a t is d e s i r a b l e in the M o o n A g r e e m e n t . It has to h a v e t h i s f l e x i b i l i t y to survive. A more appropriate model would be INTELSAT, 55 the I n t e r n a t i o n a 1 Telecommunications Satellite Organization. This world-wide o r g a n i z a t i o n is u s e r - o r i e n t e d , e n c o u r a g i n g the m o s t e f f i c i e n t and l e a s t e x p e n s i v e service. 56 Members have an interest proportionate to their financial contributions. The r u l e of the r o a d is that one s h a r e s as one consumes. I N T E L S A T was e s t a b l i s h e d in accordance with United N a t i o n s R e s o l u t i o n 1721, of 20 D e c e m b e r 1961. It has a fourtiered organizational structure : the Assembly of Parties, composed of a I 1 the Member S t a t e s w h i c h are p a r t i e s to the I N T E L S A T A g r e e m e n t . $7 It is the

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"long-planning" o r g a n of the organization; the M e e t i n g o f Signatories, c o m p o s e d of all signatories. At this second level, member governments, directly or through their telecommunications entities, have the opportunity of p a r t i c i p a t i n g in the a c t i v i t i e s of INTELSAT; the Board of Governors, the principal managing organ of the o r g a n i z a t i o n ; and, an E x e c u t i v e Organ, h e a d e d by a D i r e c t o r General who is the chief executive and legal r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of INTELSAT. 58 The Assembly makes the decisions on matters which c o n c e r n M e m b e r s as s o v e r e i g n entities. The v o t i n g p r o c e d u r e is b a s e d on e q u a l i t y of States, each M e m b e r h a v i n g one vote. However, commercial and operational aspects of the system, c o n d u c t e d by the B o a r d of Governors, is based on w e i g h t e d voting. From its inception, INTELSAT has been extremely successful. A strong i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n has come into being, f o u n d e d on the principles of international cooperation and the Common H e r i t a g e of Mankind, as well as on a sound c o m m e r c i a l p r i n c i p l e and a t r a n s f e r of t e c h n o l o g y . In the y e a r s to come, it will r e m a i n an e x a m p l e of s u c c e s s as an i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n based upon a c o o p e r a t i v e s p i r i t and a new form of c o m m e r c i a l venture. Its impressive achievements are due to the bold and p r a c t i c a l way in w h i c h States' sensibilities and proclaimed fundamental principles, such as a b s o l u t e sovereignty, ~de facto' equality, and independence,

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have been reconsidered, readjusted and limited, in o r d e r to a c h i e v e a n e w b r e e d of international cooperation. These classical concepts of international law are being restructured in this w o r l d of interdependence, especially economic interdependence. The t h e o r y t h a t n e c e s s i t y makes law is n o w b e i n g c o u p l e d w i t h the concept that business makes

law! T h e I N T E L S A T m o d e l shows t h a t no country, e s p e c i a l l y the developing States, need be " c l o s e d out f r o m e n j o y m e n t of t h e b e n e f i t s of o u t e r space". 59 I N T E L S A T has b e e n w e l l t r i e d out. Its low c o s t s h a v e m a d e it e a s i e r for d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s to participate in the organi z a t i o n . 6° More importantly, these low rates for service to developing c o u n t r i e s h a v e b e e n s e e n as the distribution, to them, of " s p e c i a l b e n e f i t s " . 61 In I N T E L S A T , the s i z e of a S t a t e 's investment share is d e r i v e d f r o m the u t i l i z a t i o n of the INTELSAT space segment. This experience has evolved sufficiently to ensure the participation of the world community in a functional system. In a s i m i l a r way, the international r e g i m e - to be f o r m e d to c o n d u c t f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s and t h e r e a f t e r e x p l o i t the r e s o u r c e s of the m o o n would be financed internationally. The organization, like INTELSAT, w o u l d be a b u s i n e s s . The m o r e a State invests, in terms of time, technology, and money, the m o r e its r e t u r n s w o u l d be. The r e t u r n of a S t a t e ' s share would define the "equitable sharing" of Article XI,

paragraph 7 (d). As has b e e n p o i n t e d out, the c o n c e p t of s h a r i n g e x i s t s in o r g a n i z a t i o n s such as the U n i t e d N a t i o n s : the form this sharing takes, assesses rich n a t i o n s "more t h a n d e v e l o p i n g nations for its support, and its aid goes to developing nations". 62 W i t h r e s p e c t to the lunar international regime, this sharing could, in addition, take the form of some k i n d of tax on the p r o f i t s 63 the States make, not taxing those States whose c o n t r i b u t i o n s do not e x c e e d a specified amount. The tax c o l l e c t e d c o u l d t h e n be p l o w e d back into the b u s i n e s s , p r o v i d e aid to d e v e l o p i n g countries, repay debts incurred by the regime, be a p p l i e d t o w a r d s the costs of s c i e n t i f i c and other similar missions in outer space, etc. In this manner, the "needs of the developing countries", as c a l l e d for in A r t i c l e XI, p a r a g r a p h 7 (d), c o u l d be t a k e n care of. The legal c e r t a i n t y that the lunar i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e g i m e w o u l d provide, w i t h r e s p e c t to r e t u r n s m a d e on i n v e s t m e n t s in the e x p l o i t a t i o n of the m o o n ' s resources, s h o u l d e n c o u r a g e the U n i t e d States (and o t h e r s who have not ratified the Moon Agreement for the same reasons), to f i n a l l y a d h e r e to the Agreement. If the Moon Agreement becomes accepted, then it could as well be a p p l i e d to Mars. The lunar international r e g i m e c o u l d serve as a blueprint for a s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r e that could be e s t a b l i s h e d to e x p l o r e and e x p l o i t Mars (and other celestial bodies). The legal f r a m e w o r k r e m a i n i n g the

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same, c h a n g e s c o u l d be made, as required. More importantly, t h e r e w o u l d be no n e e d to r u s h into m a k i n g n e w law e v e r y t i m e a new celestial body is explored. A Moon Agreement, including an adequate lunar international regime, would e n s u r e t h a t i n t e r n a t i o n a l law travels with spaceships. b) O t h e r a p p r o a c h e s In t h i s regard, it w o u l d not be out of p l a c e h e r e to make mention of the Report produced, regarding the "International Mars Mission" (IMM), by the International Space University (ISU), at its 1991 session, h e l d at Toulouse, France. 64 The Report e m p h a s i z i n g the i m p o r t a n c e of international cooperation r e c o m m e n d s the f o r m a t i o n of an

International Space Exploration Organization (ISEO), which w o u l d c o o r d i n a t e the e f f o r t s of large-scale, long-duration s p a c e e x p l o r a t i o n activities. 65 In 1986, the (then) U . S . S . R . , by w a y of a letter from the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, Mr. Ryzhkov, to the SecretaryG e n e r a l of the U n i t e d Nations, Mr. P~rez de Cu~llar, m a d e a proposal regarding a "world space organization", the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of w h i c h w o u l d " i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e international c o o p e r a t i o n " . ~6 The 1990 International Academy of A s t r o n a u t i c s s t u d y r e f e r r e d to above has produced a draft " M e m o r a n d u m of U n d e r s t a n d i n g on the Establishment of an International Lunar Planning Office (ILPO)", which organization would draft a charter of the "Lunar Development Agency (LDA)" 67

The LDA w o u l d be r e s p o n s i b l e for the "preparation and execution of plans for the development of lunar r e s o u r c e s " . 68 Last, but not least, it is encouraging to note that academic institutions have begun, directly or in a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h legal experts, to p l a y an a c t i v e role in this area. For example, reference can be m a d e to the d r a f t for a "Convention on M a n n e d Space Flight", w h i c h has b e e n the r e s u l t of a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t i n v o l v i n g three i n s t i t u t i o n s . 69 In this respect, a colloquium, 70 i n v o l v i n g these institutions, and others, like McGill University's Institute and C e n t r e of Air and S p a c e Law, was h e l d in M a y 1992 to discuss important issues related to future space activities, aimed at the e x p l o r a t i o n or use of the M o o n and o t h e r c e l e s t i a l bodies, as well as their respective e n v i r o n m e n t s . 71 V.

Other

Issues

The e n v i r o n m e n t is a n o t h e r important issue that will briefly be considered here. W i t h o u t g o i n g into d e e p d e t a i l s of the legalities of the problem, 72 it can be stated that the p r i n c i p l e of n~cessit~ fait loi also a p p l i e s w h e r e the e n v i r o n m e n t s of the M o o n and Mars are concerned. The o u t e r space t r e a t i e s aside, b e f o r e we f o r m u l a t e rules r e g u l a t i n g the e n v i r o n m e n t s of t h e s e c e l e s t i a l bodies, it is e s s e n t i a l that we first undertake studies to u n d e r s t a n d the e n v i r o n m e n t s in question, d e f i n e them, and then go about s e e k i n g to p r o t e c t

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them. W i t h o u t this knowledge, terms like "harmful contamination" (does this, for example, mean that contamination is p e r m i t t e d , as l o n g as it is n o t " h a r m f u l " ?) and "adverse changes", two p h r a s e s in c o m m o n to the O u t e r Space Treaty and the Moon A g r e e m e n t , 73 m e a n little. A f t e r it h a s b e c o m e c l e a r w h a t we a r e dealing with, t h e n we s h o u l d elucidate, within this new context, vague terms i ike " h a r m f u l c o n t a m i n a t i o n " . Hence, we have to appreciate what first we seek to preserve b e f o r e we w o r k o u t h o w to go a b o u t d o i n g so. Yet another matter of i m p o r t a n c e is t h a t of the legal and other - issues concerning t h e s a f e t y a n d r e s c u e of our astronauts. We h a v e to g u a r d a g a i n s t a h o s t of p e r i l s w h i c h await our spacefarers. Space debris is one h a z a r d . 74 T h e dangers of radiation, fire, solar flares, and equipment d e g r a d a t i o n 75 or f a i l u r e , w h i c h c o u l d l e a d to l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g problems, are others. The p r e s e n c e of c h e m i c a l s on b o a r d s p a c e c r a f t , 76 t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l stress caused by long-term i s o l a t i o n , 77 etc. are y e t m o r e dangers. T h e l e g a l a s p e c t s of t h e s e a n d m a n y o t h e r i s s u e s of s a f e t y a n d r e s c u e w i l l h a v e to be further addressed by the international community before we e m b a r k on our t r i p s to the Moon/Mars. -

VI.

Conclusion

When technological and socio-economic factors dictate t h a t t h e " n ~ c e s s i t ~ fait loi ''78 principle must prevail, it is imperative that the

e s t a b l i s h m e n t of an a p p r o p r i a t e legal r e g i m e be f o u n d e d on the effective participation of all mankind. The International Telecommunications Union, mentioned above, is but an example of w o r l d cooperation b a s e d on t h i s p r i n c i p l e as is also INTELSAT, one a l s o b a s e d in a b u s i n e s s - l i k e manner. A lunar international regime also created on the consideration that "business makes law" - w i l l e n s u r e the effective participation of all mankind° E v e n if the b e n e f i t s derived from t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e l u n a r r e s o u r c e s do not meet expectations, the c o m m o n effort made towards obtaining these benefits may well prove to be a g i g a n t i c s t e p on the path to establishing a new order of international cooperation - indeed, a new international order for s u r v i v a l . 79 It has b e e n r i g h t l y s t a t e d t h a t m a n k i n d ' s f u t u r e can o n l y be assured on the basis of global cooperation. T h e lunar international r e g i m e o f f e r s an opportunity for such cooperation, which may solve the f i n a n c i a l p r o b l e m s t h a t are faced by the n a t i o n s of the world. International cooperation a l s o o f f e r s a c h a n c e not o n l y to keep alive the Common Heritage of M a n k i n d concept, but to also put it into practice. In this respect, "Common Heritage of M a n k i n d " s h o u l d i n v o l v e " C o m m o n Effort"~ "Common Expense" and "Common E n d e a v o u r " of m a n k i n d . The entire debate s u r r o u n d i n g the C H M c o n c e p t has b e e n - in the p a s t - l a r g e l y b a s e d on d i s t r u s t b e t w e e n the

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developed and developing countries. With the recent geographical, political, and economical world-wide changes, concessions will have to be made by all the Parties. The lunar international regime provides this opportunity. This could truly internationalize the exploration of the final frontier. The future of the Moon Agreement lies in the United Nation review, which is to take place - which should take place - two years hence. The review is urged to modify the sequence of events as currently laid out in Article XI (5) of the Moon Agreement. If a review conference of the Moon Agreement fails to increase State ratification of the treaty, especially by countries who are leaders in space technology, then this could lead to bilateral or more restricted agreements being concluded for the actual exploration and exploitation of outer space, as far as the Moon and other celestial bodies are concerned. 80 A failure to attract States to the Moon Agreement may well result its review becoming, instead, its requiem! ** Thanks are expressed to Mr. Jitendra Thaker, (Researcher, Institute & Centre of Air and Space Law, M c G i l l University), for his assistance in the p r e p a r a t i o n of this paper.

ENDNOTES

1. America at the Threshold : Report of the Synthesis Group

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on America's Space Exploration Initiative (Washington, D.C. : Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1991) at 2 [hereinafter SEI Report]. 2. Ibid. 3. Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon a n d Other Celestial Bodies, Opened for signature at London, Moscow and Washington on 27 January 1967, 610 UNTS 205; 1967 ATS 24; 1967 CTS 19; 1968 UKTS i0; 18 UST 2410, TIAS 6347; (1967) 6 ILM 386 [hereinafter Outer Space Treaty]. 4. Most of the important documentation (for example Argentina's proposal to the Legal Sub-Committee of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, the draft moon treaty submitted by the (then) Soviet Union, etc.) can be found in (1981) 9 J. Space L. 128ff. 5. For a history of the drafting of the Moon Agreement, see, N.M. Matte, "Legal Principles Relating to the Moon" in N. Jasentuliyana & R.S.K. Lee, eds., Manual on Space Law, vol. 1 (New York : Oceana Publications, Inc., 1979) 253. 6. Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, Opened for signature at New York on 18 December 1979, 1986 ATS 14; (1979) 18 ILM 1434 [hereinafter Moon Agreement].

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436

7. T h e s e b e i n g : i) O u t e r S p a c e Treaty, supra, note 3; ii)

Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, The Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space, O p e n e d for s i g n a t u r e at London, M o s c o w and W a s h i n g t o n on 22 A p r i l 1968, 672 U N T S 119; 1986 A T S 8; 1975 CTS 6; 1969 N Z T S 5; 1969 U K T S 56; 19 U S T 7570, T I A S 6599, (1968) 7 ILM 151 [hereinafter Rescue Agreement]. iii) Convention on

International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, O p e n e d for s i g n a t u r e at London, Moscow and W a s h i n g t o n on 29 M a r c h 1972, 961 U N T S 187; 1975 A T S 5; 1975 CTS 7; 1975 N Z T S 9; 1974 U K T S 16; 24 UST 2389, T I A S 7762 [hereinafter Liability Convention]. iv) Convention on

Registration of Objects L a u n c h e d in Outer Space, O p e n e d for s i g n a t u r e at N e w Y o r k on 14 January 1975, 1023 UNTS 15; 1986 A T S 5; 1976 CTS 36; 1978 U K T S 70; 28 UST 695, T I A S 8480; (1975) 14 ILM 43 [ h e r e i n a f t e r

Registration

Convention].

8. T h e s e States, as of Ii M a y 1992, were : Australia, Austria, Chile, Mexico, The Netherlands, Pakistan, The Philippines, and Uruguay. The A g r e e m e n t c a m e into force on Ii J u l y 1984. 9. SEI Report, 2. I0.

Ibid.

supra, note 1 at

Be S e l f - S u f f i c i e n t " Space News (16 M a r c h 1992) 15 [ h e r e i n a f t e r Howe]. A l s o see the d e t a i l e d study m a d e by the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Academy of A s t r o n a u t i c s , The

Case for an International Lunar Base (Paris : IAA, 1990) at 4ff., as to o t h e r r e a s o n s for going to the Moon and for establishing there a permanent base [ h e r e i n a f t e r ILB]. 13. "Lunar (March/April 7, 28.

14. Ibid. A l s o see, A. Lawler, "Lunar O x y g e n V e n t u r e Begins", Space News (24 F e b r u a r y 1992) 3. 15. H. Schmitt, "Lunar Mining M a k e s G o o d Sense" Space News (24 February 1992) 19, 25 [ h e r e i n a f t e r Schmitt]. 16. See, M.N.A. Peterson, D. Criswell & D. Greenwood, "Rationale and Plans for a Lunar P o w e r S y s t e m " ( P u b l i s h e d in the Proceedings of the Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratory Power" Beaming Workshop, 14-16 May 1991) [ h e r e i n a f t e r Peterson]. 17. SEI Report, supra, n o t e 1 at 2ff. A l s o see, ILB, supra, note 12 at 10ff. for a d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n of the a c t i v i t i e s that c o u l d be c a r r i e d out on the Moon. 18.

at 2-3.

Oxygen Plant" 1991) Ad Astra at

Ibid.

at 4.

ii. E. G a l l o w a y , "Law, S c i e n c e and Technology for the M o o n / M a r s ' M i s s i o n s " (1990) 33 Coll. L. Outer Space 195 at 198 [ h e r e i n a f t e r Galloway].

19. A. Lawler & D. Polsky~ "Griffin : Start Small on E x p l o r a t i o n P r o j e c t " Space News (18 November 1991) 3, 29 [ h e r e i n a f t e r Lawler]°

12.

20.

S.

Howe,

"Lunar

Bases

Must

Ibid.

Also

see,

"One

Small

43rd ~ F Congress

Step to a Lunar Lander" Space News (27 January 1992) 2, and L. David, "NASA Reviews Cheap Moon Mission Ideas" Space News (9 March 1992) 18. 21. D. Polsky, "JPL Small, Cheap Mars Space News (2 March [hereinafter Polsky].

Proposes Landers" 1992) 6

See, "Exploring the Moon and Mars : Choices for the Nation" (U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Report Brief, July 1991) [hereinafter OTR Brief].

437

from Orbit" The [Montreal] Gazette (28 March 1992) B6; W. Boyer, "Russians : Mars Missions in Desperate Need of Western Cash" Space News (i0 February 1992) i0; de Selding, supra, note 25, at 3; and, P.B. de Selding, "Germany Seeks Cash Infusion to Save Russian Mars Mission" Space News (6 April 1992) 22.

22.

23. Ibid., 19 at 29, note 21.

Lawler, supra, note and Polsky, supra,

24. D. Isbell, "Political Aides Predict Tough Year for Space" Space News (17 February 1992) 6, and A. Lawler, "Poll Shows Americans Like Earth Observation" Space News (23 March 1992) 14 (the article reports that there is very strong public support for earth observation satellites used for environmental purposes, and very little for robotic missions, the space station, and human exploratory missions to the Moon and Mars). 25. P.B. de Selding, "French Agree to Prop Up Mars Missions With Cash" Space News (17 February 1992) 21 [hereinafter de Selding]. K.P. Dawson, "Japan to Begin Design Work for Mars Exploration Satellite" Space News (i0 February 1992) 26. 26.

27. See : J.-T. Dahlburg, "Down to Earth : Like Socialism, the Soviet Space Program has Fallen

28. For example, see : SEI Report, supra, note 1 at 52; Galloway, supra, note 11 at 197; Howe, supra, note 12; and, W.W. Mendell, "A Strategy for Investment in Space Resource Utilization" 26 (1992) Acts Astronautica 3 at 6 [hereinafter Mendell]. 29. Howe, supra,

note 12 at 15.

30. Ibid. 31. See, SEI Report, supra, note 1 at 4, Galloway, supra, note ii at 198, and Howe, supra, note 12 at 15. 32. A detailed discussion of the legal implications of the use of nuclear power sources in outer space being beyond the scope of this paper, the interested reader is referred to V. Kopal, "The Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space : A New Set of United Nations Principles ?" (1991) 19 J. Space L. 103ff.; and, J.C. Clayton, "Nuclear Power Sources for Outer Space" 32 (1989) Coll. L. Outer Space 286, for an overview of the legal issues involved. 33. See, for example, Mircea Mateesco Matte, "Cosmos 954 : coexistence pacifique et vide juridique" (1978) III Annals

43rd ~ F Congress

438

Air & Space L. 483; E. Galloway, "Nuclear-Powered Satellites : the U.S.S.R. Cosmos 954 and the Canadian C l a i m " (1979) 12 A k r o n L. Rev. 402; and, "Canada : Claim Against the U n i o n of S o v i e t S o c i a l i s t R e p u b l i c s for D a m a g e C a u s e d by S o v i e t C o s m o s 954" (1979) 18 ILM 899. 34.

Supra,

note

7.

35. For example, Art. I of the Outer Space Treaty very clearly declares the freedom of exploration and use of o u t e r space, i n c l u d i n g the M o o n and other celestial bodies. The f r e e d o m to "use" t h e c e l e s t i a l bodies can, of course, be i n t e r p r e t e d to m e a n the f r e e d o m to " s e t t l e " on t h e s e bodies. T h e f a c t t h a t the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of m i l i t a r y bases, etc. on the M o o n is s p e c i f i c a l l y p r o h i b i t e d by Art. IV of the O u t e r Space Treaty, implies that the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of c i v i l i a n b a s e s is a l l o w e d . T h e w o r d i n g of the R e s c u e A g r e e m e n t (e.g., Arts. I, III, IV, etc.: "any p l a c e not u n d e r t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n of any state), t h e L i a b i l i t y C o n v e n t i o n (e.g., Art. III : damage caused " e l s e w h e r e t h a n on the s u r f a c e of the earth"), and the R e g i s t r a t i o n C o n v e n t i o n (e.g., Art. II (i) : "space o b j e c t launched into e a r t h o r b i t or beyond"), i n d i c a t e t h a t these t r e a t i e s a r e a p p l i c a b l e to the c e l e s t i a l bodies. 36. D. W a d e g a o n k a r , The O r b i t of S p a c e L a w (London : S t e v e n s & Sons, 1984) at 30. 37. 38.

Supra, See,

note for

discussion, N.M. Matte, "The C o m m o n H e r i t a g e of M a n k i n d and Outer Space : Toward A New International Order for S u r v i v a l " (1987) XII A n n a l s A i r & S p a c e L. 313 at 322ff.; and, M.A. Billie, "Exploiting the Final F r o n t i e r : T h e L a w of Space R e s o u r c e s (1990 Winter) AIAA Student J. 2 at 4ffo [hereinafter Billie]~

a

8. more

detailed

39. Art. I (i) of t h e A g r e e m e n t states : "The provisions of this A g r e e m e n t r e l a t i n g to the m o o n shall a l s o a p p l y to other celestial bodies within the solar system other than the earth, except in so far as s p e c i f i c legal n o r m s e n t e r into force w i t h r e s p e c t to any of these c e l e s t i a l bodies". 40. See Art. 34 of the V i e n n a Convention on the Law of Treaties, O p e n e d for s i g n a t u r e at V i e n n a on 23 M a y 1969, 1155 UNTS 331; 1974 A T S 2; 1980 CTS 37; 1971 N Z T S 4; 1980 U K T S 58; (1969) 8 ILM 679 [ h e r e i n a f t e r Vienna Convention]. 41.

Ibid.

at Art.

38.

42. G.M. Danilenko, "The C o n c e p t of the 'Common H e r i t a g e of Mankind' in I n t e r n a t i o n a l Law" (1988) XIII A n n a l s A i r & S p a c e L. 247 at 263. 43. S.B. Rosenfeld, "A M o o n T r e a t y ? Yes, But W h y Now 9,, (1980) 23 Co11. L. O u t e r S p a c e 69 at 71.

44. U n i t e d N a t i o n s C o n v e n t i o n on the L a w of the Sea, O p e n e d for s i g n a t u r e at M o n t e g o Bay on i0 D e c e m b e r 1982, (1982) 21 ILM 1261; Cmnd. 8941 [ h e r e i n a f t e r UNCLOS]. Art. 136 s t a t e s that, "The A r e a and its r e s o u r c e s are

43rd ~ F Congress

the common heritage of mankind". Part XI (Arts. 133 to 191) of the Convention lays out the rules concerning "The Area". 45. This list of points is derived from Pardo 's note verbale of 17 August 1967, made to the 22 nd Session of the U.N. General Assembly. See, COPUOS, Legal Sub-Committee, Sixth Session, UN Doc . A / A C . 1 0 5 / C . 2 / S R . 7 5 (13 November 1967) . 46. Paragraph 5 reads as follows : "States Parties to this Agreement hereby undertake to establish an international regime, including appropriate procedures, to govern the exploitation of the natural resources of the moon as such exploitation is about to become feasible. This provision shall be implemented in accordance with article XVIII of this Agreement." 47. Paragraph 6 requires the Parties to the treaty to inform, amongst others, the Secretary General of the United Nations, "to the greatest extent feasible and practicable, of any natural resources they may discover on the moon. " 48. Reference is made in paragraph 7, to the main purposes of the future international regime. These purposes shall include : "(a) The orderly and safe development of the natural resources of the moon; "(b) The rational management of

M 30-CC

439

those resources; "(c) The expansion opportunities in the use those resources;

of of

"(d) An equitable sharing by all States Parties in the benefits derived from those resources, whereby the interests and needs of the developing countries, as well as the efforts of those countries which have contributed either directly or indirectly to the exploration of the moon, shall be given special consideration." 49. Art. XVIII reads as follows: "Ten years after the entry into force of this Agreement, the question of the review of the Agreement shall be included in the provisional agenda of the United Nations General Assembly in order to consider, in the light of past application of the Agreement, whether it requires revision. However, at any time after the Agreement has been in force for five years, the SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations, as depository, shall, at the request of one third of the States Parties to the Agreement and with the concurrence of the majority of the States Parties, convene a conference of the States Parties to review this Agreement. A review conference shall also consider the question of the implementation of the provisions of article XI, paragraph 5, on the basis of the principle referred to in paragraph 1 of that article and taking into account in particular any relevant technological developments."

~0 50. 6.

43rd ~ F Congress Mendell,

supra,

note

28 at

51. " A e r o s p a c e S p o t l i g h t " (May 1992) A e r o s p a c e A m e r i c a 1 at i. 52. Schmitt, supra, note 15 at 19, and Lawler, supra, note 19 at 29. 53. E.R. Finch, Jr. & A.L. Moore, "The 1979 M o o n T r e a t y Encourages Space Development" (1980) 23 Coll. L. O u t e r S p a c e 13 at 16 [ h e r e i n a f t e r Finch]. 54. See, N.M. Matte, A e r o s p a c e Law : Telecommunications Satellites (Toronto : Butterworth & Co. (Canada) Ltd., 1982) at 104ff. [hereinafter Matte]. 55. See, E. G a l l o w a y , "Issues in I m p l e m e n t i n g t h e A g r e e m e n t Governing the Activities of S t a t e s on the M o o n and O t h e r Celestial Bodies" (1980) 23 Coll. L. O u t e r S p a c e 19 at 21, for a suggestion that the International Maritime O r g a n i z a t i o n (INMARSAT) be u s e d as a model. 56.

Ibid.

57. A g r e e m e n t R e l a t i n g to the I n t e r n a t i o n a 1 Telecommunications Satellite Organization and Operating Agreement Relating to the I n t e r n a t i o n a 1 Telecommunications Satellite Organization, Signed at W a s h i n g t o n on 20 A u g u s t 1971, 1973 ATS 6; 1973 CTS i0; 1973 U K T S 80; T I A S 7532; (1971) i0 ILM 909, 946. As at 13 M a y 1992, 122 S t a t e s w e r e m e m b e r s of INTELSAT.

Matte, 59. 17.

For

more

details,

see

Finch,

n o t e 54 at ll6ffo

supra,

60.

Ibid.

61. 6.

Billie,

62.

Ibid.

63.

Ibid.

at

note

53

at

38

at

16. supra,

note

64. See, for m o r e details, the International Space University, International Mars Mission Final R e p o r t (Toulouse, France : ISU, 1991). 65. See, ibid. at 32ff. , and Appendix 1 for a detailed d e s c r i p t i o n and the C h a r t e r of this o r g a n i z a t i o n . The C h a r t e r c o n s i s t s of a P r e a m b l e and 28 Articles which cover, inter alia, the organizational s t r u c t u r e of ISEO, r i g h t s and obligations of contracting parties, financial contributions, jurisdiction, liability, environmental issues, etc. 66. H .A. Wassenbergh, P r i n c i p l e s of O u t e r S p a c e L a w in H i n d s i g h t (Dordrecht, The Netherlands : Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1991) at 59 [ h e r e i n a f t e r W a s s e n b e r g h ] . For a d e s c r i p t i o n of the WSO, see V. Vereshchetin & E~ Kamenetskaya, "On the Way to a World Space Organization" (1987) XII A n n a l s A i r & S p a c e Lo 337. It was s u g g e s t e d that the W S O w o u l d deal, i n t e r alia, w i t h the l e g a l i t i e s c o n c e r n i n g the c e l e s t i a l bodies. 67.

58.

supra,

ILB,

supra,

note

12 at 60~

43rd IAF Congress

68. Ibid.

at Art.

i.

69. The draft has been presented as a common research project by the Institute of Air and Space Law, Cologne University, Germany (represented by Prof. KarlHeinz B~ckstiegel) ; the Institute of State and Law, Academy of Sciences of the (then) USSR (represented by Prof. Vladlen Vereshchetin) ; and the Research and Study of Space Law and Policy Center, University of Mississippi Law School, U.S.A. (represented by Prof. Stephen Gorove) . The text of the draft can be found in (1990) 18 J. Space L. 209ff. The text, in addition to a Preamble, concerns itself with Definitions (Art. I) , Registration (Art. II) , Jurisdiction and Control (Art. III), Rights and Obligations of Persons on Manned Space Flight (Art. IV), Ensurance of Safety (Art. V), Mutual Assistance in Space (Art. VI), R e s p o n s i b i l i t y and Liability (Art. VII) , Intellectual Property (Art. VIII) , Consultation and Settlement of Disputes (Art. IX) , Application to International Organizations (Art. X) , and Concluding Provisions (Art. XI). 70. "Manned Space Flight : Legal Aspects in the Light of Scientific and Technical Development", held at Cologne from 19-22 May 1992.

72. The legal issues resulting from outer space environmental activities and hazards have been dealt with in, for example, N.M. Matte, "Environmental Implications and Responsibilities in the Use of Outer Space" (1989) 32 Coll. L. Outer Space 489 [hereinafter Environmental Implications] ; K.-H. B~ckstiegel, "Procedures to Clarify the Law Regarding Environmental Aspects of Activities in Outer Space" (1989) 32 Coll. L. Outer Space 65; and, for an excellent article on the question of using Lunar Power Systems to reduce pollution on earth, see Peterson, supra, note 16. 73. Outer Space Treaty, supra, note 3 at Art. IX, and Moon Agreement, supra, note 6 at Art. VII (i). 74. See, for example, Environmental Implications, supra, note 72; S. Gorove, "Space Debris in International Legal Perspective" (1989) 32 Coll. L. Outer Space 97; and H. Baker, "Current Space Debris Policy and its Implications" (1989) 32 Coll. L. Outer Space 59, for details. 75. SEI, supra,

note 1 at 4.

76. J.E. Oberg & A.R. Oberg, Pioneering Space : Living on the Next Frontier (New York : McGraw Hill, 1986) at 122. 77. SEI, supra,

71. Topics for discussion include "astronauts and cosmonauts in international cooperation", "intellectual property", "safety and rescue", etc.

441

note 1 at 4.

78. Or, as has been correctly stated by Prof. Christol, "as challenges mount law can accommodate them" : see, C.Q. Christol, "The Moon and Mars Missions : Can International

~2

Law Meet (1991) 19 127.

43rd ~ F C o n g r e s s

the

J.

Challenge L. 123

Space

9" at

79. See, N.M. Matte, Space Programmes Today and Tomorrow : The Vanishing Duopole (Montreal : I n s t i t u t e and C e n t r e of Air a n d S p a c e Law, 1980) at 130. 80. W a s s e n b e r g h , supra, n o t e 66 at 82, n o t e 28, r e f e r r i n g to o b s e r v a t i o n s m a d e by M i l t o n L. Smith.