Lifespan Perspectives on Personnel Selection and Recruitment

Chapter 14

Lifespan Perspectives on Personnel Selection and Recruitment Dennis Doverspike1, Catalina Flores2 and Josh VanderLeest2 1

Doverspike Consulting LLC, Stow, OH, United States, 2Psychology Department, The University of Akron, Akron, OH, United States

Human development is a long-term, lifelong, and dynamic process; lifespan theories reflect the turbulent nature of maturation. On the other hand, the human-resource stages of recruitment and selection tend to be rather static, short-term events. Further, in the United States, age discrimination litigation limits the extent to which age can be used as a variable in developing organizational policies or making decisions regarding the recruitment and selection of personnel (Age Discrimination in Employment Act of, 1967; Sterns, Doverspike, & Lax, 2005). Thus, it is not surprising that there is a rather limited body of literature that looks at the influence of lifespan theories on recruitment or selection. Given the paucity of research, why would we volunteer to accept the challenge of authoring a chapter on lifespan perspectives on personnel selection and recruitment? Briefly, we believe that the lifespan perspective can and should inform the practice of recruitment and personnel selection. The lifespan approach offers the perspective of a “changing individual in a changing world,” drawing attention to the interaction between individuals and their contexts or environments, in this case their employers (Riegel, 1976). As workplace demographics change (i.e., the aging workforce), this perspective can shed light on the influence of the lifespan on some of the more static aspects of work, aspects that are typically overlooked by the traditional industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology staffing literature. More specifically, we will argue that the perception of the degree of fit between a person and an organization, person-organization (P-O) fit, is a

Work Across the Lifespan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812756-8.00014-1 © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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cornerstone in the development and application of both recruitment and selection methods. Within the P-O fit literature, there has been an increased recognition of the importance of viewing P-O fit as a dyadic, dynamic process, involving significant changes over time (see the books by KristofBrown & Billsberry, 2012; and by Ostroff & Judge, 2007); a view that aligns nicely with a lifespan approach (Shultz & Olson, 2018). Broadly, the personenvironment (P-E) fit literature has been used as a paradigm for understanding successful aging at work. Continuous improvement of P-E fit across the lifespan, through proactive behavior such as job crafting, is integral for successful aging since changes in each component can result in misfit over time (Kooij, 2015). Thus, P-O fit, as a more specific type of P-E fit, can serve as the linchpin linking lifespan perspectives and selection and recruitment, especially as they impact the candidate experience, or the perceptions of the job seeker regarding the staffing practices engaged in by the employer. A P-O fit framework, incorporating a lifespan approach, offers intriguing possibilities going forward for new programs of research that will more accurately reflect the dynamic and lifelong interactions between people and organizations. Such an integration also offers significant implications for the real-world practice of selection and recruitment as human resource management initiatives.

Our Approach, Assumptions, and a Brief Outline As authors, we approach the integration of lifespan approaches with selection and recruitment from the perspective of our training, which is primarily in I-O psychology. Our assumption is that the audience for this chapter will come from diverse perspectives, including development and lifespan psychologists, gerontologists, other I-O psychologists, and, hopefully, human resource management practitioners. Thus, the material will hopefully be relevant to a wide range of reader backgrounds. In addition, although it is our intention that this chapter will stand alone, we acknowledge that it is embedded in a book among other chapters offering detailed explorations of lifespan and career theories, as well as other human resource topics. As such, we have tried to offer brief synopses of theories or other interventions as needed, without repeating details that can be found elsewhere in this volume. We have also limited ourselves to recruitment and selection; despite the temptation to veer off into other topics, such as training or post-retirement career decision making, where a much richer literature base exists. Our basic thesis is that a lifespan perspective can be particularly relevant in helping us understand how perceptions of P-O fit and the candidate experience are shaped by both job seekers and organizations, during the recruitment and selection process. Of course, we admit that there are other interesting implications of lifespan approaches for selection and placement,

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which we try to mention in our review. As means of a brief outline, in our chapter we will offer a(n): G G G G G

Definition of Critical Terms Overview of Relevant Lifespan Theories Overview of Relevant Career and Career Stage Theories Current Research from a Lifespan-Related Perspective A Possible Avenue for Synthesis: P-O Fit and the Candidate Experience

DEFINITION OF CRITICAL TERMS Despite futuristic visions of virtual companies, the staffing of modern organizations requires that employers continually attract human beings to apply for jobs with the organization (Highhouse, Doverspike, & Guion, 2016). Recruitment and personnel selection are two parts of the staffing function by which organizations find and select new members to fill roles.

Recruitment The design of organizational efforts, practices, activities, and interventions for the primary purpose of attracting people so that they engage in meaningful efforts to apply for jobs is referred to as recruitment (Barber, 1998; Levy, 2017). A classic review of the recruitment literature is offered by Barber (1998), for a more recent review see Ryan and Delany (2017). In recent years, technology has led to significant changes in the manner and methods by which recruitment is conducted. The internet offers unlimited access for companies to reach potential applicants as well as applicants to reach out to companies. If an individual chooses, a person can now be bombarded by daily job posting notices that appear in one’s email inbox, or be constantly networking and using websites such as LinkedIn.

Personnel Selection Usually, more individuals will apply for jobs than the organization can hire, and so the company must screen or choose among applicants; the methods and associated decision-making processes engaged in by management to identify talented individuals who will receive job offers is referred to as personnel selection (see Highhouse et al., 2016). In the United States, personnel selection is shaped by laws, court cases, professional standards, and government guidelines, in particular the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection (EEOC, 1978). The process of personnel selection rests upon the identification of reliable, valid, and bias-free predictors. Popular screening and selection devices include minimum qualifications, interviews, cognitive ability tests, personality assessments, and work sample tests. As with recruitment, the selection process is now more heavily dependent on technology, with

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organizations offering employment websites that not only serve to entice applicants to apply, but offer various assessments for the screening of candidates. As a result, employment tests are often completed on mobile devices, such as smartphones, a change in test delivery that may either benefit or represent a disadvantage for older job seekers (Arthur, Doverspike, Kinney, & O’Connell, 2017; Arthur, Doverspike, Munoz, Taylor, & Carr, 2014). In the United States, individuals most often apply for and are selected for a specific job. However, in some organizations, particularly the military, people may be selected into the organization and then placed into specific jobs, i.e., placement.

Person-Organization Fit Many types of fit are referenced in the I-O psychology literature including person-environment, person-job, person-group, and person-organization (See Kristof, 1996); we use the term P-O fit in a very general way to describe approaches that argue that an individual’s behavior in and toward an organization is influenced by perceptions of the degree of match between the person’s perceived needs, image, knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSA) and the perceived organizational brand, reputation, or image. More specifically, although it is possible to discuss similarity in terms of comparisons of objective characteristics, operationally, we usually define and measure P-O fit in terms of the congruence or distance between perceived characteristics of the individual and perceived characteristics of the organization (Edwards, Cable, Williamson, Lambert, & Shipp, 2006). During recruitment, job applicants are attracted to, put effort into applying to, and are likely to accept job offers from organizations where they believe there is fit between their own image and the perceived image of the organization. An excellent exemplar of a P-O fit approach is Schneider’s (1987) attraction-selection-attrition model, which posited that individuals are attracted to organizations that match their needs, values, and preferences. In turn, organizations attempt to select candidates who are similar to successful incumbents. Individuals whose values are incongruent with the organization tend to leave, either voluntarily or involuntarily. During personnel selection, organizations attempt to identify those individuals where there is a maximum degree of fit between the job candidate and the profile of a talented, successful job performer. Both recruiters and applicants develop and adjust perceptions of fit throughout this process, which influences selection decisions. Thus, recruitment and selection involve a timeless dance of staffing in which the organization manages its impression in an attempt to attract high quality job applicants, while the job candidate also engages in impression management in order to convince the organization to tender a job offer.

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Age and Lifespan Development There are several ways that age has been defined, including functional and psychosocial approaches; our perspective mainly focuses on chronological age, which is most common in the existing literatures (Sterns & Doverspike, 1989). Borrowing from Sterns and Doverspike (1989), chronological agebased research uses years since birth as the defining variable; age is often then dichotomized into younger or older, based on some cutoff value, usually 40 or 55 years of age. Career-based theories arise from the vocational literature and many have employed the concept of a career stage (Hirschi, Nagy, & Froidevaux, 2018); although career stage has often been operationalized as age for measurement purposes. Lifespan perspectives concentrate on the individual adapting to a changing world from birth to death, with an emphasis on the interaction between individuals and their environments. Due to the presence of substantial individual differences, behavioral changes can occur at any point in the life cycle and are not limited to certain age ranges (Riegel, 1976; Sterns & Doverspike, 1989). Worth noting at this point, both P-O fit and lifespan theories emphasize the reciprocal interaction of the individual and the environment or organization.

OVERVIEW OF RELEVANT LIFESPAN THEORIES We first conducted a fairly comprehensive review in order to identify studies that took a lifespan perspective to recruitment and selection. We found very little, apart from a few studies examining age, which are discussed in the next section. In response to the paucity of research, we identified major lifespan theories (for more detailed discussions of lifespan theories, see chapters 2 9 of the current volume) and asked the question as to which of the theories were most relevant to recruitment and selection. Our results are humbly presented below and summarized in Table 14.1; note, we readily admit that our summaries and conclusions regarding implications are most definitely shaped by an I-O psychology perspective.

Lifespan Theory of Control The lifespan theory of control arises out of the notion that people innately desire control over their environment and personal outcomes, and can go about this in various ways (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Heckhausen, Wrosch, & Schulz, 2010). Primary control is an active attempt to change the environment to fit the needs and desires of the individual. Secondary control is a cognitive attempt to fit in with the situation, targeting the internal environment instead. Secondary control can be used to maintain motivation and effort in primary control, as well as helping the individual cope with agerelated declines or losses. The availability of and use of these control

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TABLE 14.1 Areas of Integration for Lifespan Theories with Selection and Recruitment Theory

Description

Selective Optimization and Compensation Model

G

G

G

G

Dual Process Model of Assimilative and Accommodative Coping

G

G

G

Social Exchange Theory

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

G

G

G

G

Maximum and Typical Performance

G

Areas for Integration

Utilizing three strategies in combination in decision-making Selection: Deciding on goals Optimization: Refining resources to achieve goals Compensation: Using alternate strategies

G

Balancing gains and losses throughout the lifespan Assimilation: Adjusting the situation to fit preferences Accommodation: Adjusting preferences to fit the situation

G

Consider how the two coping strategies are utilized across the lifespan, which may impact applicant reactions to recruitment material and selection tools.

Building relationships as goods are exchanged, creating a mutual sense of obligation from both parties, in line with organizational rules and norms.

G

Consider changes in motivation for maintaining positive social exchange throughout the lifespan. Paint a clear picture of benefits from the organization and expectations of the employee.

Changes in how one views time affects goal choice Younger adults: Time is open ended; pursue knowledge goals Older adults: Time is more limited; pursue emotion goals

G

Performance expectations within a certain domain can either be maximal performance (what an individual ‘can do’) or

G

G

G

G

G

Allow applicants to utilize each of these strategies during assessments. Especially consider whether compensation can be used (and for which KSAs) with older adults.

Consider how recruitment material may have different appeal depending on lifespan. Emphasize attributes of the job that touch on both types of goals.

Specify which type of performance is part of the job performance domain. Ensure predictors and criteria match. (Continued )

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TABLE 14.1 (Continued) Theory

Lifespan Theory of Control

Description

G

G

G

Action-Phase Model of Developmental Regulation

G

Areas for Integration

typical (what an individual ‘will do’)

G

Consider the impact of negative applicant reactions if there is a mismatch.

Two control strategies are used to achieve goals Primary: Changing environment to meet needs Secondary: Changing self to fit the situation

G

Emphasize aspects of a job that allow for primary control: autonomy, job crafting. Consider how control strategies impact selfimage and self-efficacy throughout the process.

Process model of goal choice and goal striving through primary and secondary control strategies

G

G

G

Life Course Theory

G

Need to consider macrolevel influences in describing the aging experience

G

Consider what barriers applicants may perceive throughout the process as a function of their life stage. Promote use of compensatory strategies: training, job clubs. Consider applicant reactions in creating recruitment material by avoiding references to historical situations specific to a certain group.

strategies may change throughout the lifespan. The use of primary control is thought to be stable until very old age, while secondary control increases as a function of age, indicating an increased reliance on secondary control to maintain primary control. Therefore, individuals must learn adaptive cognitive strategies throughout the lifespan as they start to rely more on secondary control in pursuit of work-related goals. In terms of recruitment, the varying use of primary and secondary controls may work to determine the types of jobs people may be more or less interested in pursuing and how much effort they may put into pursuing jobs. Primary control is the preferred method, so aspects of a job that indicate autonomy and job crafting will be particularly desirable. In addition, the relative emphasis on the different control strategies would appear to impact the candidate self-image and self-efficacy as they go through the recruitment and application process. Secondary control strategies would also be closely

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tied to reactions to recruitment and selection efforts, and thus both the candidate experience and the candidate’s perception of the organization’s image, as well as the perception of person-organization fit by the individual.

Action-Phase Model of Developmental Regulation The action-phase model of developmental regulation builds upon the lifespan theory of control better to explain cycles of goal choice and goal striving (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995; Heckhausen, 2007). This model outlines how individuals make the decision to adopt a goal, engage in the goal using primary and secondary control, and how they react to success or failure. Throughout the lifespan, there may be different opportunities for pursuing specific developmental goals (i.e., having children, retirement), which create ideal phases for goal engagement. Goal choice would have the most promise when there is congruence between goal engagement and opportunities for success; congruence is associated not only with goal attainment, but also well-being. Although this theory has been applied to vocational choice, it does not appear to have been applied to recruitment or selection. Career changes or job seeking efforts may be seen as less attainable for older adults, which could cause them to disengage and self-select out of recruitment pools. Therefore, compensatory strategies can be useful in overcoming this perceived barrier. This could take the form of job-search interventions, such as job clubs geared toward older adults, which have been shown to improve job-search behavior (Adams & Rau, 2004). One study examining dynamic outcomes during a job club for older job seekers showed improvements in attitudes toward their job search and increased self-regulatory skill in motivation control (Nakai, Hill, Snell, & Ferrell, 2017). These findings highlight the utility of interventions for promoting engagement in job search goals for older adults.

Dual-Process Model of Assimilative and Accommodative Coping The dual-process model of assimilative and accommodative coping has to do with the balance of gains and losses throughout the lifespan, and how this relates to self-regulatory activities (achieving consistency between a desired state and one’s present state; Brandtsta¨dter & Renner, 1990). Individuals use two related coping strategies in working toward achieving their desired states: assimilation refers to adjusting the situation to fit personal preferences, while accommodation refers to adjusting personal preferences to fit situational constraints. Assimilation is the default strategy, while accommodation is used more when attempts at assimilation are ineffective, or when an individual doesn’t believe they would be able to change the situation.

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As it relates to the lifespan, older individuals are more likely to face situations that they are unable to influence, as uncontrollable events tend to accumulate in later stages of life. Despite this, older adults manage to maintain a consistent sense of control by gradually shifting from the assimilative to accommodative mode of coping (Brandtsta¨dter & Renner, 1990). Knowledge of how these two forms of coping are utilized throughout the lifespan would provide a useful lens for the development of recruitment materials and selection tools. If applicants develop a sense of tension in reaction to recruitment materials, their response may be to change the situation or remove themselves from the recruitment pool. Thus, materials should be carefully designed to create positive reactions and carry across the message of the organization’s norms and values.

Selective Optimization and Compensation Model The selective optimization and compensation model defines selection, optimization, and compensation as three strategies used in decision making (Baltes & Baltes, 1990; Baltes & Dickson, 2001). Selection is the decision of which goals to undertake. Optimization is the allocation or refinement of resources to achieve goals. Compensation is involved when individuals are faced with losses in a domain, and use alternate resources to maintain the same level of functioning. With limited resources to allocate, the three strategies are used in combination to maximize desirable outcomes and minimize undesirable outcomes (Baltes & Dickson, 2001). Those developing selection tools would need to carefully study the major tasks and responsibilities of the job and recognize that there may be multiple ways of achieving the same performance level. A certain ability may be specified in a job description as required, although workers who have declined in that ability still maintain high performance by using a compensatory strategy. These alternate strategies can be built into selection tools, allowing for multiple ways of accomplishing job tasks. Further, considering that applicants are also utilizing selection tools to gather information about the norms and values of the organization, allowing flexibility in assessments will give a realistic job preview and can engender positive reactions contributing to perceptions of fit.

Social Exchange Theory Social exchange theory posits that relationships form through a mutual sense of responsibility from both parties, based on a cost-benefit analysis, rules, and norms (Blau, 1964; Emerson, 1976). In an organizational setting, employees have a certain quality of social exchange with coworkers, supervisors, and the organization, which can motivate them to act favorably toward each of those targets (Lavelle, Rupp, & Brockner, 2007). As goods like pay,

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services, or even advice are exchanged, relationships are created, modified, and strengthened. There may be age-related changes in terms of what resources employees see as beneficial, and what they can provide to others. Generally, it is believed that social exchange quality will decline with age because older individuals will perceive more costs with engaging in these relationships (Baltes, Rudolph, & Bal, 2012). Applying this theory to recruitment, recruiters should be realistic about the costs and expectations of the employee, so that the applicant can assess whether they can contribute. Ensuring fit is especially important for an older adult who may have more limited resources to contribute to maintaining positive social exchanges.

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory Socioemotional selectivity theory, proposed by Carstensen and colleagues, refers to changes that happen across the lifespan as a function of how time is viewed (Carstensen, 1992; Carstensen, Isaacowitz, & Charles, 1999). The theory states that younger individuals perceive time as more openended, and thus prioritize and pursue knowledge-related goals. In contrast, older individuals perceive time as more limited, and instead prioritize emotion-related goals. In the case of employee recruitment and selection, practitioners can consider how applicant reactions may differ across the lifespan. This issue is particularly relevant to how employers go about recruitment, because the organizational image presented can either attract or deter job seekers from joining the applicant pool. Recruiting materials emphasizing either knowledge- or emotion-related aspects of the work may have different appeal across the lifespan. Recruiters should strive to strike a balance and emphasize aspects of both the job and the company that meet both knowledge goals, such as development opportunities, and emotion- related goals, such as flexible work schedules. Of course, it is also important that the job itself is designed in such a way that both types of goals can be pursued, otherwise positive fit perceptions formed during recruitment will change once on the job.

Life Course Theory Life course theory stems from the notion that one needs to account for various factors, including sociological influences, to fully understand the experience of older adults (Bengston, Elder, & Putney, 2005). While it is important to understand the individual, a broader perspective can add additional value, including the cohort of which they were a part, the culture they experienced, and historical situations that may have influenced their lives. For example,

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there may be cohort differences related to conceptualizations of the value of work, which can be helpful in job design (Baltes et al., 2012). In the context of employee recruitment, life course theory can shed light on more macro- level considerations. Recruitment professionals should consider how culture and significant historical events affect reactions to recruitment material, as material that is specific to one cohort may deter other qualified individuals from entering the selection pool.

Maximum and Typical Performance The issue of maximum and typical performance is relevant to the validity of selection tools across the lifespan as this as an overlooked issue in the selection literature (Van Iddekinge & Ployhart, 2008). Tests are developed to capture a specific performance domain, but whether the underlying domain reflects maximum performance, typical performance, or a combination of the two, is typically not specified (Sackett, Zedeck, & Fogli, 1988). If there is a mismatch between the selection tool and the performance domain, this will affect the validity of tests. When considering selection across the lifespan, this distinction becomes especially important. Many jobs only require typical performance, but testing situations are designed to capture maximal performance. If jobs require typical performance while the selection tools measure maximal performance, older applicants would be at a disadvantage, and may be passed over for a job that they are fully able to perform at the typical performance level. Having applicants complete a maximal performance assessment when it is not required can also lead to negative reactions and a poor candidate experience.

OVERVIEW OF RELEVANT THEORIES OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT The concepts of P-O fit and of the self are central to several classical and modern vocational theories (Hartung & Subich, 2011a; Chapter 10 of this volumne). Career theories recognize the need to understand how the self is shaped throughout the lifespan through interactions with jobs and organizations (Hartung & Subich, 2011b). However, even within the vocational literature, we could find little to guide thinking with regard to specific recruitment and selection practices.

Person - Environment Fit Theories Realizing we cannot do the theories justice, three major early contributors were Super’s (1957, 1980) theory of development of self, Holland’s (1959, 1997) theory of P-E fit, and Lofquist and Dawis’s theory of work adjustment (Dawis & Lofquist, 1984; Lofquist & Dawis, 1969).

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Super’s (1957, 1980) model perhaps most clearly linked a lifespan, lifecycle approach with the notion of P-O fit, as Super emphasized the development of self-concept as a result of experience over time. Savickas (1996, 1997, 2005) built on Super’s theory by invoking the idea of adaptation, where adaptations involve a dynamic process of engaging in action in order to increase congruence. By recognizing the ability to adapt, the way we see ourselves can change over time in response to life events and chaotic environment. Holland (1959, 1997) posited a relationship between personality types (the hexagon of realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional) and environments. The greater the fit between the person and the environment, P-E fit, the greater the likelihood of possible outcomes, such as career satisfaction. Holland’s approach was also closely tied to the assessment of the traits or personality types, thus offering a close parallel to the use of selection instruments. Lofquist and Dawis (1969) and Dawis and Lofquist (1984) also emphasized fit in their theory the fit between employee characteristics and the features of the organizational environment. As with other similar theories, increased P-E fit led to a number of favorable outcomes, including job satisfaction. The career theories do share many features in common with I-O based approaches, including: (1) an emphasis on P-O or P-E fit; (2) the use of assessments; and (3) a recognition of the important role played by the individual in actively processing and adapting to information acquired during the staffing event. However, even within the vocational literature, the utility of assessments of P-E-related traits is the subject of debate (Rottinghaus & Van Esbroeck, 2011). In the selection literature, vocational interest measures have been generally regarded as having low validity (Hunter & Hunter, 1984) and while it is difficult to estimate the exact extent of usage, it would appear to be low.

Hall’s Protean Career A different, very influential perspective is the concept of a protean career (Hall & Mirvis, 1995; Hall, 2004). The protean career represents a new type of career contract in which careers are flexible and dynamic and managed by the individual instead of the organization. Success is determined based on internal rather than external measures, as the individual moves between jobs and organizations. Responsibility for success is dependent upon the individual, who engages in self-directed, continuous learning throughout the lifespan (London & Bassman, 1989; London & Smither, 1999).

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CURRENT RESEARCH AND PRACTICE FROM A LIFESPANRELATED PERSPECTIVE As previously noted, lifespan perspectives, as narrowly defined, have had very little impact on recruitment and selection, resulting in no real body of literature. Even lifespan-related concepts, such as career stage and age, are mentioned infrequently. In this section, we briefly survey some of the attempts to incorporate age and career stages in the areas of selection and recruitment.

Validity of Tests The idea of trainability testing was a popular one in the early industrial gerontology literature (Robertson & Downs, 1979; Robertson & Mindel, 1980). Trainability testing emerged due to a concern that traditional tests, such as general mental ability tests, would not be valid for older adults; traditional tests were believed to have differential validity as a function of age. As a substitute, trainability testing was suggested. Trainability testing involved providing a short training program on how to perform a job-related task, followed by the administration of a work sample type test assessing the degree of learning during the brief training. Interest in this approach has waned over the years. In the I-O psychology literature, the possibility of a dynamic criteria is also frequently mentioned (Ghiselli & Haire, 1960; Ghiselli, 1956). Basically, the theory of dynamic criteria holds that the validity of tests changes with experience or time. Tests that are valid when an individual has no experience might no longer be valid when an individual has years of experience. Trainability testing and dynamic criteria both are based on the idea of differential validity as a function of time, experience, or age. The problem is that the validity generalizability literature indicates that situational specificity does not exist for general mental ability tests for many occupations (Hunter & Hunter, 1984; Schmidt & Hunter, 1977); thus, according to validity generalization, the validity of tests used in selection does not vary as a function of time, experience, or age.

Changing Nature of Technology Today, applying for a job, including taking pre-employment assessments, is often completed on a mobile device, a tablet, or a smartphone. Although one might think this would work to the disadvantage of older adults, the limited available literature does not support performance decrements on tests when taken on mobile devices (Arthur & Doverspike, 2017; Arthur et al., 2014). Now, it may well be that older adults are less likely to enjoy the experience

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of applying or taking tests on mobile devices, but there is no evidence that taking employment tests on mobile devices works to the disadvantage of older applicants, nor that such tests are less valid for older applicants.

Bias The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA; 1967) prohibits employment discrimination in the USA against anyone 40 years of age or older. Despite this legislation, ageism and bias persist, and can negatively influence candidates’ experiences with selection and recruitment (for a more thorough review on prejudice and the lifespan, see Chapter 17 of this volume). Stereotypes about older workers as less interested in training and learning can result in both explicit and intentional discrimination, as well as more subtle and implicit forms of prejudice. Research has demonstrated bias toward older workers in employment interviews, in both simulated experimental studies and real-world settings (Finkelstein, Burke, & Raju, 1995; Morgeson, Reider, Campion, & Bull, 2008). As a caveat, meta-analyses show that discrimination is more commonly observed in laboratory settings and less so in the field (Morgeson et al., 2008). The research and legislation regarding age bias tend to focus on older employees, but some attention has also been given to bias toward younger workers in the workplace as well. One study reported that it was just as common for age discrimination to occur at work for those who are seen as too young for their job (Snape & Redman, 2003). While the ADEA only covers older workers, some states have taken action to protect younger workers from age discrimination.

Recruitment and Job Searching Considering age within recruitment requires an analysis of work-related needs and preferences across the lifespan, including aspects such as motivations for working (Lievens, Van Hoye, & Zacher, 2012). The literature does offer suggestions for targeted recruitment toward older workers, such as increasing appeal by designing advertisements that include older adults in photographs, and placing ads strategically to increase access (Doverspike, Taylor, Shultz, & McKay, 2000). Offering flexible work arrangements is a popular option that can allow employees to pursue work despite time constraints (Doverspike et al., 2000). One study found that recruitment messages that emphasized scheduling flexibility, along with a targeted equal employment opportunity statement, and the design of work, including mentoring aspects, positively influenced perceptions of organizational attractiveness (Rau & Adams, 2005). The content of the message and the impression created by the recruiter are also important factors influencing perceptions of organizational image and P-O fit at the recruitment stage.

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It is important to note that older adults are a heterogeneous group, and it can be inappropriate to classify them as a single group with certain needs. Rather than describing the needs and preferences of older job seekers as a whole, some research has focused on identifying distinct subgroups of job seekers (Brown, 2003; Nakai, Chang, Snell, & Fluckinger, 2011). One study identified three types of older job seekers: (1) those who work primarily for monetary reasons, (2) those who seek personal satisfaction and learning from work (the least common), and (3) and those who seek employment for a wide variety of reasons (the most common; Nakai et al., 2011). These three groups differed in their preferences for work features, illustrating that creating perceptions of fit may be more important than advertising a particular set of work features.

A POSSIBLE AVENUE FOR SYNTHESIS: PERSON ORGANIZATION FIT AND THE CANDIDATE EXPERIENCE In this section, we first expand upon our discussion of the P-O fit literature, with special attention to possible integration of a lifespan perspective. Next, the recent emphasis on the candidate experience is briefly reviewed. Finally, building on these two areas, we propose a highly preliminary and conceptual model of the candidate experience during recruitment and selection, incorporating a lifespan perspective.

P-O Fit Redux Previously, P-O fit was defined as “perceptions of the degree of match between the person’s perceived needs, image, KSAs, and the perceived organizational brand, reputation, or image, demands.” This was usually measured “in terms of congruence or distance between perceived characteristics of the individual and perceived characteristics of the organization.” However, this approach to definition and measurement has often resulted in a static, time-bound one. We have already seen how the vocational literature expanded the notion of P-E fit to make it reflect a more adaptive, dynamic process; similar developments have taken place in the I-O psychology literature. Kanfer (2009) specifically looked at the question of age and person-job fit. Age-sensitive changes were seen as affecting the fit between personal attributes and job demands, as well as levels of interest and motivation. Kristof-Brown and Jansen (2007) argued for a deeper understanding of the dynamic or temporal nature of fit, including the motivational aspects of fit (Yu, 2013), the role of human agency in shaping fit, and how both the individual and organization change over time. The dynamic approach makes

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it clear that fit can be managed, or mismanaged, over time, and that fit can be retrospective or anticipated (Jansen & Shipp, 2013). In an important integrative piece, Johnson and colleagues (Johnson, Taing, Chang, & Kawamoto, 2013) took a self-regulation approach to fit. Framing P-O fit within self-regulation theory leads to an emphasis on goalstriving, feedback loops, monitoring, and the direction and rate of change in fit over time (i.e., velocity), as well as the size of the discrepancy. Recent work has started to measure fit in ways that align with its conceptualization as a dynamic and changing construct. For instance, although fit is typically measured at a single point in time, longitudinal studies show that changes in fit over the course of the recruiting process have a unique influence on the final employment decision (Swider, Zimmerman, & Barrick, 2015). In early stages of the recruiting process, perceptions are formed based on limited information, while later perceptions are adjusted based on more complete information about the organization. Another interesting perspective argues that the conceptualization of the construct of fit is culture bound (Lee & Ramaswami, 2013). In a qualitative study, researchers demonstrated differences in how fit is conceptualized in an Eastern context (Chuang, Hsu, Wang, & Judge, 2015). For individuals from a Chinese background, fit was tied to doing the right thing rather than congruence. Specifically, one theme described feelings of fit from striving toward self-improvement, such as by taking on a challenging work assignment that would ultimately result in positive personal changes (Chuang et al., 2015). Despite what would typically be considered incongruence in which task abilities exceed demands, those approaching the problem from the background of an Eastern culture felt fit due to their positive goal. This serves as an example of how it is important to consider different interpretations and meanings of fit, especially as they relate to cultural factors.

The Candidate Experience For most of the history of selection research, very little attention was paid to the attitudes or reactions of the test taker or candidate. The concern was with validity and the utility of the selection battery to the organization; the candidate was seen as having little choice but to undergo screening if he or she wanted the job. However, technology changed, organizations grew larger, and the number of applicants applying for job started to grow exponentially. Organizations began to realize that how they treated candidates had an impact, not only on those lucky individuals who received a job offer, but on the thousands or in some case millions of applicants who did not receive a job offer. Rejected job candidates were still future customers. Because of these market forces, organizations became more interested in studying the ways in which applicants responded to selection and recruitment systems; as a result, the candidate experience movement was born.

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Recent research has focused on how information obtained from webbased organizational recruitment websites impacts organizational brand, reputation, and image (Cable, Aiman-Smith, Mulvey, & Edwards, 2000; Cober, Brown, Blumental, Doverspike, & Levy, 2000; Cober, Brown, Keeping, & Levy, 2004; Lyons & Marler, 2011), as well as attraction, job pursuit, and interest. Even before the initial recruitment episode begins, individuals have information and images of organizations, often developed through a lifetime of experience as a consumer and recipient of marketing messages. Highhouse and colleagues have engaged in a program of research showing how impression formation operates in developing organizational branding (Highhouse, Brooks, & Gregarus, 2009; Highhouse, Thornbury, & Little, 2007; Lievens & Highhouse, 2003; Slaughter, Zickar, Highhouse, & Mohr, 2004). The development of perceptions of the organizational image does not stop with the recruitment phase, but continues throughout the process of the initial screening of individuals as well, as the making of a job offer (Bauer et al., 2001; Bauer, Maertz, Dolen, & Campion, 1998; Hausknecht, Day, & Thomas, 2004; Truxillo, Bodner, Bertolino, Bauer, & Yonce, 2009). Models of applicant reactions have emphasized the role of justice perceptions (Hausknecht et al., 2004; Ryan & Ployhart, 2000), although few published studies have specifically studied how the candidate experience works in a selection context.

A Proposed Model Based on a combination of the lifespan perspective, and the P-O fit and candidate experience literature, we propose a highly preliminary and conceptual model of the candidate experience during recruitment and selection. This model is intended to help guide and organize research and is presented in Fig. 14.1 and Table 14.2. In the model, there are five stages to the candidate experience with any one applicant cycle: pre-recruitment, recruitment, selection, job offer, and post-job offer. At each stage, we have identified potential predictors or influencers of self-image, organizational image, and P-O fit, which serve as mediators. P-O fit then leads to several criteria or outcomes: motivation, interest, and satisfaction. Please note, the identification of predictors is for illustration purposes only and meant to be interpreted quite generally, as a number of different possible constructs are measured in the literature. For example, interest could also be measured in terms of attraction. Fig. 14.1 presents this approach for one of the stages, the pre-recruitment stage. As illustrated, KSAs along with lifespan events lead to the perception of the self-image. Lifespan events and the brand of the organization impact the organizational image. Then, the self-image, the organization image, and lifespan events interact to give us the perception of P-O fit. Finally, the

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Organization brand

KSA traits Lifespan events

Organizational image

Self-image

P-O fit

Motivation

Satisfaction

Interest

FIGURE 14.1 P-O fit model for pre-staffing recruitment stage.

degree of P-O fit determines motivation, satisfaction, and interest. A similar process is postulated to occur at each stage. At each stage, information is actively processed by the applicant. That processing does not take place in a vacuum, but in the context of the individual’s judgment of the current position in lifespan and career cycles, as well as previous critical events in his or her life. In Table 14.2, we have also speculated on the possible role of lifespan events in directly and indirectly influencing other variables in the model.

SUMMARY AND FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS In our introduction to this chapter, we bemoaned the paucity of available research. We are not alone, Cascio and Aguinis, in a 2008 review on trends in research and practice, called for greater attention to the aging workforce

TABLE 14.2 Preliminary Conceptual Model Incorporating the Lifespan Perspective Into the Candidate Experience (See also Fig. 14.1)a,b Predictors or Influencers of P-O Fit

Mediators

Criteria or Outcomes

Role of Lifespan Events

Stage PreRecruitment

G G G

Recruitment

G

G G

Selection

G

G

G

Lifespan Events Traits and KSAs Org Brand

G

Perceptions from Pre-Experience Stage Recruiter Recruitment Message

G

Perceptions from the Recruitment Stage Opportunity to perform Reactions to selection tools

G

G G

G G

G G

Self-Image Org. Image P-O Fit

G

Self-Image Org. Image P-O Fit

G

Self-Image Org. Image P-O Fit

G

G G

G G

G G

Motivation Interest Satisfaction

G

Direct influence on Self and Org. Image, on P-O fit, and on the processing of information.

Motivation Interest Satisfaction

G

Direct influence on processing of information. Indirect impact through influence on previous stage.

Motivation Interest Satisfaction

G

G

G

Direct influence on processing of information. Indirect impact through influence on previous stage.

(Continued )

TABLE 14.2 (Continued) Predictors or Influencers of P-O Fit Job Offer

G

G G

Post-Job Offer

G

G

Mediators

Perceptions from the Selection Stage Nature of job offer Communication of job offer

G

Perception from the Job Offer Stage Experiences with organization postjob offer

G

G G

Self-Image Org. Image P-O Fit

Criteria or Outcomes G

G

G

G G

Self-Image Org. Image P-O Fit

G

G

G

a

Role of Lifespan Events

Satisfaction with decision Justice of the decision Interest in possible acceptance

G

Direct influence on Self and Org. Image, on P-O fit, and on the processing of information.

If hired Initial attitude as employee If not hired Future buying behavior Updated brand image

G

Direct influence through impact on initial attitude as employee or future behavior, including buying behavior. Indirect impact through influence on previous stage.

G

Table 14.2 should be read in conjunction with Fig. 14.1. At each stage, information is being actively processed by the applicant. That processing does not take place in a vacuum, but in the context of the individual’s judgment of his or her current position in lifespan and career cycles, as well as previous critical events in their life.

b

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363

and for closing the gap between academics and practitioners. One purpose of this chapter is to draw attention to the possibility that an integrated perspective, which acknowledges the role of the self and the influence of critical life events, may help to fill or at least close this gap. Our final conclusions and suggestions: G

G

G

G

G

There is very little, if any, integration of a lifespan approach with research and practice in recruitment and selection, two of the traditional areas of I-O psychology. In part, this is because recruitment and selection theory and research have been trait-based and rather static, compared to the dynamic nature of the lifespan approach. The lifespan perspective could add a much-needed boost to the recruitment and selection areas by offering new possibilities for theory development, research, and practice. Vocational theories offer a bridge between the lifespan perspective and traditional I-O psychology, through an emphasis on the developmental aspects of career events, P-E and P-O fit, and the concept of various types of lifecycles. The concept of P-O fit can serve as a linchpin between lifespan, vocational, and I-O approaches, as theories of self emphasize the development of the person across the lifecycle through interactions between the individual and organizations. The recent emphasis on the candidate experience in both recruitment and selection is just one area where a lifespan emphasis could be productive in suggesting new avenues for theory and research. The candidate experience stresses the reaction of the applicant to recruitment and staffing, as the person seeks to make sense of the process and integrate the obtained information into perceptions of the organization, the self, and of P-O fit. This integration is a dynamic process occurring in the context of a lifetime of experiences with jobs and organizations. Special attention should be paid to the impact of both recruitment and selection on racial and ethnic minorities, Women, and other marginalized groups across the lifespan, as this is an underexplored area, and the experiences of underrepresented groups may be quite different than those of majority group members. This is not to imply that a lack of attention to lifespan issues is unique, or that age stands out as an under-researched protected group. Excluding research on adverse impact and test bias, we would argue that the academic and practitioner literature on recruitment and selection have been characterized by a lack of focus on marginalized groups, for which potential issues across the lifespan would appear to be particularly critical.

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