Lieutenant-Colonel Delmé-Radcliffe's report on the 1906 eruption of Vesuvius, Italy

Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 166 (2007) 204 – 216 www.elsevier.com/locate/jvolgeores

Lieutenant-Colonel Delmé-Radcliffe's report on the 1906 eruption of Vesuvius, Italy David K. Chester a,⁎, Angus M. Duncan b b

a Department of Geography, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 3BX, UK LIRANS-Institute of Applied Natural Sciences, University of Bedfordshire, Park Square, Luton, LU1 3JU, UK

Received 5 July 2007; accepted 1 August 2007 Available online 14 August 2007

Abstract The highly destructive eruption of Vesuvius Volcano in Italy in 1906 was witnessed by the British military attaché to the Italian government: Lt. Col. Sir Charles Delmé-Radcliffe. His detailed and extremely valuable report, which is now extremely difficult to access, is reproduced in full and without editorial alteration. The reprinted paper is preceded by editorial comments by the authors, footnotes are used to define units of measurement, to explain terms used in the manuscript and people mentioned by Colonel Delmé-Radcliffe. © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Vesuvius; Italy; 1906 eruption; eyewitness account

1. Introduction The April 1906 eruption of Vesuvius lasted 18 days and was very destructive. In the villages of Ottaviano (then known as Ottajano) and San Giuseppe (Fig. 1) 216 people were killed and 112 injured by roof collapse caused by tephra, a further 11 died and 30 were injured in Naples (Anon, 2007a) and some reports suggest that three elderly men perished when trapped by lava in Boscotrecase (Scarth and Tanguy, 2001, pp. 15). More than 76 700 ht of land was adversely affected by the eruption, 9542 ht being covered by tephra or alluvium, and around 34 000 people became refugees. The total cost of the eruption is estimated at 60 million lira

⁎ Corresponding author: Tel./fax: +44 151 794 2876 E-mail addresses: [email protected] (D.K. Chester), [email protected] (A.M. Duncan). 0377-0273/$ - see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2007.08.001

(Nazzaro, 1997, pp. 202–3), representing c. 11 million US$ at 1906 rates of exchange (Venturi, 1910; Officer, 2007). Using historic approximations of Italy's Gross Domestic Product (G.D.P.) compiled by Maddison (2006), it may be estimated that this represented c. 16% of Italy's G.N.P.; a very high figure and one that compares with the costs of many large-scale disasters which have occurred within economically less developed countries during the past decade (Benson, 2007). The progress and effects of the 1906 event are summarized in Table 1 and Fig. 2 and, as the references in Table 1 indicate, the 1906 eruption has been closely studied both at the time and subsequently. Indeed a bibliography that accompanies a recent comprehensive volume on Vesuvius and its eruptions (Lirer et al., 2005), cites over 40 works on this eruption that were published between 1906 and 1926. Archived within the British Library is a detailed eyewitness account of the effects of the 1906 eruption (Delmé-Radcliffe, 1906). Even within

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Fig. 1. Map showing the locations of places mentioned in the text.

the volcanological research community this report is not well known, is hardly ever referenced and the only citation to it which is known to the authors is by Russell Blong (1984, pp. 178). The single copy in the British Library is only available for on-site consultation; it cannot be borrowed and is effectively unavailable to researchers outside the United Kingdom. With the permission of the British Library Delmé-Radcliffe's report is republished in full as Section 2 of this paper. Original page numbers are inserted to facilitate future citation, the text has not been edited and footnotes are inserted, inter alia, to provide S.I. conversions of Imperial units. Notes on obvious errors within the manuscript, brief biographical details of people mentioned by Col. Delmé-Radcliffe and of historical events are also provided. Lt. Col. (later Brigadier-General) Sir Charles DelméRadcliffe was born in 1864 into the British landed aristocracy. Educated at the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, he was commissioned in 1884 and saw little active service; but was an excellent linguist (Anon, 1937), published widely on scientific (Delmé-Radcliffe, 1903) as well as military matters (Delmé-Radcliffe, 1908) and held several senior staff appointments. His most sig-

nificant posting was as military attaché to Rome in the first decade of the twentieth century, where he became a personal friend of King Vittorio Emmanuele III and many of the leading politicians and soldiers of the day. Before the First World War the position of Italy within the strategic alliances of Europe was of critical importance to Britain and the role of military attaché was a post of significance (Bosworth, 1983). Arriving in Naples on April 10, six days after the start of the eruption and whilst tephra was still causing extensive damage, the reason for Col. Delmé-Radcliffe's visit was the heavy involvement of the Italian army which was coordinating civil defence measures and providing disaster relief. The excursion to Vesuvius proved to be an excellent opportunity for the attaché to obverse and report to London on the quality of military staff work, organisation and logistics about which he was highly complimentary (Delmé-Radcliffe, 1906, pp. 9). Delmé-Radcliffe's report was originally a confidential dispatch and at times the author's comments on events reveal his particular prejudices, preconceptions that would have been shared by many British men of his background a century ago. Delmé-Radcliffe is very

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Table 1 Phases of the 1906 eruption of Vesuvius (Based on information in: Hobbs, 1906; Lacroix, 1906; Perret, 1924; Johnston-Lavis, 1909; Lacroix, 1908; Mercalli, 1908; Scandone et al., 1993; Rosi et al., 1993; Scarth and Tanguy, 2001, pp. 15; Guest et al., 2003, pp. 50–52; Anon, 2007a) Phases and effects of the Eruption

Details

The context: activity of Vesuvius from 1631 to April 1906

Following a large sub-plinian eruption in 1631, Vesuvius was almost continually active until 1944 (Rosi et al., 1993; Scandone et al., 1993; Kilburn and Mc Guire, 2001; Scarth and Tanguy, 2001; Guest et al., 2003), activity being mostly strombolian and located at summit. When discrete eruptions occurred these either involved lava flowing over the crater, or from fractures on the upper flanks of the construct. Sometimes explosions and lava fountains accompanied these events. Episodes of repose, ranging from 2 to 6 years, interrupted this persistent activity and 18 separate cycles of activity are recognised, which vary in length from 2 to 32 years; each cycle being terminated by what is somewhat confusingly termed a final eruption. Final eruptions typically began with effusive outpourings of lava and, as effusive activity wanes, explosions at the summit occur. Both fire fountains and high eruption columns, typically 5–15 km in height, characterised these later phases and, towards their close, there is evidence of water–magma interactions producing phreatomagmatic activity. Events in 1906 began on April 4 and ended on April 22, the eruption being second only in duration to that which occurred in 1794 and lasted 23 days (Scarth and Tanguy, 2001 pp. 15). On April 4, 5 and 6 lava flows were erupted from several vents that opened at progressively lower altitudes on the south east flank of the volcano (Figs. 1 and 2). Lava effusion was associated with moderate explosive activity at the summit and this waxed and waned every few hours. The longest lava flowed ∼5 km from the cone. On April 7 fire fountains reached a height of 3 km and lava destroyed part of Boscotrecase, with around 100 homes being destroyed in the suburb of Oratorio. Lava also entering the church of Santa Anna and eventually came to a halt on April 8 ∼10 m from the cemetery at Torre Annunziata (Fig. 2). The central crater was the site of explosive activity which increased in intensity early on April 8. At 00.30 h there were strong explosions and an earthquake, and at 02.30 h a violent earthquake and emission of ash covered the north east sector of the volcano with a considerable quantity of tephra (both ash and lapilli). The villages of Ottajano (now named Ottaviano) and S. Giuseppe (Fig. 2) were badly affected and tephra reached a thickness of 1.25 m, causing several buildings to collapse including a church roof at Ottajano. After 03.30–04.00 h a sub-plinian ash column was generated and during the afternoon reached a height of 13 km. This subplinian phase lasted 18 hours and eroding the walls of the crater, this eventually leading to the collapse of the summit cone. Large volumes of ash were erupted which fell on many settlements in the region including the city of Naples, while heavy rainfall generated lahars causing extensive damage particularly in and around Ottajano. When the eruption ended, 216 people had been killed and 122 injured in S. Giuseppe and Ottajano and 11 killed and 30 injured in Naples. An estimated 20 × 106 m3 of lava was produced. Vesuvius was reduced in height by 115 m and the new crater was 700 m across and 600 m deep.

Initial phase (April 4–8)

Second phase (April 8) Final phase (April 9–22) Effects of the eruption

disparaging, for instance, about religious reactions to the eruption (page 6), particularly those of women, and he maintains a soldiers disdain for local authorities in general and politicians in particular (page 8). The account is at its best when reporting factual matters rather than when commenting upon them and, although the numbers of dead and injured are estimates made in the field (page 5) — more accurate figures being available from more recent sources (e.g. Nazzaro, 1997; Anon, 2007a), the report provides excellent information on many aspects of the eruption. Particularly noteworthy are Delmé-Radcliffe's detailed accounts of the damage caused to towns and villages from lava flows and tephra fall (pages 1–6), and the military's role in civil defence and disaster relief (pages 6–9). Col. Delmé-Radcliffe produced his work quickly. He was still making field observation on Saturday 14 (page 4), yet had forwarded his dispatch to Sir Edward Egerton by Monday April 16 (page 1). Despite this haste, the only obvious error is in some of the arithmetic in the Table on page 8. Corrections are provided by the authors.

2. Delmé-Radcliffe's report Page 1 BRITISH FOREIGN OFFICE: NORTHERN AND WESTERN EUROPE [April 28.] CONFIDENTIAL SECTION 1: [14404] No. 1. Sir E. Egerton1 to Sir Edward Grey2 (Received April 28) (No. 62) Rome, April 25, 1906. Sir, I HAVE the honour to transmit to you herewith a Report which I have received from Colonel DelméRadcliffe, Military Attaché to His Majesty's Embassy. I have, &c. (Signed) EDWIN H. EGERTON 1

Sir Edward Egerton (1841–1916). He was British Ambassador to Italy between 1904 and 1908 (Anon, 1916). 2 Sir Edward Grey (1862–1933). At the time of the eruption, Sir Edward Grey was British Foreign Secretary (Anon, 1933).

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Fig. 2. Map showing the products of 1906 eruption. Lava flows are based on information in Perret (1924) and the area covered by tephra on April 8 upon data in Lacroix (1906).

Inclosure in No. 1 Lieutenant-Colonel Delmé-Radcliffe to Sir E. Egerton. Rome, April 16, 1906. Sir, I HAVE the honour to forward, for your information and transmission to the War Office,3 the following Report on my visit to Naples4 on the occasion of the recent eruption of Vesuvius. 3 Until 1963, the department of the British Government responsible for the army. 4 All place names mentioned in the text are shown in Fig. 1.

I left Rome by the night express on Tuesday, the 10th April. The journey was well up to time till within 6 miles5 of Naples. The cloud of smoke from the volcano was then being carried by a southerly breeze directly over Naples. When the train steamed into it, it became suddenly so dark that it was impossible to see one's hand in front of one's face, although a few minutes before we had been in bright sunshine. But this extreme blackness only lasted for about 2 miles.6 The train took

5 6

9.65 km. 3.22 km.

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two hours running the last 5 miles7 into Naples station. Naples itself was covered with a layer, 6 inches8 deep over everything, of very fine volcanic ash, impalpable as the finest fuller's earth9 and yellowish pink in colour. It covered everything like a layer of dirty snow, but had more tendency than snow has to cling to vertical surfaces. The effect was to make Naples silent and apparently deserted. All street sounds were subdued or muffled. The few cart-wheels made no sound; human voices had no reverberation, the few people in the streets went about in great-coats, with umbrellas up and goggles as a protection against the softly falling ash. It was as dark as in a bad yellow London fog. The whole was a strange contrast to the usual brightness and cheerful uproar of Naples. Mr. Neville Rolfe,10 His Majesty's Consul-General in Naples, kindly accompanied me to the “Comando militare”11 and introduced me to General Tarditi, commanding the 19th Division, Xth Army Corps. I explained to General Tarditi that I was anxious to know what military arrangements had been made to mitigate the disaster, and to see all that I might be allowed to see. General Tarditi introduced me to Major Zacconi, attached to the General Staff. This officer gave me all the information I asked for, and placed returns and plans at my disposal without any reservation. In addition he procured me the written authority of the Chief of the Staff of the Xth Army Corps to visit the cordon of troops round Vesuvius, and directing the various officers in command to aid me as much as possible. Nothing could exceed the friendliness and courtesy with which I was treated at every place I went to, or the readiness with which assistance was given me. On Wednesday, by the time I had finished my interviews at the “Comando militare,” it was too late to make any attempt to reach the volcano. No boat would run, or vehicle either, but there was a prospect of getting a tug next day to go to Torre Annunziata. During the 11th there was some disturbance in Naples owing to the mob endeavouring to break into the Prefecture. The whole town was almost immediately occupied by troops–companies of infantry were marched into all the principal

buildings and squares, and the streets were patrolled by cavalry. After this…. Page 2 nothing further occurred. I saw the 21st regiment of “Cavalleggiere”12 march into the square in front of the Palace. They had covered the 30 kilom.13 from Caserta in exactly three hours, walk and trot, the Colonel told me. The horses were light, but showed breeding; they were not at all distressed, though in heavy marching order. The men seemed at home on their horses – they were probably all country lads accustomed to riding – but their notions of drill were elementary. The Colonel explained that half the men had only been twenty days in the ranks. Taking this into consideration, the appearance of the regiment was decidedly creditable. The material in men and horses looked good. In patrolling the streets the troops' manner with the people was quiet and tactful. His Majesty's Consul-General, Mr. Neville Rolfe, kindly made arrangements with a local Steam-ship Company for the use of a tug next day. On Thursday, the 12th April, I left Naples with Mr. Rolfe at 9 A.M. for Torre Annunziata. As far as Torre del Greco we steamed very slowly through the dense cloud of volcanic ash. It was necessary to sound the fog-horn constantly, but at last it began to get a little lighter, and we came near the Italian cruiser “Carlo Alberto” covered with a khaki coating of ash. At the same time the coast near Torre del Greco, 400 yards14 away, loomed, deserted and ghost-like, into sight — trees, houses, and everything the same pale grey colour. From this point it got clearer every moment, and we were able to go full steam ahead, in clear sunshine, to Torre Annunziata. Here there was no dust and no damage done at all. The people were in the streets, and the only unusual thing was the great cauliflower of smoke from Vesuvius, rising 9,000 feet15 into the air behind the town (photograph No. 1).16 An officer of Carabinieri17 conducted me to the headquarters of Major-General Confalonieri, who received

12

7

8.05 km. 8 15.24 cm. 9 Fuller's earth is a fine grained sedimentary rock that contains a high proportion of smectite clay minerals, especially montmorillonite. Traditionally used for cleaning (i.e. fulling) cloth, it now has a variety of industrial uses which exploit its property of being able to absorb grease and oil (based on Anon, 2006 and other sources). 10 Mr. Eustace Neville-Rolfe (1845–1908), British Consul General in Naples 9 (Anon, 1908). 11 Military Command.

Light cavalry. km. 14 366 m. 15 2743 m. 16 The photograph is not reproduced. This is an original footnote in the British Library manuscript. All the photographs in the original (1906) dispatch were lost by the time the printed version of DelméRadcliffe's report was reproduced in 1933. All further references to photographs are, therefore, deleted. 17 The Carabinieri are police who carry out both civil and military duties. 13

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me very kindly, said he was delighted to be of any assistance to an English comrade, and sent an orderly officer to conduct me round the zone under his command. This officer was most obliging and indefatigable in satisfying my curiosity. Just outside the town of Torre Annunziata we reached the edge of the lava stream, which had stopped abruptly just outside the cemetery. The lava was hot and incandescent underneath and smoking in several places. The surface had cooled and broken into extremely rough, dark neutral-tinted masses and clods, of high specific gravity, excessively rough to walk over. Beneath it was forming a solid, unbroken mass of rock. The stream was about a quarter of a mile18 wide and had divided into two in Boscotrecase. The depth of the lava was from 20 to 60 feet19 in places. It had irresistibly overwhelmed everything in its track and burnt up everything inflammable. Its speed had been on the average 10 metres a minute, but in steep places much more. It had stopped with curious abruptness, and remained standing with a very steep slope. Here and there on the surface were lying volcanic bombs up to 3 feet20 in diameter — some were intact, but the majority were burst. When this mass was flowing if was all incandescent, and the whole top of the volcano was covered with incandescent ash. The officers at Boscotrecase told me it was very easy to read a paper by the light of it at midnight on the 7th–8th. The wind was southerly, and this side of the volcano was then clear. During the emission of lava and lapilli the dynamic activity gave rise to an extraordinary series of reports, which the officers at Boscotrecase said resembled the continuous firing of the heaviest imaginable artillery many times magnified. Mr. Rolfe confirmed this from his experience in Naples, and Captain Grant (Coldstream Guards) gave a similar description of it as heard from Posillipo. The communes of Boscotrecase and Boscoreale were deserted, and, in parts destroyed utterly. The cordon of troops was round them, and only a few of the inhabitants were allowed to bring away some of their property. I was witness to some of the difficulty the troops experienced in keeping evil-disposed people at a distance. The troops were busy making a practical track across the lava in substitution of the main road, directly across which the lava had flowed. The lava had also flowed across the Circum–Vesuvian Railway in two places, and had poured down a deep cutting on it for half a mile, burying the line 30 feet deep in solid rock and destroying on its 18 19 20

402 m. 6.10–12.19 m. 0.91 m.

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surface a solid masonry bridge. At Boscotrecase there used to be a depression, called the “vallone,” about 100 feet deep.21 This happened to be in the course of the lava stream, which filled it up and flowed on over the other side. It may be…. Page 3 assumed that this “vallone” saved Torre Annunziata, for unless it had detained some of the lava the stream might have gone straight across Torre Annunziata into the harbour. The walls of many of the ruined and burnt buildings were left precariously standing, and had to be thrown down or guarded for the moment. From Boscoreale I followed the road through Terzigno to San Giuseppe. At the former place commenced the area in which the lapilli had fallen. These are very rough in shape, and varying in size from a pea to a cherry or a walnut — like very coarse neutral-tinted gravel. The going became very difficult, and vehicles could not proceed beyond Terzigno except when very well horsed — like the artillery wagons, and they only when very lightly loaded. At Terzigno the dust and ashes grew more thick in the air, though nothing like on the north side — still, enough to make it impossible to get a photograph except by time exposure. The troops had cleared the road partially, and then civil labour had been requisitioned, but the country people did not display a good or self-reliant spirit. They remained looking on as long as they could at the soldiers working to save their houses, and asking how much they were to he paid for helping them. The officers several times told me that they showed no disposition to help themselves and no appreciation of all that was being done for them. Still, the troops everywhere continued to work for them, and to feed them, with great consideration and patience. Some of the natives, however, had been made to work in Terzigno, clearing the roads, &c. At San Giuseppe the damage was much greater, as here the shower of lapilli had crushed in nearly all the roofs, whereas at Terzigno only a few had given way. The worst disaster had occurred in the church, where the roof fell in, killing 105 people and injuring severely 90 more. For this the priest was not responsible, as the roof was known to be unsafe, and he tried to dissuade them from crowding in. The superstitious people, however, insisted on remaining in the church of their patron saint. Another twenty people were killed in other houses round. In the open space outside the church was a circus, which was immediately improvised as a hospital by the first army medical officer to arrive on the scene. When I visited it there were only a few old and homeless people in it, the injured and dead

21

30.48 m.

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having been removed. The place was strongly occupied by troops, engineers and infantry, engaged in the rescue work, and the inhabitants remaining were using temporary shelters outside the houses. The return journey to Naples was very slow, and we ran into the dense cloud of ash off Portici again, and could only steam about 2 knots an hour22 for the remaining distance. On Friday, the 13th April, I visited the north and north-eastern side of Vesuvius. Captain Holme, R.E,23 and Sir Hedworth Williamson24 accompanied me on this occasion, and we succeeded in getting as far as Somma Vesuviana very slowly in two traps. The road all the way was 6 inches25 to a foot deep in volcanic ash, and the country had an extraordinary and desolate appearance, as if covered with dirty snow, or as if an Egyptian or Punjaub26 dust-storm had just passed over it. The whole atmosphere was opaque khaki-colour in front, and got thicker and darker as we proceeded into the cloud of ash. We met the lunatics from the Pollena Asylum being conveyed in carts to Naples, and we saw some dead horses. Dead animals were rare, and I think those that died did so from hunger, thirst, and overwork in the crisis. Beyond Somma Vesuviana it was impossible to proceed in our traps, as here the area of ash gave place to one of lapilli, which grew thicker and thicker towards Ottajano. Major-General Durelli, Commanding Engineer in Naples, very kindly consented to our coming on his engine27 as far as Ottajano.28 He was making a visit of inspection, and bringing up some truck-loads of supplies. The line ran all the way through a sort of cutting in the layer of lapilli covering the earth, which had been cleared from the line. We were shown over Ottajano by an officer of the 45th Infantry Regiment, who took great pains in explaining all the details. At Ottajano was a train which had been buried by the lapilli, and dug out again by the troops. In Somma Vesuviana only a few houses had given way, but in Ottajano hardly a house was intact. Here and there a small portion of a sloping roof was left, but the only building quite intact was a strongly built distillery with steel girders and a sloping roof. The ruin of the town was complete. We struggled through or over piles of lapilli, sometimes on a level with the first floors of the houses, 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

3.70 km h− 1. i.e. Royal Engineers. A British visitor. 15.24 cm. i.e. Punjabi. i.e. locomotive. This settlement is now called Ottaviano (see Fig. 1).

sometimes over prostrate ruins, and always with the same spectacle of burst-in roofs, floors, and burst-out walls, doors, and windows, with the troops…. Page 4 still digging in the rubble and lapilli in the hopes of extracting somebody still alive. The bulk of the population escaped when the shower began. About ninety bodies were recovered in Ottajano, and a few individuals were dug out alive. One old man of 80 was extricated just when we arrived, having been digging in the dark with a piece of broken water-pot-without knowing it, away from safety — for five days, and all the time without food. As at San Giuseppe and San Gennaro, the shower of lapilli commenced in the middle of the night, and went on for some four hours in absolute darkness. It is extraordinary that the number of dead is not greater. On Saturday, the 14th April, Lord Rosebery29 very kindly took me as far as Torre Annunziata in the Royal Yacht Squadron steam-ship “Zaida,” where he wished to see the lava stream in Boscotrecase. After half-an-hour on shore here we returned, and I was dropped at Torre del Greco with Captain Grant. The troops had been working with the same good-will and effect here as elsewhere. The railway had been opened again, and things were resuming their normal aspect. The ash at Torre del Greco, Resina, and Portici had been about a foot deep,30 and the feature of these communes was the immense heaps of it lying in all the streets, thrown down from the roofs, &c. Here only a few houses had given way, though at the beginning the panic and distress had been very great. In all the area chiefly affected by the eruption I noticed a curious absence of insect and bird life, though a large number of small bats could be seen all day, flying about in the dense fog of the volcanic ash, presumably feeding on some minute insects. 2.1. The Damage done by the Eruption The various outbreaks of Vesuvius are ascribed to an inflow of sea-water into the lower anatomy of the volcano, which produces the steam furnishing the energy for the eruption, and the oxygen which encourages the vast fires producing the streams of incandescent lava. This apparently sufficient theory is supported by the 29

Lord Rosebery (Archibald Philip Primrose) 1847–1929. Rosebery was British Prime Minister between 1894–5 (Rhodes-James, 1963). He was visiting the Bay of Naples by the private yacht, Zaida. 30 30.48 cm.

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undoubted fact that a vast quantity of steam issues from the volcano, condensing in some cases so rapidly as to be precipitated as water-rain round the volcano though the weather may be perfectly fair. Further, the traces of salty inflorescence31 to be noticed here and there where the ash had fallen on damp spots favoured the theory connected with sea-water. All the outbreaks of Vesuvius appear to have been curiously similar in their course. It is easy to form a very convincing picture in one's mind of the destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum after having seen Ottajano buried in lapilli and Boscotrecase overwhelmed in lava. In this eruption a very curious feature is the odd distribution of the three agencies of destruction. In Boscotrecase and Boscoreale, almost due south of the crater, was the great stream of lava; on a section extending from Torre del Greco, south–west of the crater, round to Sant' Anastasia, due north of the crater, was the area covered by volcanic ash; from Somma Vesuviana, the sector as far as Terzigno was afflicted with lapilli. In the area where each of these agencies were at work none of the others intruded. The lava followed the line dictated by the force of gravity as it left the crater. The lapilli and ashes, however, were carried up to a great height — the ashes, being lighter, much higher than the lapilli. It thus came about that one current of air from the south–west carried the lapilli in a north–east direction, while a higher south–east current carried the ashes in a north–west direction. Both lapilli and ashes were deposited in a rapidly decreasing quantity in proportion to the distance from the crater and the divergence from the median line of direction. Thus the greatest depth of the lapilli was about Ottojano and San Giuseppe, and less at Somma Vesuviana and Terzigno and the points farther out from the crater. At Torre del Greco, Resina, Portici, San Giorgio, and San Sebastiano the ashes were a foot or 18 inches32 deep, at Naples only 6 inches33 deep, and at Posillipo only 2 inches.34 Where the lava went ruin was absolute. Houses, vineyards, soil, &c., were destroyed beyond recovery in our lifetime. This area of complete destruction is, however, rigidly confined to the exact number of acres covered by the lava stream. Taking the average width of this at 400 yards,35 and its length, over 31 The author may have chosen the wrong word, inflorescence meaning the arrangements of flowers on a stem. The correct word is probably ‘fluorescence’ meaning luminescence. 32 45.72 cm. 33 15.24 cm. 34 5.08 cm. 35 366 m.

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cultivated land as 4,000 yards,36 the area of complete ruin would be about 330 acres.37 I think it is safe to say that it does not extend above 500 acres.38 But it includes a considerable number of houses (perhaps a hundred) in Boscotrecase and Boscoreale…. Page 5 In Torre del Greco, Resina, and Portici the population depends chiefly on the sea for its livelihood, and has been little affected. The damage done by the layer of volcanic dust may be regarded as temporary only — something like what would be produced by a heavy fall of snow. Its weight as it fell is only about 3 cwt.39 to the cubic metre, according to Major-General Durelli; that of the lapilli must be about 15 cwt.40; 1 ton41 of compact rammed earth occupies about 1 cubic metre. The lightness of the ash accounts for the small amount of crushing effect even where it fell thickest. The chemical analysis has shown that it contains deleterious matter only in small quantities, which will be driven off by exposure, and fertilizing matter, which will improve the soil as it gets incorporated with it. As all the area north– west of Vesuvius is practically one huge market garden, from which vegetables are exported even as far as Northern Europe, it may be assumed that for the next three months this industry has been crippled; but after that time it will be as flourishing as ever. The injury caused by the lapilli is much more permanent. The whole area affected – say the rectangle contained by lines drawn from the crater 6 miles42 east through Terzigno and 6 miles43 north through Somma Vesuviana (but of this the part for 1 1/2 miles44 round the crater is not cultivated) – amounts to about 30 square miles,45 or, roughly, 18,000 to 20,000 acres.46 In this the fall is about 6 feet deep round Ottajano, diminishing to a few inches only along the diagonal beyond Piazzolla and San Gennaro, and on each side at Terzigno and Somma Vesuviana. The whole town of Ottajano may be regarded as completely destroyed; about a quarter of San

36

3660 m. 134 ha. 38 202 ha. 39 The abbreviation cwt refers to the UK (Imperial) measure known as the hundredweight. This is equivalent to ∼ 152 kg (assuming that the UK ‘long’ hundredweight is being used by the author). 40 ∼ 762 kg. 41 The ton (or ‘long ton’) is a UK (Imperial) measure. This is equivalent to 1.016 tonne or 1,016 kg. 42 9.65 km. 43 9.65 km. 44 2.41 km. 45 77.7 km2. 46 7285–8094 ht. 37

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Giuseppe and San Gennaro is destroyed, and only a few houses are injured elsewhere. The damage to the vines where the lapilli are deepest must be great, and all other crops must be destroyed. Where the lapilli are only a few inches47 deep I believe the vines will recover, and the soil can be worked over so as to be fit for other crops. I would assume, therefore, that only about a third of this area of 18,000 acres,48 or, say, 5,000 acres,49 is permanently ruined. The number of killed I believe to be very nearly as follows: 105 in San Giuseppe Church; about 20 more in San Giuseppe town, and the same number in San Gennaro; about 100 altogether in Ottajano; and, say, 50 more in all in other places. I think it safe to say that the deaths barely exceed 300, and the injured, perhaps, amount to the same number. The damage done may thus be summed up: — Deaths, 300; injured, 300. Ottajano quite destroyed; San Giuseppe, San Gennaro, and Boscotrecase partly so; a few other individual houses ruined. In all, perhaps 15,000 people have been rendered homeless. Land permanently unfit for cultivation: 500 acres50 at Boscotrecase and about 6,000 acres51 near Ottajano. Land rendered unfit for a crop this year: 12,000 acres52 round Ottajano, &c. Land rendered unfit for a crop for three months: all the area west of Vesuvius as far as the line running due north from Posillipo. The people in need of assistance are those rendered homeless, those dependent on the killed and on the land rendered permanently unfit for cultivation. I think 20,000 is the limit in number of this class. Temporary relief or help is required for those dependent on the land temporarily unproductive. Remembering that the coast town population are mainly dependent on the sea, I think it will be safe to estimate the number in this class at not more than another 30,000. I have thought it worth while, in view of the exaggerated, absurd, and hysterical statements that have appeared in many papers, to make a sober estimate, as close as the facts and figures at my disposal permit, of the actual damage caused by the eruption. A certain amount of excuse must be made for those who have lived through what must have seemed a cataclysm, with its dangers of

unknown extent, the darkness, the contagious terror and natural discomfort; but viewed in the cold light of day the area affected is really small, the permanent damage only at Boscotrecase and Ottajano, and the number requiring organized help no more than such a rich neighbourhood, assisted by the generous contributions already poured in from all directions, can easily afford to a class of people so frugal and easily satisfied in the matter of the necessities of life. It is said that a large number of the homeless will certainly emigrate to America. Any relief measure that may be adopted should encourage the people to work for themselves. At present they seem to think that they can leave all efforts for making… . Page 6 good the damage done to the Government, to the troops, or to charity. During the eruption, beyond running away, the utmost the people did to help themselves was to carry about, images of their saints in front of the lava in processions, which largely consisted of women and girls, with their hair loosened, wailing and singing. This strikes the feminine spectator as very “touching” and picturesque, but is really a pitiful exhibition of superstition, a mixture of vanity and hysteria on the part of the women and indolence and ignorance in the men. It is also deplorably unpractical. If subscriptions are sent, great care should be exercised that the sums of money should pass through hands that may be relied on to insure that the assistance reaches those for whom it is intended. The Duchess of Aosta's53 fund or an English fund would be quite safe, but of subscriptions made to newspapers, hotel proprietors, Associations, Neapolitan Mayors' fund, &c., it is probable that little or nothing would reach those in distress. One of the after-consequences of the eruption has been to increase the bitterness felt towards Germany in Italy resulting from the Emperor's telegram to Count Goluchowski.54 Rightly or wrongly, the general impression in the Italian press favourable to Germany seems to be that the German press and nation have shown a singular lack of sympathy with Italy in this misfortune. The papers and individuals hostile to Germany – an increasing quantity – denounce the German attitude as sheer brutality.

53

47 48 49 50 51 52

i.e. centimeters. 7285 ht. 2024 ht. 202 ht. 2428 ht. 4856 ht.

Duke Emmanuel Philbert Aosta (1869–1931), son of the King Amadeus of Spain and cousin of King Vittorio Emanuele III of Italy. In the First World War he was one of Italy's most successful generals (Anon, 2007b). 54 Count Goluchowski was Foreign Minister of Austria–Hungary. Many newspapers in Italy felt that the German Emperor should have also thanked Italy's foreign minister for his efforts in the recently completed Algerciras Conference. For further details see Bosworth (1983, pp. 54–5).

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I think it is no exaggeration to say that the incident has dealt a blow to the already waning popularity of the Triple Alliance in Italy.55 In contrast with the German real or supposed attitude, the Italians welcome the manifestations of sympathy shown in all parts of the world, and especially those received from England and France, with their practical offers of naval assistance and the large sums subscribed for the distressed population of Vesuvius. 2.2. The military arrangements in detail The eruption reached its greatest intensity on the night of Saturday, the 7th–8th April. On the previous days there had been no threatening symptoms, and no warning had been received from the observatory indicating unusual danger. But there had been more smoke than usual for some days past, and on Friday a crater had opened 3 or 4 kilom.56 north of Boscotrecase, from which a copious stream of lava flowed. An officer who saw this told me that it spouted sideways like a stream of water from a tap, 20 metres in diameter, and quite incandescent. As this seemed to threaten damage to the village, the first body of troops was sent to Torre Annunziata from Naples as a precautionary measure. It consisted of 100 infantry with ten wagons. Next day another company of sappers of the Engineers was sent, and a further party of 100 men with ten waggons to each of the townships of Torre del Greco and Portici. At dawn on the morning of the 8th, and before the particulars of the damage done by the violent eruption in the night had reached Naples, the Duke of Aosta, commanding the Xth Army Corps, fearing that the volcanic activity might become greater, issued orders for surrounding the mountain with a complete cordon of troops for succouring the people. The whole area occupied was divided into “zones,” each under the orders of a Colonel or Major-General, and troops and supplies of all sorts were pushed up as information and requisitions were received from the first line. As early as the 6th April the General Officer Commanding at Salerno had been ordered to transfer his head-quarters to Nocera, to be nearer to Vesuvius. This cordon was divided between the 19th Division (of Naples), with brigades at Torre del Greco and Sant' Anastasia, and the 20th Division (of Salerno) at Nocera, with brigades at Torre Annunziata and Ottajano. Owing to the fact that the disaster was more extensive near 55 In the years before the First World War was in an alliance with Germany and Austria. 56 km.

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Torre del Greco and Ottajano, sub-zones were created on the 9th at those places and Resina, Portici, San Giorgio a Cremano, and Terzigno, and San Giuseppe and San Gennaro di Palma were strongly reinforced. In rear of this first line a second, also divided into zones, was formed to reinforce the first line and to succour the people farther from Vesuvius who, affected by the ashes and lapilli, were in immediate want of help. This second line was divided into commands, with head-quarters at Marigliano, Nola, Palma, Nocera, and Poggiomarino. From the first it was recognized that it was useless to attempt to combat the volcano by diverting the lava streams or by preparing artificial protection against… . Page 7 the ashes and lapilli. All the efforts of the troops were directed towards warning the population when danger was imminent, keeping communications open, removing the sick and injured to the field hospitals established in each zone, carrying away in carts, &c., all unable to move themselves, searching for and burying the dead, digging out the living buried under the lapilli, feeding the population where necessary, searching for and supporting the refugees, protecting property from robbery, fire, &c., throwing down buildings in a dangerous condition, &c. When the first phase was over, the troops continued to help, support, and encourage the population in every possible way, and to maintain order. They were assisted by the few local Carabinieri, &c., who stuck to their posts well. The three military supply depôts at Naples, Nola, and Nocera furnished preserved and fresh rations on requisition from the Officers Commanding the various zones. The troops cooked the food and issued it whenever wanted. The method adopted was for the Syndic57 or Mayor of each commune (or somebody acting for that functionary, who in many cases had run away) to issue stamped tallies to all requiring food. These tallies were then exchanged for a ration with the officer commanding the company making the issue. Everywhere could be seen crowds of people surrounding the companies of troops, who were issuing from their own cooking-pots complete rations, exactly similar to their own, in return for the tallies handed in. Fortunately all the telegraph lines remained intact except in one or two spots. In some instances the civilian operators ran away; their places were at once taken by soldiers, and touch was maintained almost without interruption.

57

i.e. Sindaco.

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The railway was blocked along the coast between San Giovanni and Torre Scassato, and communication was restored by the troops clearing the line on the 13th April. Between Sant' Anastasia and San Giuseppe the line was buried several feet deep in lapilli. The troops opened up communications with Ottajano by the 14th, and as far as San Giuseppe nest day. Near Boscoreale the Circum–Vesuvian Railway was buried 20 feet58 under lava in two places, each about half a mile59 long. This is serious damage, and will take a long time to make good. The total number of the troops employed in the first line amounted to about 7000 men and about 200 waggons. In addition to the above, 4,000 troops, 1,000 sailors, and 60 waggons were kept in reserve in Naples, and a similar number of troops in Nocera aud Salerno to be ready in case of necessity. The remaining troops of the Xth Army Corps were kept under arms, especially in Naples, as a precaution against the troublesome and threatening elements of the population. These had been excited by the Socialist propaganda and the infamous press, which abused the authorities and the army in the most unjustifiable manner for malicious, private, and political reasons. It would have been easy to largely increase the numbers of the troops in the first line round the mountain, but a greater number would have added very much to the difficulty in supplying them. Besides, the Staff had always to remember that in addition to the volcano they had a possibly worse enemy to watch in the mob in Naples. To replace temporarily the troops forming the cordon round Vesuvius, seven battalions of infantry and nine companies of Engineers were drafted into Naples from the 9th Army Corps (head-quarters Rome). These troops brought with them 50 waggons, 4,600 shovels, 2,800 pickaxes, 660 sledge-hammers, and other tools, which were sent up to the first line at once. Practically all the spare artillery waggons in the command (not including mobilization vehicles) were sent to the “front.” In addition, all the available country carts and animals were requisitioned. These were employed in carrying away refugees, gaol-prisoners, lunatics from the asylum at Pollena, nuns from the convents, schoolchildren, &c., and in bringing up requisitioned and magazine supplies. Where the ash and “lapilli” were thickest it was found impossible to get the waggons up. Recourse was then had to sending up supplies in small packets by hand and by using the artillery and cavalry horses as improvised pack58 59

6.1 m. 0.80 km.

animals. By this means, for instance, a ton and a-half 60 of bread was daily distributed in Somma Vesuviana alone. Free kitchens were instituted and superintended by the military authorities in every commune, on the fourth and fifth days, civilian labour and requisitioned supplies from the districts nearest the mountain being made use of. In addition to daily supply for the use of the troops, the following is the issue made from the mobilization supply depôt in Naples for the use of the distressed population on the requisition of the Officers Commanding in the several “zones”: — …. Page 8 Date

April 8 April 9 April 10 April 11 April 12 April 13 April 14

Rations of Bread, 1 1/2 Kilogramme each

2,025 7,700 18,559 14,228 9,810 9,784 12,400 32,000 kept in reserve Total 106,506 Weight, Lb 61 say 351,170 62

Kilogrammes Preserved of Biscuit complete Rations 1 1/2 Kilogramme units

1-Kilogramme Tins of Preserved Meat

2,000

500 2,720 3,850 2,830 2,160 4,200

8,100

9,194 Lb

16,260 Lb

9,600 Lb

20,226

53,658 63

21,120

2,026 3,068 2,100

1,500

Total, say, 446,474 lb. (English) of food, or enough to supply 32,000 people with 2 lb of food daily.64 A similar issue was made from the supply depôts at Nola and Nocera, but the figures could not be given me when I left Naples on the night of the 14th. The above Table does not include the rations that were supplied to the refugees who were lodged and fed in large numbers in the barracks temporarily vacated by the troops. At first, of course, some supplies were available in the villages themselves. When these were exhausted the number of rations requisitioned from the supply depôts and the supplies called in from the

60

1.52 tonne or 1524 kg. Standard abbreviation is lb. 62 The kg to pound (lb) conversion is in error. At 2.2 kg/lb, the figure should read 234,313 lb. 63 The kg to pound (lb) conversion is in error. At 2.2 kg/lb, the figure should read 35,772 lb. 64 It is because of the errors noted above, that the sentence should read: ‘Total, say, 311,474 lb. (English) of food or enough to supply 32,000 people with ∼1.4 lb. (∼0.64 kg.) of food daily’. 61

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surrounding communes for distribution from the free kitchens increased very much. From the mobilization supply depôts were issued also large quantities of tools and materials, such as tents, bedding, lanterns, &c., for the use of the people, but still leaving a large reserve in store. The wise forethought and the soldier — like promptitude of the Duke of Aosta, the extent and adequacy of the relief measures adopted, the excellent work of the staff in this sudden emergency, the readiness of all the troops (all left their barracks in full marching order with three days' rations within a couple of hours of being alarmed), and this steadiness and self-sacrificing work of all ranks show the Xth Army Corps of the Italian army in a very flattering light. The work done has been such as any army might be proud of. It is no exaggeration to say that, but for the efforts of the military authorities, the death roll would have been four times as heavy and the misery infinitely greater. It must be remembered that the civil authorities did absolutely nothing to rise to the occasion for several days. The military authorities, in the most tactful and modest manner, said that their work was not intended to usurp the work of the civil authorities but merely to supplement it. They pointed out that the civil authorities had no mechanism to deal with such a crisis, and admitted reluctantly that they had been thrown off their guard by the suddenness of it. It was a week before the Naples civil authorities began to support the troops by taking over part of the responsibility of looking after the homeless and foodless. Many of the local Mayors, priests, railway, telegraph people, &c., ran away from their posts and have incurred severe condemnation from the King in consequence. On the other hand, there have been several instances of pluck and devotion to duty on the part of individuals — generally retired officers or men who had served in the army or navy, and who joined and helped the troops. The behaviour of the troops was altogether admirable. It is not easy to form an adequate idea of the conditions under which they worked – a suffocating cloud of volcanic dust, sometimes almost complete darkness, no rest, the close and continued menace of the volcano, a panic – stricken and flying population, destruction on all sides — and this going on for days together at some points. But the men stuck to their work with patient pluck, discipline, and a sympathetic consideration for the people worthy of ample recognition. The example by the King and Queen of Italy65 and by the Duke and Duchess of Aosta was inspiring to all. It 65

Vittorio Emanuele III (1869–1947). He reigned from 1900 to 1946 and his consort was Queen Elena formerly of Montenegro (1873–1952).

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is nothing, of course, for men and soldiers like the King and the Duke of Aosta to go where their troops were working, but for the…. Page 9 Queen and Duchess to have gone over and over again into the worst part of the afflicted area touched the people very much. The spectacle will not easily be forgotten of the Duchess of Aosta riding a troop horse on a trooper's saddle, the only means of getting over the deep layer of lapilli at San Giuseppe; or of the Queen coming through the dark cloud of ash covered with mud from head to foot, owing to the hot rain precipitated by the volcano, to visit the ruins of Ottajano. The splendid behaviour of Commendatore Manteucci66 and his Carabinieri has been frequently referred to in the press. The Italian fleet was occupied in taking off the population of the coast towns as far as Torre Annunziata, but I gather that considerable nervousness was felt in the ships near the coast in the darkness caused by the eruption, and in bringing the boats dose in to embark off the refugees. More than one Italian officer said what an unlucky accident it was that Lord Charles Beresford67 had left just before the eruption with the British fleet. They said it would have been splendid if the English sailor had been there to give fraternal help. The arrival of the “Leviathan” and “Lancaster” was referred to with great satisfaction by the staff officers in the “Comando militare” in Naples. The eruption of Vesuvius has given occasion for military dispositions which afford an extremely interesting and suggestive study. It is clear that the staff work is extremely good, and it furnishes strong presumptive proof that a supply and commissariat organization that could respond so quickly and completely to this comparatively small, though unexpected, demand would also be fully equal to the more serious calls of war. It is clear that the Italian Staff have closely copied thorough organization of their model – the German army – and that the unseen important work of the supply departments of the army has not been scamped or starved, although the Estimates for the whole army amount to little more than 11,000,000 l68 per annum.

66 Raffaele Vittorio Matteucci at the time Director of the Osservatorio Vesuviano. He was decorated for his role in observing and responding to the eruption (Anon, 2007c). 67 Lord Charles Beresford (1846–1919), British Admiral. 68 Lira.

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The Xth Army Corps also is not one of those supposed to be the pick of the army and the most ready for war, as are those in Northern Italy. Further, the whole history of the eruption is eloquent testimony to the value of military discipline from the broad national point of view. As a military study it appears to be as valuable as most prearranged manoeuvres especially as at manoeuvres in Italy the Military Attachés are carefully shepherded into positions where they can see nothing. The frankness and kindness of the staff of the Xth Army Corps I ascribe partly to the fact that I was the only Military Attaché present, and partly to the desire to make an English officer really welcome on this occasion. I have, &c. (Signed) C. Delmé-Radcliffe Military Attaché Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank the British Library, Boston Spa, Wetherby, West Yorkshire LS23 7BQ, for permission to reproduce Lt. Col. Sir Charles Delmé-Radcliffe's report. © The British Library. All Rights Reserved. Report by Lt. Col. Delmé-Radcliffe on conditions following the eruption of Vesuvius in 1906. British Foreign Office, London (report 14404 1) British library shelfmark B.P. 2/3 (6a). Mrs Sandra Mather, Department of Geography, University of Liverpool, is also acknowledged for expertly producing the figures. References Anon, 1908. Obituary: Sir Eustace Neville-Rolfe. The Times, London, p. 15 (December 16, col. d.). Anon, 1933. Obituary: Lord Grey. The Times, London, p. 7 (September 8, col. a-g.). Anon, 1937. Obituary. Brig. Gen. Sir C. Delmé-Radcliffe — With Italy in the War. The Times, London, p. 18 (December 14, col. b.). Anon, 2006. Fuller's earth. British Geological Survey, Mineral Planning Factsheet, Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, London. 6 pp. Anon, 2007a. Storia del Vesuvio: L' eruuzione del 1906. Osservatorio Vesuviano. http://www.ov.ingv.it/italiano/vesuvio/storia/1906.htm (last accessed 24/5/07). Anon, 2007b. Who's Who: Duke of Aosta. First World War. http://www. firstworldwar.com/bio/aosta.htm - (last accessed 12/6/07). Anon, 2007c. L' Osservatorio Vesuviano nel 1906. http://www.ov.ingv.it/ italiano/vesuvio/storia/1906/osservatorio.html - (last accessed 12/6/07). Benson, C., 2007. The cost of disasters. http://www.benfieldhrc.org/ activities/misc_papers/DEVRISK/BENSON.HTM - (last accessed 14/6/07).

Bosworth, R., 1983. Italy and the Approach of the First World War. Macmillan, London. 174 pp. Blong, R., 1984. Volcanic Hazards. Academic Press, Sydney Australia. 424 pp. Delmé-Radcliffe, C., 1903. Part of the Nile Province. Surveyed by Major C. Delmé-Radcliffe 1901. Geographical Journal 21 (2), 162–164. Delmé-Radcliffe, C., 1906. Report by Lt. Col. Delmé-Radcliffe on Conditions Following the Eruption of Vesuvius in 1906. British Foreign, H.M.S.O., London. (report 14404 1, 9 pp.). Delmé-Radcliffe, Sir C., 1908. A territorial army in being: a practical study of the Swiss Militia by Lt. Col. C. Delmé-Radcliffe and the Norwedian militia by J.W. Lewis, with a preface by Field-Marshal Earl Roberts. John Murray, London. 132 pp. Guest, J., Cole, P., Duncan, A., Chester, D., 2003. Volcanoes of Southern Italy. Geological Society of London, London. 283 pp. Hobbs, W.H., 1906. The grand eruption of Vesuvius in 1906. Journal of Geology 7, 636–655. Johnston-Lavis, H.J., 1909. The eruption of Vevusius in April 1906. Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society 9, 139–208. Kilburn, C., Mc Guire, B., 2001. Italian Volcanoes. Terra Publications, Harpenden. 166 pp. Lacroix, A., 1906. L'eruption du Vésuve en Avril 1906. Revue Générale des Sciences: 20 and 21 (20 Octobre et 14 Novembre — A. Colin, Paris), no page numbers. Lacroix, A., 1908. La Montagne Pelée après ses éruptions, avec obervations sur les éruptions du Vésuve en 79 et en 1906. Masson, Paris. 138 pp. Lirer, L., Chirosca, M.C., Nunno, R., Petrosino, P., Grimaldi, M., 2005. Il Vesuvio Ieri, Oggi, Domani. Regione Campania, Napoli. 150 pp. Maddison, A., 2006. Historical Statistics for the World Economy: 1–2003 AD. http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/Historical_Statistics/ horizontal-file-10-2006.xls - (last accessed 14/6/07). Mercalli, G., 1908. Il Vesuvio dopo l'eruzione del 1906. Natura ed Arte 1, 11–19. Nazzaro, A., 1997. Il Vesuvio - storia eruttiva e teorie vulcanogiche. Ed. Liguori, Napoli, pp, 368. Officer, L.H. 2007. Economic History Services. EH.net http://eh.net/ hmit/exchangerates/answer?yBegin=1906&yEnd=1913&nation% 5B% (last accessed 29/5/07). Perret, F.A., 1924. The Vesuvius Eruption of 1906. Carnegie Institution, Washington DC. 339 pp. Rhodes-James, R., 1963. Rosebery: A Biography of Archibald Philip, Fifth Earl of Rosebery. Weidenfield and Nicolson, London. 529 pp. Rosi, M., Principe, C., Vecci, R., 1993. The 1631 Vesuvius eruption. A reconstruction based on historical and stratigraphical data. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 58, 151–182. Scandone, R., Giacomelli, L., Gasparini, P., 1993. Mount Vesuvius: 2000 years of volcanological observations. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 58, 5–25. Scarth, A., Tanguy, J.-C., 2001. Volcanoes of Europe. Terra Publishing, Harpenden. 243 pp. Venturi, L.J., 1910. Italy. In: Hebermann, C.B., Pallen, C.B., Shahan, T.J., Wynn, J.J. (Eds.), Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Catholic Church, vol. 8. The Encycopedia Press, New York, pp. 208–245.