Levallois points and triangular flakes during the Middle Palaeolithic in northwestern Europe: Considerations on the status of these pieces in the Neanderthal hunting toolkit in northern France

Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e17

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Levallois points and triangular flakes during the Middle Palaeolithic in northwestern Europe: Considerations on the status of these pieces in the Neanderthal hunting toolkit in northern France
risson b, Jean-Luc Locht a, c, Aude Coudenneau d Emilie Goval a, b, *, David He a

Inrap Nord-Picardie, Amiens, France UMR7194 du CNRS, Paris, France UMR8591 du CNRS, Meudon, France d UMR 7269 du CNRS, Aix-en-Provence, France b c

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Available online xxx

Over the past twenty years, during the course of programmed and particularly rescue archaeological operations, prehistorians in northern France have identified numerous sites attributed to the Middle Palaeolithic. Over twenty of these have been excavated and are part of one of the most reliable chronostratigraphic frameworks known in Western Europe. Northern France thus acts as a sort of test laboratory where the fusion of abundant archaeological and palaeoenvironmental data can now culminate in a general synthesis. The point is omnipresent in small numbers in these lithic assemblages, and is a universal element of the Neanderthal toolkit. Levallois points are often associated with triangular flake production. In this article we use various lithic assemblages come from 26 excavations represented 35 human occupation levels located in a geographic area covering the northeast quarter of France, from Normandy to the Flemish plains. Levallois points and triangular flakes are compared according to different disciplines: technology and use wear analysis. Chronology and environmental reconstruction allowed a better understanding of the Neanderthal subsistence behaviour. This article aims to provide new and original insights into point and triangular flake production, their functions and their mobility during the Middle Palaeolithic. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Neanderthal Points Use-wear analysis Butchery knives Hunting Middle Palaeolithic

1. Introduction Today, in everyday language, a point is defined as the sharp and pointed end of an object. In daily life, the conception and use of this type of object has now become banal (the knife, for example), but the situation was undoubtedly very different for Middle Palaeolithic human groups. During that time, Neanderthals produced flakes, blades, points and at times bifaces, following different concepts and operative schemas. Points were produced according to different methods, resulting in the production of objects with very different shapes, dimensions and angles. Earlier research carried out in northern France to Middle Palaeolithic focused mainly on the original character of this geographic area. It is common that in lithic assemblages, production of Levallois flakes, blades and point is attested. Thus,

* Corresponding author. Inrap Nord-Picardie, Amiens, France. E-mail address: [email protected] (E. Goval).

knowledge about the different techniques of knapping identified in northern France was largely developed in the last twenty years. The research of A. Tuffreau and S. Revillion at the excavation of Seclin identified and characterized the Laminar knapping (Tuffreau and
villion, 1984; Re
villion, 1994; Re
villion and Tuffreau, 1994; Re Locht dir., 2002; Locht et al., 2010). Nevertheless, despite the large number of occupation levels uncovered for Middle Palaeolithic, studies of point production remain rare and poorly documented. The point was considered for a long time as an anecdotal element of the Neanderthal toolkit in Europe, but recent studies show that this object had special status among these populations (Knecht, 1997; Soressi and Locht, 2010; Goval, 2012; Lazuen, 2012). Numerous studies, most of which were conducted in the Near East and in Africa, demonstrate the use of points and triangular flakes as projectile points (Shea, 1988, 2003, 2006; Plisson and Beyries, 1998; Villa and Lenoir, 2006; Wilkins et al., 2012), but in Europe, points and triangular flakes have been poorly studied. It is now widely acknowledged that Neanderthals were capable of hunting and consuming large

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Please cite this article in press as: Goval, E., et al., Levallois points and triangular flakes during the Middle Palaeolithic in northwestern Europe: Considerations on the status of these pieces in the Neanderthal hunting toolkit in northern France, Quaternary International (2015), http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.04.039

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E. Goval et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e17

herbivores. Although we know which species were hunted by these groups, the methods and tools used to hunt them are still often unidentified. It is difficult to accurately determine which tools were part of the hunting equipment, but it appears certain that the flint point was one of these components, as shown by studies confirming the hafting of these tools and the presence of impact marks €da et al., 1996; Plisson and Beyries, 1998; Bonilauri, 2010). (Boe Conversely, other use-wear studies show that the point was handheld, like a knife, and that the sharp end was used as a tip (Beyries in Tuffreau, 1993; Moncel et al., 2009; Coudenneau, 2013). The status of the point during the Middle Palaeolithic remains enigmatic, as regards both its role and function, as it is produced in variable quantities and in different ways at the various sites. If points are produced by prehistoric in the Middle Palaeolithic, we can assume that they had a special function in lithic

assemblages. Compared to other products, the first characteristic of this object is to have an apex. It is therefore essential to identify within lithic assemblages, objects whose production objective is to obtain a point and those obtained by flake production but have an apex. In this article, the latter are referred to as triangular flakes. This article focuses on the point and triangular flakes as an object in the toolkit, but also on their production, role, mobility and use of these tools, or in other terms, its status. It aims to gain a better understanding of the Neanderthal hunting toolkit but also to enhance our knowledge of the function of Levallois points and triangular flakes during the Middle Palaeolithic in Europe. The question of the use of these objects as hunting tools needs to be addressed for the whole of the European continent.

Fig. 1. Location of all the sites from MIS 7 to 3 in northern France with Levallois points and triangular flakes (one site may include several occupations levels).

Please cite this article in press as: Goval, E., et al., Levallois points and triangular flakes during the Middle Palaeolithic in northwestern Europe: Considerations on the status of these pieces in the Neanderthal hunting toolkit in northern France, Quaternary International (2015), http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.04.039

Site

Level

Relative dating

Absolute dating

Number of artefact

Number of Levallois point

Number of triangular flake

Type of triangular flake

Saint-Illiers-la-Ville

S2N2

Isotopic stage 7

364

2

4

Biache-Saint-Vaast

IIA

Isotopic stage 7

232 ± 23 Ka (TL heated flint) 230 ± 24 Ka (ESR/os)

47,155

2

124

pseudo-Levallois point 3), convergent scraper (1) convergent scraper

Therdonne

N3

End of isotopic stage 7/6

178 ± 11 Ka (TL heated flints)

46,163

138

27

Bapaume-les-Osiers

B

1724

2

20

Havrincourt

N0

3

1

0

Le Pucheuil

B

Beginning isotopic stage 6 Beginning isotopic stage 6 Beginning isotopic stage 6 Beginning isotopic stage 6

4111

10

0

2058

4

69

1374

0

Champvoisy

116 ± 6 Ka (TL heated flints)

pseudo-Levallois point (18), pseudo-Levallois point retouched (7), convergent scraper (2) No information

Presence of fauna

X

X

X

X

X

25

pseudo-Levallois point (4), convergent scraper (51), mousterian point (9), scraper
jete
” (5) “de pseudo-Levallois points

Goval et al., 2013; Antoine et al., 2014 Delagnes, 1993; Delagnes and Ropars, 1996 Tuffreau, 1989

X

Antoine et al., 2006; Locht et al., 2009 Antoine et al., 2006; Locht et al., 2009 Antoine et al., 2006; Locht et al., 2009 Antoine et al., 2006; Locht et al., 2009 Antoine et al., 2006; Locht et al., 2009 Locht dir., 2002 Locht et al., 2003

Isotopic stage 5e

Caours

N1

Isotopic stage 5e

221 (in progress)

0

4

pseudo-Levallois points

X

Caours

N2

Isotopic stage 5e

132 (in progress)

0

2

pseudo-Levallois points

X

Caours

N3

Isotopic stage 5e

319 (in progress)

0

5

pseudo-Levallois points

X

Caours

N4

Isotopic stage 5e

1100 (in progress)

0

9

pseudo-Levallois points

X

Bettencourt-Saint-Ouen Villiers-Adam

N3b sector 1

Isotopic stage 5d Isotopic stage 5c

1298 2190

1 56

11 29

Fresnoy-au-Val

N2

Isotopic stage 5c

1270

1

2

pseudo-Levallois point pseudo-Levallois point (21), convergent scraper (4), mousterian point (4) pseudo-Levallois point

Seclin Saint-Illiers-la-Ville

D7 S2N1

Isotopic stage 5c Isotopic stage 5c

999 803

0 1

3 5

convergent scraper pseudo-Levallois point


Gouy-Saint-Andre Bettencourt-Saint-Ouen

N2b

Isotopic stage 5a Isotopic stage 5a

491 6466

18 128

1 12

CA

Isotopic stage 5a

5000

3

27

convergent scraper pseudo-Levallois point (10), convergent scraper (2) pseudo-Levallois point (13), convergent scraper (14)

Isotopic Isotopic Isotopic Isotopic

337 4284 368 102

10 13 5 1

0 0 0 2

sRiencourt-le Bapaume Blangy-Tronville Fresnoy-au-Val Revelles “les Terres Sellier” Villers-Bretonneux

N1 SHS

stage stage stage stage

5a 5a 5a 5a

106.8 ± 7.5 Ka (TL heated flint) 105 ± 7.8 Ka (TL heated flint)


, 1988; Tuffreau and Somme
risson, 2012 He Locht et al., 2010;
risson, 2012 He

Tuffreau, 1987; Koehler, 2008

NC

110 ± 11 Ka (TL heated flints)

Main references

Blaser, 2013

Caours

122.8 ± 8.6 Ka (TL heated flints)

Usewear analysis

X

Goval and Locht, 2009
villion, 1994 Re Blaser, 2013

X

X X

X mousterian point

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Please cite this article in press as: Goval, E., et al., Levallois points and triangular flakes during the Middle Palaeolithic in northwestern Europe: Considerations on the status of these pieces in the Neanderthal hunting toolkit in northern France, Quaternary International (2015), http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.04.039

Table 1 Summary of all the occupation levels with Levallois points and/or triangular flakes during the Middle Palaeolithic in northern France.

Depaepe and Deschodt, 2001 Locht dir., 2002 Ameloot-van-derHeijden, 1993; Tuffreau, 1993 Depaepe et al., 1999 Goval and Locht, 2009 Guerlin, 2002 Depaepe et al., 1997 (continued on next page)

3

4

E. Goval et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e17

Locht and Guerlin, 1997

Locht, 2004

74

0

8

convergent scraper

X N2 Attilly

Isotopic stage 3

1 Beauvais

Isotopic stage 4

C [C12] sRiencourt-le Bapaume

Isotopic stage 5a Isotopic stage 5a Isotopic stage 5a Isotopic stage 5a End of isotopic stage 5a End of isotopic stage 5a Courmelles que Villeneuve l'Archeve Lailly-Beauregard Molinons Bettencourt-Saint-Ouen

B B A N1

Isotopic stage 5a Auteuil

55.6 ± 4 Ka (TL heated flint)

1947

0

348

pseudo-Levallois point (13), convergent scraper (12),
jete
”(2) scraper “de pseudo-Levallois point 27 67 8813

pseudo-Levallois point pseudo-Levallois point pseudo-Levallois point 0 1 1 1 0 2 11 10 7 4 57 212 1018 710 438

1550

47

19

convergent scraper (4), mousterian point (1), scraper
jete
” (1) “de pseudo-Levallois point 6 4 1164 SGF Chavignon

Isotopic stage 5a

pseudo-Levallois point 13 4 200 83 ± 7.6 Ka (TL heated flint) WAII Mauquenchy

Isotopic stage 5a

Number of artefact Level Site

Table 1 (continued )

Relative dating

Absolute dating

Number of Levallois point

Number of triangular flake

Type of triangular flake

Presence of fauna

X

Tuffreau, 1993

Swinnen et al., 1996; Koehler, 2012 Sellier and Coutard, 2007 Depaepe, 2007 Depaepe, 2007 Depaepe, 2007 Locht dir., 2002

Sellier, sous presse

Locht et al., 2013b

Usewear analysis

Main references

2. Levallois points and triangular flakes: definitions and methods of production The Levallois point is easily identifiable in a lithic assemblage, but the same is not necessarily true of the wide diversity of triangular flakes often present in Middle Palaeolithic sites. In other terms, must we only consider the pointed end of an object or the pointed object as a whole when assessing the notion of points in lithic industries? Prehistoric archaeology generally targets the latter option and considers the pointed object as a whole (Plisson and Beyries, 1998; Coudenneau, 2013). A point must thus first and foremost be defined as the association of two convergent edges and a pointed end, but the technological and morphofunctional characteristics of the piece must also be taken into account. The morphological and technological diversity of Levallois points and triangular flakes during the Middle Palaeolithic in Europe, and particularly in northern France, is considerable. Point is defined as two converging edges and pointed end. A point can be obtained by a Levallois's production, in this case is a Levallois point. A point can also be obtained by a flake's production. In this case, it is the triangular morphology of the object that gives it the status of point. The triangular flake can be retouched, forming a Mousterian point or convergent scraper for example. Bordes' typological list included numerous types of points: the Levallois point, elongated Levallois point, pseudo-Levallois point, mousterian point, convergent side-scraper, offset convergent sidescraper (Bordes, 1961). Therefore, the typological spectrum of points and triangular flakes is varied. One of the questions is: are the Levallois points instead of triangular flakes are produced for specific uses? Note that in this article, we only use the term point to refer to unifacial points, as opposed to the numerous bifacial points in South African assemblages, for example (Villa and Lenoir, 2006). Apart from the case of the Keilmessergruppen and certain leafshaped points (Rubens, 2007; Rubens and Di Modica, 2011), bifacial points are absent from Western European assemblages during the Middle Palaeolithic. In addition, and unlike in African and Near Eastern assemblages, points and triangular flakes are only present in small proportions in Middle Palaeolithic European assemblages. The presence of Levallois points and triangular flakes in lithic industry production is often ubiquitous, but never exclusive. Varied methods are used to produce these pieces, and consequently, they are more or less standardized. The Levallois point is considered to be a sought-after, €da, standardized object, produced using a controlled technique (Boe 1994). It is obtained by convergent unipolar or bipolar debitage. The pseudo-Levallois point in lithic assemblages in northern France is generally obtained using discoidal debitage where the sought-after product is preferentially a short and thick flake (Locht, 2004). At some rare sites, the pseudo-Levallois point is produced by convergent unipolar debitage, and the percussion axis is offset in relation to the elongation axis of the piece (Locht et al., 2003). In many other cases, point production is based on non-Levallois convergent unipolar debitage. The knapper uses the original natural convexities of the block and prepares the striking platforms in a rudimentary way. As at Villiers-Adam, where point and triangular flake production is important, different debitage modes were applied (unipolar, simple convergent with one surface; unipolar, convergent with two productive surfaces knapped successively). Recourse to one or the other of these modes depends on the original shape of the block and the degree of exploitation varies depending on raw material quality (Locht et al., 2003). The triangular flakes in the lithic assemblages in northern France are mainly on Levallois flakes. In level IIA from Biache-Saint-Vaast, 124 convergent side-scrapers were produced on elongated flakes, then

Please cite this article in press as: Goval, E., et al., Levallois points and triangular flakes during the Middle Palaeolithic in northwestern Europe: Considerations on the status of these pieces in the Neanderthal hunting toolkit in northern France, Quaternary International (2015), http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.04.039

E. Goval et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e17

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Fig. 2. Distribution of the sites with Levallois points and/or triangular flakes by MIS (same size of the symbols means same proportion; a bigger symbol means more numerous artefacts of this type).

retouched to obtain the convergence of the edges at the distal end
risson, 2012), an almost perfect blank/tool adequacy of the flake (He €da, 1988). “This adequacy is recorded by the low is sought after (Boe
risson, level of investment required to obtain the final tool” (He 2012: 169).

As well as technological and typological diversity, the comparison of Levallois points and triangular flakes in northern France also reveals significant morphological and dimensional variety. Points can by definition be assimilated to triangular or possibly subtriangular flakes and are thus made up of the association of a

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E. Goval et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e17

base opposed to a pointed end. Points present diverse morphologies, depending on the raw material and production method used and the function the object is destined for. Some are large, symmetrical and balanced; others on the other hand are small, offset, with thickset bases. This raises the question of a relationship between production, shape, and function. 3. Sites and results Over the past twenty years, prehistorians in northern France have detected numerous sites attributed to the Middle Palaeolithic through programmed archaeology, and especially through rescue operations. Over twenty of these have been excavated and integrated into one of the most reliable chronostratigraphic frameworks in Western Europe (Antoine et al., 2003, 2007; among others). Northern France thus acts as a test laboratory where the combination of abundant archaeological and palaeoenvironmental data can now lead to a general synthesis. 3.1. Site corpus presentations This study includes 26 sites representing 35 human occupation levels located in a geographic area covering the northwest quarter of France, from Normandy to the Flemish plains (Fig. 1). These sites are mainly situated in slope or plateau environments, apart from several exceptions. All of the occupation levels are correlated to the Middle Palaeolithic, from the beginning of MIS 7 to MIS 4/beginning of MIS 3. They all include Levallois points and/or triangular flakes in varying proportions. The Levallois points and triangular flakes from six lithic series were analysed for microwear traces by different researchers [Riencourt-les-Bapaume: S. Beyries; Bettencourt-SaintOuen: J.-P. Caspar, V. Rots; Therdonne: A. Coudenneau; Beauvais: A. Coudenneau; Biache-Saint-Vaast: S. Beyries, V. Rots and Fresnoyau-Val: A. Coudenneau]. In order to conduct a diachronic and synchronic analysis of human occupation levels, excavations are grouped by MIS within

paleoenvironmental and climatic context. We have also systematically indicated if faunal remains were discovered in association with lithic industries containing “points” where use wear were highlighted. If fauna is preserved in excavations in northern France, it is first and foremost due to exceptional preservation conditions on the site. The aim of specifying this indication is not to draw parallels between the quantity of side-scrapers and the quantity of fauna. An absence of fauna on the site is usually due to taphonomic factors and not to palethnographic ones. It is important to note if “points” were used for butchery activities. Key data are referenced in Table 1.

3.2. Sites with “points” from MIS 7 and 6 3.2.1. Palaeoenvironmental background, site corpus and typotechnological data Our analysis begins at MIS 7, which acts as an inevitable chronological barrier as no sites pre-dating this period have yielded Levallois points in northwest France. In northern France, MIS 7 to 6 are characterized by cyclic climatic and environmental variations where human settlements and mammalian faunas are only really present when temperate conditions return during MIS 7 (7a and 7c) or potentially in the extreme beginning of MIS 6 (Auguste, 2009;
risson, 2012). He During the course of these temperate phases, a much cooler climate prevailed than at present, dominated by oceanic influences and marked by grasslands propitious to human occupations
risson, 2012). Six sites contain Levallois points (Auguste, 2009; He produced by convergent unipolar reduction: Bapaume-les-Osiers (series B, Tuffreau, 1976, 1987; Koehler, 2008), Havrincourt (series N0, Goval et al., 2013; Antoine et al., 2014), Le Pucheuil (series B, Delagnes, 1993; Delagnes and Ropars, 1996), Therdonne (series N3,
risson, 2012), Champvoisy (Tuffreau, 1989) and Locht et al., 2010; He Saint-Illiers-la-Ville (series S2N2, Blaser, 2013) [Table 1 and Fig. 2]. The site of Therdonne is exceptional in that it contains 138 large Levallois points, although they only represent 0.3% of the total


risson, 2012). Fig. 3. Therdonne e level 3. Large Levallois points obtained by convergent unipolar reduction (Drawings: S. Lancelot in He

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series (all types of pieces included) or 2.7% (excluding shards) [Fig. 3]. The analysis of this site is particularly interesting as the absence of point cores raises the question of in situ production. Two typologically Levallois points are present in level IIA of BiacheSaint-Vaast but their production is clearly part of a recurring Levallois flake schema. In addition, triangular flakes were discovered in the sites of Therdonne and Saint-Illiers-la-Ville, often in higher proportions than Levallois points (Table 1). In level IIA at the site of Biache-Saint-Vaast, 124 convergent side-scrapers were

7


risson, 2012). Elongated Levallois flakes with varied recorded (He shapes and dimensions were used as blanks for the majority of the convergent products (Fig. 4). Three tool sub-types were identified. The first is characterized by a distal zone formed by a semi-abrupt convex edge with an abrupt prehensile zone, opposed to a sharp straight edge for transformative contact (Fig. 4 n
1). The second sub-type is based on the axial symmetry of the tool (Fig. 4 n
2 and 4). The left and right edges converge into a pointed distal part, and both sides have sharp cutting edges. The third sub-type is


risson, 2012). Fig. 4. Biache-Saint-Vaast e level IIA. Double convergent side-scrapers (He

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characterized by pieces with global axial symmetry (Fig. 4 n
3), retouch in the distal area sometimes creates an abrupt borer, visible
risson, 2012). The presence of many on the profile of the pieces (He elongated convergent side-scrapers in level IIA of Biache-SaintVaast must be related to the presence of 189,760 faunal remains, including 19,420 identified bones from 18 different species, where the aurochs, the bear and the rhinoceros are predominant (Tuffreau
, 1988; Auguste, 1995; He
risson, 2012). and Somme 3.2.2. Microwear analysis Microwear analysis was conducted on two sites: Therdonne by A. Coudenneau and Biache-Saint-Vaast by V. Rots. The microwear analysis of the Levallois points from Therdonne included 119 nonretouched Levallois points. Seventeen of these points display macroscopic use-wear (Coudenneau, 2013). All of these are related to butchery activities but the functional analysis showed that their use was not strictly identical throughout the operative sequence. Four phases in the butchery operative sequence were identified, revealing four different tool groups with different active zones. In this way, some of these points may have been used to perforate skin or remove tendons (schemas 1 and 2), others to cut meat (schema 3) and others to remove limbs (schema 4). When these points were used as butchery knives, a convex/concave-convex configuration of the cutting edges is predominant. Two points may also have been used as projectiles (or at least as hunting arms), and thus reveal another potential functional aspect of the Levallois points from Therdonne (Coudenneau, 2013) [Fig. 5]. Microwear analysis was also carried out on level IIA of the site of Biache-Saint-Vaast by V. Rots (2013). In the same way as for the analysis of Therdonne, the function of convergent side-scrapers is

in most cases related to butchery knives, and in a minority of cases, to a hunting activity (Rots, 2013) [Fig. 6]. In addition, in this series, the prehensile zone has been extensively modified. These pieces bear a proximal zone with backed distal edges either to hold the
risson, 2012; Rots, 2013). piece directly or to facilitate hafting (He Moreover, most of these butchery knives are asymmetrical and correspond to the first sub-type of convergent side-scrapers described above. Hast points are logically symmetrical, slender and can be partly assimilated to the second sub-group of conver
risson, 2012; Rots, 2013). gent side-scrapers described above (He According to the microwear study by V. Rots (2013), over fifty triangular flakes bear use-wear. 3.3. Sites with “points” from MIS 5e 3.3.1. Palaeoenvironmental background, site corpus and typotechnological data Few sites correlated to MIS 5e have been discovered in northern France. The site of Caours (currently under excavation, direction J.L. Locht) is one (Antoine et al., 2006; Locht et al., 2009). It is the only currently-known evidence of the Eemian interglacial in a fluvial context in the Somme Basin, and thus cannot be considered as representative of human occupations as a whole at that time. U/Th dates indicate an average age of ±120 ka (Antoine et al., 2006). The climate was considerably warmer than the present-day climate, temperate, with oceanic influence and deciduous forest cover. The forest-covered landscape was closed, with abundant animal species (rhinoceros, hippopotamus, etc.), but few individuals (Locht et al., 2014). The typological spectrum of points and triangular flakes is restricted, and only 45 pseudo-Levallois points were recorded, all

Fig. 5. Therdonne e level 3. Schema showing the distribution of use-wear on points (Coudenneau, 2013).

Please cite this article in press as: Goval, E., et al., Levallois points and triangular flakes during the Middle Palaeolithic in northwestern Europe: Considerations on the status of these pieces in the Neanderthal hunting toolkit in northern France, Quaternary International (2015), http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.04.039

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Fig. 6. Biache-Saint-Vaast e level IIA. Top: Microwear on an elongated mousterian point (E8-513), interpreted as used as a spear point: 1. Pseudo-burin spall on the distal left point (16x); 2. Striation from counter pressure, in the prolongation of the large scar on the ventral proximal surface (100x); 3. Small pseudo-burin spall detached from the ventral distal left point (50x); 4. Impact striation associated with edge damage on the ventral medial left edge (100x); 5. Scarring evidence on the hafting boundary on the ventral medial left edge (16x); 6. Obliquely initiated, step terminating hafting scarring on the dorsal proximal right edge (8x) [Rots, 2013]. Bottom: Microwear on a convex side-scraper (B76 15Y IIa), interpreted as use as a hafted butchering knife: 1. Small tip fracture with associated use damage on the dorsal distal right edge (16x); 2. Use-wear polish on the ventral distal right edge (200x); 3. Use-wear polish on the ventral distal right point (200x); 4. Bright spot on the ventral medial left edge associated with dorsal hafting scarring at the haft boundary (200x); 5. Bright spot in striation associated with hafting scarring and hafting polish on the ventral proximal left edge (100x); 6. Start of hafting damage around the haft boundary on the dorsal medial right edge (10x); 7. Hafting polish associated with rounding on the dorsal medial ridge (200x) [Rots, 2013].

levels included. No Levallois points were discovered (Table 1 and Fig. 2). Conversely, the faunal spectrum is better represented, with 892 large mammal remains brought to light between 2003 and 2006 (Antoine et al., 2006).

3.3.2. Microwear analysis No use-wear analysis of the points has, as of yet, been conducted and thus no link has been established between point production and potential function.

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3.4. Sites with “points” from MIS 5d and 5c 3.4.1. Palaeoenvironmental background, site corpus and typotechnological data The Weichselian early glacial (MIS 5d to 5a) in northern France is characterized by a slow climatic degradation and the progressive continentalization of the climate in successive stages (Antoine et al., 2003). Sites are mainly preserved at bottom of the slopes where the pedosedimentary record is the most developed (Locht et al., 2010). At this time, the animal spectrum was less varied than during the previous MIS 5e and was made up of large herds of herbivores. Ten sites attributed to this chronological period have been discovered in northern France, including five sites with Levallois points and/or triangular flakes: Bettencourt-Saint-Ouen (level N3, Locht, dir., 2002), Villiers-Adam (sector 1, Locht et al., 2003), Fresnoy-au-Val (series 2, Locht, dir., 2008; Goval and Locht, 2009), Saint-Illiers-la-Ville (S2N1, Blaser, 2013), and Seclin (series D7,
villion, 1994) [Table 1 and Fig. 2]. Levallois points are generally Re limited to one piece per series. They are systematically produced using a convergent unipolar method. The site of Villiers-Adam is a case apart. The main knapping aim here appears to have been the production of typologically Levallois points, of which there are 56 (Locht et al., 2003: 89). They were mainly produced by convergent unipolar reduction (Fig. 7). Moreover, 29 retouched pieces are associated with these points, including 8 triangular flakes (convergent side-scrapers and mousterian points), and 21 pseudoLevallois points complete the assemblage (Locht et al., 2003). The study highlights the careful retouch of the point, where both retouched edges converge, regardless of the type of triangular flake.

The ventral face of these triangular flakes is sometimes thinned by large invasive removals or by several removals on the ventral and dorsal flake surfaces (Locht et al., 2003: 93). The triangular flakes and pseudo-Levallois points in these assemblages are better represented but remain marginal (never accounting for more than 1% of the whole assemblage). No particular blank morphology appears to have been selected before retouching the tool to obtain a tip. 3.4.2. Microwear analyses Microwear analysis was conducted on series 2 from the site of Fresnoy-au-Val by A. Coudenneau. This site contained a single Levallois point and no functional interpretation could be proposed. However, the analysis brought to light the macroscopic splintering of a morphologically pointed piece and a polish due to contact with relatively fresh skin, indicating a defleshing action (Goval, 2012; Coudenneau, 2013) [Fig. 8]. The microwear of the site of Bettencourt-Saint-Ouen was studied by J.-P. Caspar, but the points from level N3, correlated to MIS 5d, could not be included due to the presence of a thick white patina. 3.5. Sites with “points” from MIS 5a 3.5.1. Palaeoenvironmental background, site corpus and typotechnological data The climatic and palaeoenvironmental conditions during MIS 5a are globally similar to those of MIS 5c, with a more marked continentalization of the environment and the climate (Antoine et al., this volume). MIS 5a is identified by the presence of a grey forest soil. The end of this same stage is characteristic of the formation of

Fig. 7. Villiers-Adam e sector 1. Levallois points from a convergent unipolar reduction sequence (Drawings: P. Raymond in Locht et al., 2003).

Please cite this article in press as: Goval, E., et al., Levallois points and triangular flakes during the Middle Palaeolithic in northwestern Europe: Considerations on the status of these pieces in the Neanderthal hunting toolkit in northern France, Quaternary International (2015), http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.04.039

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Fig. 8. Fresnoy-au-Val e series 2. Piece interpreted as used for fleshing more or less fresh skin. Details of the macrowear (scale shown: 1 cm) and microwear (scale shown: 1 mm). On the edges, the macrowear (lines) and microwear (shaded area) are shown [Analysis: Coudenneau in Goval, 2008].

steppic soils, leading to the conservation of many occupations in northern France. No less than 16 occupation levels with Levallois points and/or triangular flakes have been recorded. These are
(Depaepe and Deschodt, occupation levels of: Gouy-Saint-Andre 2001), Bettencourt-Saint-Ouen (levels N2b and N1, Locht dir., 2002), Riencourt-les-Bapaume (levels CA and C12), Tuffreau,
risson, 2006), Blangy-Tronville (Depaepe 1993; Goval and He et al., 1999), Fresnoy-au-Val (series 1, Goval and Locht, 2009), Revelles « les terres Sellier » (Locht et al., 2013a), VillersBretonneux (series SHS, Depaepe et al., 1997), Mauquenchy (series WAII, Locht et al., 2013b), Chavignon (Sellier, 2015), Auteuil (Swinnen et al., 1996; Koehler, 2012), and Courmelles (Sellier and Coutard, 2007) [Table 1 and Fig. 2]. Three sites located in the Vanne Valley have been added to these sites, for the purposes of

this study, although they are situated a little more to the south: que (series B, Depaepe, 2007), LaillyVilleneuve l'Archeve Beauregard (series B, Depaepe, 2007) and Molinons (series A, Depaepe, 2007) [Fig. 1]. Levallois points were discovered in all of these sites in variable quantities but their proportions only rarely attain more than 3% of the whole lithic series. At the sites of Fresnoy-au-Val, Revelles, Blangy-Tronville, the series N1 from Bettencourt-Saint-Ouen and Courmelles, no triangular flakes are associated with these Levallois points. Varied triangular flakes (pseudo-Levallois points, convergent side-scrapers, mousterian points, etc.) are associated with the Levallois points in all the other occupation levels, but are often limited in number (Fig. 9). Level CA of the site of Riencourt-les-Bapaume stands out due to the presence of more abundant triangular flakes, including

Please cite this article in press as: Goval, E., et al., Levallois points and triangular flakes during the Middle Palaeolithic in northwestern Europe: Considerations on the status of these pieces in the Neanderthal hunting toolkit in northern France, Quaternary International (2015), http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.04.039

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s-Bapaume, series C, C12 (drawings: G. Fig. 9. Levallois points and triangular flakes from different sites correlated with MIS 5a. 1: Molinons (drawing: J.-L. Locht), 2 to 8: Riencourt-le Leroy), 9 and 10: Auteuil (drawings: J.-L., Locht), 11. Revelles (drawing: N. Sellier-Segard).

retouched Levallois points, Mousterian points, double convergent side-scrapers and offset convergent side-scrapers (Ameloot-Van der Heijden, 1993; Tuffreau, 1993) [Fig. 10]. Series C12 from the s-Bapaume also contains many triangular flakes. site of Riencourt-le These flakes systematically display a more elongated morphology. The tip angle obtained by retouch entails a more acute convergence of both flake edges than for the Levallois points from the same series (Goval, 2008, 2012). This systematic association of these different types of points in the sites raises questions as to the complementarity or functional

supplementarity of the assemblages. Potential faunal analyses provide little or no further information as only N2b from the site of Bettencourt-Saint-Ouen contained sparse faunal remains. 3.5.2. Microwear analyses Microwear analyses were conducted on three sites: Fresnoy-auVal by A. Coudenneau, Bettencourt-Saint-Ouen by J.-P. Caspar and s-Bapaume (CA) by S. Beyries. Among the thirteen Riencourt-le Levallois points in series 1 from the site of Fresnoy-au-Val, only two pieces could be studied. The first appears to have been used for

Please cite this article in press as: Goval, E., et al., Levallois points and triangular flakes during the Middle Palaeolithic in northwestern Europe: Considerations on the status of these pieces in the Neanderthal hunting toolkit in northern France, Quaternary International (2015), http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.04.039

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s-Bapaume e level CA. Triangular flakes and Levallois point (drawings: G. Leroy in Tuffreau, 1993). Fig. 10. Riencourt-le

butchery activities, the second bears marks equivalent to those obtained experimentally with hast weapons, that is to say with a perforating weapon. Nonetheless, this affirmation must be treated with caution as the dimensions of this tool seem too large to be used in this way (Coudenneau, 2013) [Fig. 11]. A microwear study was applied to series N2b2, N2b3 and N1 of the site of Bettencourt-Saint-Ouen. Seven Levallois points were unearthed in series N2b2, four of which were studied but none of them revealed use-wear traces (Locht et al., 2003). In series N2b3, out of the 117 Levallois points, eight pieces display diverse use marks. Two were used for wood-working activities, five are associated with butchery involving bone contact and one was used to cut tender animal tissue (Locht et al., 2003). In the same way as the Levallois point from the site of Fresnoy-au-Val, one point presents distinctive marks. It bears short retouch on the distal end of the right edge. The examination of the lower surface shows that the left edge and apical zone are chipped and denticulated. This damage may denote violent penetration into an animal carcass. It is similar to certain experimental Levallois points used as hast weapons (Plisson and Beyries, 1998) (Locht et al., 2003). In the early 1990s, S. Beyries made some microwear observas-Bapaume (Beyries in tions on the CA series from Riencourt-le Tuffreau, 1993). The Levallois points and triangular flakes did not undergo systematic use-wear research, but the study showed that the flakes with convergent edges were mainly used for woodworking (Beyries in Tuffreau, 1993). The apical part of a Mousterian point was also used to perforate relatively soft wood (Beyries in Tuffreau, 1993). Recently these results were critically reviewed and require clarification (Claud et al., 2013). 3.6. Sites with “points” from MIS 4 and beginning of 3 3.6.1. Palaeoenvironmental background, site corpus and typotechnological data During the Weichselian Lower Pleniglacial (MIS 4) carried out up until now show that northern France was abandoned by

human groups during this time. The recolonization of these northern regions began at the end of MIS 4 (Locht, 2004; Locht et al., 2014) and continued during the Middle Pleniglacial (MIS 3). The climate, the environment and the animal communities are generally characteristic of the “mammoth steppe” (Guthrie, 1982). Ten sites in northern France are currently correlated to MIS 4 and 3 and two of these contain triangular flakes [Attilly (Locht et al., 2013a) and Beauvais (Locht et al., 1995; Locht, 2004)]. No Levallois points have been recorded (Table 1 and Fig. 2). At the Beauvais site, pseudo-Levallois points are abundant (nb ¼ 348) and are unquestionably one of the main production aims. In addition, during the excavation of Beauvais site, 465 faunal remains were discovered (Locht, 2004).

3.6.2. Microwear analyses A functional analysis of the macrotraces on the points from Beauvais site was conducted by A. Coudenneau. Out of the 348 points observed from series 1, only 22 pieces conserved usewear (Coudenneau, 2013). Among these 22 points: - Six present comparable marks to experimentally obtained traces resulting from butchery activities, including one with traces of a transversal action on a hard material on the opposite edge, - Three points were used in a lengthwise action on semi-hard indeterminate matter (Fig. 12), - Three points were used on different and indeterminate semihard materials with dotted contact, - Six points bear use traces of a transversal action on hard, bonetype matter, - Three points were used in a transversal contact action on semihard materials; for two of them the observed traces are comparable to those on experimental wood-working tools and for one of them, to those obtained by scraping dry or tanned skin, - One point was used with transversal contact on semi-hard to hard indeterminate materials.

Please cite this article in press as: Goval, E., et al., Levallois points and triangular flakes during the Middle Palaeolithic in northwestern Europe: Considerations on the status of these pieces in the Neanderthal hunting toolkit in northern France, Quaternary International (2015), http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.04.039

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Fig. 11. Fresnoy-au-Val e series 1. Point with a projectile type break, photo of the whole piece, upper surface, lower surface and profile, macroscopic detail of the break. Scale of the macroscopic photo: 1 cm (Coudenneau, 2013).

These results suggest the use of some of these pseudo-Levallois points as butchery knives and not as hast arms or projectile points. Nonetheless, 10 others pseudo-Levallois points present an apical break-type removal with a stepped end characteristic of use as a hunting arm. However, the dimensions and morphological characteristics (thickness) of these points do not correspond to the expected attributes of projectile points (Coudenneau, 2013). The most accurate interpretation appears to be that these points were used as hast weapons, as spears to kill wounded or trapped animals (Coudenneau, 2013).

4. Discussion The diachronic approach adopted in this article was chosen in order to evaluate the impact of environmental changes on the production of points and triangular flakes during the Middle Palaeolithic. Analyses show that Levallois points were produced using different production methods from MIS 7 to the beginning of MIS 3, and that no distinction can be established in relation to the choice of the method. Similarly, no quantitative link can be made. Levallois points are ubiquitous in Middle Palaeolithic assemblages

Please cite this article in press as: Goval, E., et al., Levallois points and triangular flakes during the Middle Palaeolithic in northwestern Europe: Considerations on the status of these pieces in the Neanderthal hunting toolkit in northern France, Quaternary International (2015), http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.04.039

E. Goval et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e17

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Fig. 12. Beauvais e level 1. Pseudo-Levallois points with wear attributed to lengthwise use on an indeterminate semi-hard material. Photos of the whole pieces, upper surface, lower surface and profile of the used edge, contours showing the use-wear and macroscopic details of the observed wear. Scales: x10 ¼ 5 mm (Coudenneau, 2013).

in northern France, their proportion rarely exceeds 3% (not for beginning of MIS 3 and MIS 4). Environmental changes present in MIS 7 to the beginning of MIS 3 did not impact the amount of Levallois points and triangular flakes production. In many sites, the presence of the Levallois point is associated with the production of triangular flakes, including pseudo-Levallois points, convergent side-scrapers and Mousterian points (Fig. 2). Elongated Levallois flakes with varied dimensions were often used

as blanks for the latter. Nevertheless, although Mousterian points are sometimes more abundant than Levallois points, their proportion in the overall assemblage remains low. Middle Palaeolithic Levallois points and triangular flakes are very varied, in as far as their dimensions and morphologies are concerned. One of the aims of this article was to assess the relationship between production, shape and function. In spite of the discovery of numerous Middle Palaeolithic sites in northern France (35 occupation levels), very

Please cite this article in press as: Goval, E., et al., Levallois points and triangular flakes during the Middle Palaeolithic in northwestern Europe: Considerations on the status of these pieces in the Neanderthal hunting toolkit in northern France, Quaternary International (2015), http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.04.039

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few microwear studies have been applied to Levallois points and triangular flakes. A similar observation was made recently by V. Rots for Belgian sites (2011). Three different cases emerge:  For different reasons, the whole series did not undergo microwear studies,  Microwear analysis was applied to the series with no typotechnological distinction, making the correlation between microwear and points impossible,  Only a sample of the series was analysed, and as points are only present in small quantities, they are only rarely selected for such studies. However, six sites were studied for microwear traces. From MIS 7 (Biache-Saint-Vaast, Therdonne) to MIS 4 (Beauvais), the Levallois point and triangular flake were used mainly as butchery knives, and occasionally as hast points. The presence of the latter in the different assemblages needs to be related to the presumed functions of the excavated sites. It appears more likely to find a butchery knife in an area used to butcher an animal brought back to the site, than a hast weapon used during collective hunting. Furthermore, the microwear studies undermine the notion that the point was, above all, an object chosen for its pointed part. When the point is used as a butchery knife, the cutting edge opposite a backed edge is generally the active part of the tool. The use of the term 00 point00 is thus ambiguous as it is related to the presumed function of the tool. In the case of the site of Therdonne, the point was used during butchery activities to incise skins and flesh. Many Levallois points have been identified as butchery knives, as have certain triangular flakes, without any apparent link between form and function. Nonetheless, the studies conducted by Coudenneau (2013) show that this connection is important for the hast point, a slender, symmetrical and well balanced piece. The use of the Levallois point or the triangular flake by Middle Palaeolithic groups for daily activities is thus a response to complementary and varied activities. This reasoning can just as easily be transposed to modern society where knives are elongated with a pointed end and, whereas the cutting edge is used systematically, the point is only used on an occasional basis. Sometimes retouch transforms the terminus of Levallois point or triangular flake to obtain a Mousterian point, converge retouched scraper, etc., but these retouches do not show different use-wear. Probably the retouch allowed obtaining the tip itself. Ten human occupation levels contain faunal remains in association with lithic industry (Fig. 2). Only three of them have use-wear studies on Levallois points and triangular flakes in association with faunal remains: Biache-Saint-Vaast, Therdonne and Beauvais (Fig. 2). The use-wear analyzes and the zooarchaeological observations are concurrent, but unfortunately putting these data in parallel and drawing reliable conclusions is complicated. Moreover, recent studies of sites in northern France have shown the mobile character of Middle Palaeolithic points (Goval, 2008,
risson, 2012), as Levallois points were systematically 2012; He introduced to the site or taken from the site. These observations highlight the mobile character of this object in the Neanderthal hunting toolkit throughout the Middle Palaeolithic. The point was omitted from lithic analyses of Middle Palaeolithic assemblages in northern France for a long time, in favour of the associated blade and Levallois production. However, they were present throughout the Middle Palaeolithic, from MIS 7 onwards, and were decisive and indispensable components of the Neanderthal hunting toolkit. We hope that this article marks the beginning of more systematic analyses of points in northern France, and more generally in north-western Europe.

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Please cite this article in press as: Goval, E., et al., Levallois points and triangular flakes during the Middle Palaeolithic in northwestern Europe: Considerations on the status of these pieces in the Neanderthal hunting toolkit in northern France, Quaternary International (2015), http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.04.039