colors: Future prospects for broiler behavior and production

Journal Pre-proof Light wavelengths/colors: future prospects for broiler behavior and production Farid N.K. Soliman, Karim El-Sabrout PII:

S1558-7878(19)30224-2

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2019.10.014

Reference:

JVEB 1289

To appear in:

Journal of Veterinary Behavior

Received Date: 24 August 2019 Revised Date:

27 September 2019

Accepted Date: 11 October 2019

Please cite this article as: Soliman, F.N.K., El-Sabrout, K., Light wavelengths/colors: future prospects for broiler behavior and production, Journal of Veterinary Behavior (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.jveb.2019.10.014. This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Review

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Light wavelengths/colors: future prospects for broiler behavior and production

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Farid N.K. Soliman, Karim El-Sabrout*

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Department of Poultry Production, Faculty of Agriculture (El-Shatby), Alexandria

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University, Alexandria, Egypt

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*Corresponding author: [email protected] (Karim El-Sabrout)

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Abbreviated title: Light colors and chicken welfare

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Abstract

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Assessing animal welfare is necessary from animal behavior and product

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quality/quantity perspectives. Birds have a unique visual system and see in the range

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of 315-750 nm. The majority of their behavior is mediated by vision. Lighting is

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considered an important exogenous environmental factor that directly affects bird

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well-being. In broilers, light stimulates and controls feed intake and so affects growth.

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Recent developments in lighting technology open new possibilities for enhancing the

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traditional lighting programmes inside poultry houses. Artificial lighting has 3 main

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aspects: light intensity (brightness), lighting duration (photoperiod) and wavelength

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(color). The color of light, dictated by the wavelength, exerts variable effects on

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poultry performance. More than 50% of the broiler studies indicated that blue (450

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nm) and green light (550 nm) had positive effects on body weight (>3%), while red

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light (700 nm) increased activity and aggressive behavior of birds (>30%), negatively

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affecting body weight. Behavioral parameters of broiler chickens, in general, were

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affected significantly by light colors, while slight influences were shown on welfare

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parameters. This review integrates recent aspects of lighting usage that could

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influence traits of interest in poultry farming.

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Keywords: behavior; feeding; immunity; lighting color; poultry; welfare.

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Introduction

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Chickens have become an important animal protein source in the human diet. A

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moderate energy content, highly digestible proteins of high nutritional quality,

38

unsaturated lipids, B vitamins (mainly thiamine, vitamin B6, and pantothenic acid),

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and minerals (e.g., iron, zinc, and copper) make poultry meat a valuable food

40

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(Marangoni et al., 2015). According to the FAO, the global demand for meat is

41

estimated to increase by 40% compared to the average 2005-2007 levels to over 400

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million tonnes by 2030 to cope with the growth of the world population and its

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increased meat consumption (OECD-FAO, 2009). In 1990, the global demand for

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meat was 173 million tonnes, of which poultry represented 23%. In 2010, the annual

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global demand for meat was 285 million tonnes, with poultry comprising 35% of the

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total or 100 million tonnes. Based on FAO reports, worldwide meat (poultry, beef,

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sheep and pork) production will increase by nearly 35% by 2030, and the demand for

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poultry meat can increase by 50%, most of which will come from developing

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countries.

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Breeders must adopt new technologies to meet that demand, enabling them to

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increase production at a reduced cost with less negative impacts on the environment.

52

Most of these production technologies focus on enhancing traditional inputs such as

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water, air, nutrients, and housing. Lighting and its characteristics need further

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clarification as a contributing factor in increasing the productivity of broiler

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production. Light is of key significance in the poultry production because breeders

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want the animal to achieve its complete genetic potential in the best way possible.

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Factors involved in light management of poultry include the light source, intensity,

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duration, and wavelength/color (Olanrewaju et al., 2006; Çapar Akyuz and Onbasilar,

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2018).

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Birds collect visual data via scanning behavior to assay choices and make

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decisions in activites such as finding of food (Fernández-Juricic et al., 2004).

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Generally, bird development is influenced by UV radiation by facilitating skin

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synthesis of cholecalciferol (vitamin D3). It has been reported that light could enhance

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feed consumption, growth and immunity in chickens, but what about the light color

65

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effect? Firouzi et al. (2014) indicated that the birds reared under yellow light had the

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best performance than green light. The reduction of maternal antibody level in group

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which reared under green light was the slowest one and at the end of experiment the

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birds had the highest (insignificant) Newcastle disease (ND) antibody titers among the

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other groups (white and yellow). Seo et al. (2016) reported that the increase in the

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immune response can reduce the risk and treatment costs of diseases, reflecting higher

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survival levels and lower costs of production which support profitability. They

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concluded that broiler immune function can be improved at the later stage of

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production by using shorter wavelength LEDs such as pure blue and bright blue.

74

Additionally, studies indicate that light plays a vital role in affecting the function and

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behavior of chickens (Chiandetti et al., 2013; Letzner et al., 2014). Moreover,

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keeping broilers under red light condition showed higher weight gain and preference

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of birds compared to other light colors (Senaratna et al., 2016).

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Therefore, the aim of this article is to highlight the color of light as a powerful

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environmental factor affecting production, behavioral and welfare-related parameters,

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especially in broiler chickens.

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Poultry vision

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In comparison with humans, poultry have better visual skills, including the

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perception of a large color spectrum (Prescott et al., 2003). According to Parvin et al.

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(2014), bird visible light has a wavelength ranging from 380 nm to 740 nm, lying

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between invisible infrared (IF) (longer wavelengths) and invisible ultraviolet (UV)

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(shorter wavelengths) light rays. Lewis and Gous (2009) stated that humans respond

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to light from approximately 400-750 nm, while chickens can see ultraviolet light

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below than 400 nm in addition to human range.

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There are three basic anatomical regions that affect vision in poultry: the retina,

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pineal gland and hypothalamus (Lewis and Morris, 2006). The retina ensures that

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birds are able to see their environment obviously and respond accordingly and ensures

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that the effects of light are directed towards growth and behavior (Wilson and

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Lindstrom, 2011). Unlike human beings, the retina in poultry has a pair of cone

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detectors (Kram et al., 2010) and cone and rod photoreceptors. Rod cells cannot

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perceive colors; they perceive only white, thus ensuring that objects are better

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distinguished in the dark. The cone cells contain iodopsin photopigments and possess

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five different subtypes of cone photoreceptors; highly visual animals have four single

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cones and one pair of cone cells (Jiao et al., 2014; Egbuniwe and Ayo, 2016). These

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photoreceptors correspond to violet (415 nm), blue (450 nm), green (550 nm) and red

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(700 nm). Kram et al. (2010) reported that the role of the other pair of cone cells is not

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precisely known, but the perception of colorless motion is believed to be mediated.

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Light reaches the brain through the eyes in humans, but in chickens itenters through

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the eyes and also through the top of the skull in chickens via extra retinal photo

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receptors in the pineal gland, then through the pituitary gland next to the

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hypothalamus (Lewis and Morris, 2006). The pineal gland plays an efficient role in

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the secretion of melatonin and serotonin hormones. These hormones have a

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fundamental effect on circadian rhythm, various endocrine functions, mobility, and

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body temperature and affect the mating season of poultry (Baxter et al., 2014). The

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hypothalamus directly controls, depending on light intensity, gonadotropin releasing

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hormone (GnRH), homeostasis and physiological structures (Baxter et al., 2014).

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Short wavelengths of light need to be used at high density to affect the hypothalamus

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(Baxter et al., 2014).

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The spectral distribution of light color sensitivity may differ with broiler age

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(Classen, 2003). Light of different wavelengths has varying stimulatory effects on the

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retina and can result in behavioral changes that may affect the growth and

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development of chickens (Lan et al., 2013). The actions of the eyes mediated by some

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anatomical, physiological and biochemical components may be maximized to enhance

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commercial poultry meat production (Egbuniwe and Ayo, 2016).

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Light emitting diodes (LEDs)

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Fluorescent lamps (FL) may last more than 20,000 h under poultry house

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conditions, and their light output may decrease by approximately 20-30% over their

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lifetime (Darre, 1986). Incandescent (Inc) bulbs provide light energy, but much of it is

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electrical energy with a light efficiency of approximately 8-24 lumens per Watt and a

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rated life of approximately 750-2000 hours (Darre and Rock, 1995). The use of light

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emitting diodes (LEDs) in broiler production has demonstrated high luminous

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efficiency, less power consumption, and longer service life when compared to Inc and

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FL (Cao et al., 2012). LEDs provide an approximation of daylight than the spectral

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gaps of other lighting sources (El-Sabrout and Khalil, 2017).

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The LED emerged in the 1960s and is currently known worldwide due to its

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high luminous efficiency and long life (Liu et al., 2010). The European Union has

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prohibited Inc lighting since 2012 and introduced a new energy-saving target of

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achieving 100% public-utility LED lighting by 2020 (Hassan et al., 2013).

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Environmental lighting technology has greatly advanced in recent years, and

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traditional light bulbs are gradually being replaced by LED lamps (Gongruttananun

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and Guntapa, 2012; Santana et al., 2014).

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LED lamps resulted in feed intake and electric energy cost reductions and

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increased net income in laying hens by 20-30% (Rozenboim et al., 2004). In

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evaluating the three light sources, Valentine et al. (2010) showed that the LED bulbs

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required 12 times less electricity consumption than 60 W Inc light bulbs that have the

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same luminosity. In addition, LED bulbs are 5 times smaller than a 15 W FL. An LED

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bulb has a lifespan that is 8 times longer than that of an FL and 50 times longer than

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that of an Inc bulb (Liu et al., 2010). The main advantage of the LED is the energy

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savings (80% less energy is wasted than with Inc bulbs and 50% less than with Fl),

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longer shelf life and color diversity, as shown by Molino et al. (2015). LED lights are

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becoming increasingly popular in broiler houses due to their combination of energy

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efficiency, reliability and long bulb life. As the use of LED lights increases, the

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understanding of proper applications in various housing types will increase. However,

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lower product costs and improved efficiency and application of LED lights can be

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expected in the future. This kind of light has beneficial effects on broiler growth

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performance (Kim et al., 2013; Mendes et al., 2013).

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As early as 1987, it was known that the color of light affects bird performance

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(Pyrzak et al., 1987) but the ability to use this information was limited. Technological

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advancements in semiconductors have enabled LED lights to emit almost all colors of

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the visible spectrum, near UV and IR light (Schubert et al., 2005), which provides

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flexibility for different applications. The light emitted by LEDs is monochromatic,

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and the color depends on the crystals and impurity of the material that is used in the

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production. The light frequency emitted by the electron also determines its color

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(Valentine et al., 2010). The light color affects growth, development, and behavior in

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chickens (Cao et al., 2008; Sultana et al., 2013). Using appropriate light color is

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important for most of the behavioral, physiological and immunological pathway

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alterations (Mohamed et al., 2014).

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Light color and broiler behavioral parameters

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Behavioral studies may increase the understanding and appreciation of animal

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needs to improve living conditions. Behavioral patterns in chickens are classified as

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ingestive behavior (feeding, drinking and foraging (pecking and scratching the floor

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or other parts of the pen)), standing behavior, locomotive behavior (walking and

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running), comfort behavior (perching and feather preening) and abnormal behavior

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(aggression and feather pecking) (Shimmura et al., 2007). Quality, intensity,

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photoperiod, and light color may interfere with bird behavior and development

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Mendes et al., 2010). Photosensitive parts of the bird brain connected to the pineal

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gland are stimulated by light that reaches the retinal receptors and therefore are

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influenced by environmental light (Jin et al., 2010). Light color has an effect on brain

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organization that affects behavioral responses, including fear behavior (Prayitno et al.,

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1997; Dharmaretnam and Rogers, 2005; Danang, 2014). Light is the most critical

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factor because it controls many physiological and behavioral functions (Lewis and

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Morris, 2000; Olanrewaju et al., 2006). The well-being of poultry is important and is

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impacted by factors such as management and housing, and bird stress largely

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influences poultry production, decreases performance and increases the abnormal

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behavior of poultry (Mohammed et al., 2010). Light color is estimated by various

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outputs from different wavelengths in the visible spectrum (Riber, 2015).

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Prayitno et al. (1997) reported that there were no differences in behavior under

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red and white light conditions. They showed aggressive interactions in broilers housed

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under red light compared to those housed under blue, green, and white light and

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finally indicated that blue light is preferred by broilers. Levenick and Leighton (1988)

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noted that blue light seemed to reduce activity in turkeys compared with white, green,

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or red light. Blue light has a calming effect on birds, while red light enhances feather

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pecking and cannibalism (Rozenboim et al., 1999a; 2004). Chickens were more active

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under red light than light of other colors (Son and Velmurugu 2009; Rusty, 2011;

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Senaratna et al., 2012; Hesham et al., 2018). Sultana et al. (2013) stated that red and

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red-yellow light boosted broiler chickens ' mobility and fear reactions, while blue and

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green-blue light decreased activity, leading broilers to spend most of their time sitting.

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These behaviors are likely wavelength effects: the blue and green colors had shorter

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wavelengths (480 nm and 520 nm, respectively) than the red (700 nm) and yellow

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colors (580 nm) (Shabiha et al., 2013). Moreover, Hesham et al. (2018) showed that

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sleeping, sitting and idling activities were much higher under blue light color, which

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may be attributed to the fact that blue light color alleviated the stress response in

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broilers through a reduction in the level of serum interleukin-1, as described by Xie et

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al. (2008). Eating and drinking frequencies were highest under blue and green light.

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However, Heshmatollah (2007) observed that When birds hav the ability to choose

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among yellow, red, or green lights, they prefer to spend significantly more time under

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green or yellow light (Heshmatollah, 2007). Colors have been reported to have no

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effect on eating behavior (Senaratna et al., 2011). Night-time Hybro broiler chicken

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behavior (walking, standing, litter eating, drinking, eating, aggression, feather

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pecking, bird interaction, lying and dust bathing) did not differ significantly under red

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or white colored lights at night time (Senaratna et al., 2008).

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Birds reared under red light were more active, as expressed by more intense

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walking, flying, head movement, litter scratching, body shaking, wing flapping,

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wing/leg stretching, feather pecking and aggression. Additionally, comfort behavior

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(feather preening and dust bathing) was significantly higher under green light than

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under other colors of light (Hesham et al., 2018). Litter scratching was highest under

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blue light (Senaratna et al., 2011; Hesham et al., 2018).

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Feather pecking and aggressive behaviors were higher with blue light, but the

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observed differences were not significant (Mohammed et al., 2010). However, Campo

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et al. (2007) and Hesham et al. (2018) found that abnormal behavior (aggression and

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feather pecking) was significantly higher in chickens reared under red light color than

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light of other colors due to the increase in activities of birds under red light.

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Light color and broiler production parameters

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The genetic potential of broilers is fully expressed under excellent

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environmental conditions (Kalia et al., 2017). Therefore, an improvement in

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production and efficiency depends on the quality of the environmental management

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(lighting is one of these elements). Lighting is a very important factor in chickens, and

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different wavelengths of light have been found to affect growth rate and physiological

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functioning in broiler chickens (Olanrewaju et al., 2011; Hogshead, 2015). Moreover,

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the light wavelength affected the growth performance of broiler, including those

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reared in open houses with natural (solar) lighting, which is a frequent practice in

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tropical climates (Guevara et al., 2015).

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Optimal incubation conditions must be provided in order to achieve high

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economic efficiency in hatchability projects. Light is one of these conditions that

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improves embryonic growth and chick’ performance (El-Sabrout, 2017). The type and

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amount of light could affect hatchability and performance of the chick (Shafey, 2004).

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On the other hand, Archer et al. (2009) indicated that providing light during

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incubation has no negative effect on production or health of broilers but has potential

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benefits in terms of reducing the stress effect associated with growth.

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Wabeck and Skoglund (1974) found that the best feed conversion ratio occurred

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in broilers raised under blue and green lights. Furthermore, broilers raised under blue

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and green lights showed the highest body weight, whereas red light caused a lower

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body weight at slaughter age. Green light accelerates muscle growth and stimulates

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growth at an early age (Halevy et al., 1998). In agreement, Soliman and Hassan

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(2019) concluded that blue LED light was able to improve significantly the metabolic

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hormones and productive performance including carcass weight compared to

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traditional white and red LED lights. The broilers raised under green light grew faster

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(Rozenboim et al., 1999b) than those raised under red, blue or white lights.

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Rozemboim et al. (1999a) found higher body weight in broilers exposed to blue and

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green light at 34 days of growth but found no difference in feed conversion

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throughout the total rearing period. However, broilers under blue or green light

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become significantly heavier than those reared under red or white light (Rozenboim et

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al., 2004). Green light can increase the growth of young birds, while blue light

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stimulates older birds (Classen et al., 2004).

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In preference studies, Prayitno et al. (1997) showed that broilers preferred blue

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or green light for behavioral activities over red or white light. However, they indicated

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that there was no significant difference between color treatments (blue, green, red and

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white) on the final body weight, feed consumption and feed conversion ratio. Young

257

broilers have a strong preference for bright light (more time spent in rest and sleep)

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(Davis et al., 1997). Moreover, Khosravinia (2007) found that broiler chickens

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preferred green light illumination and green colored feed until 42 days of age. On the

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other hand, Hybro broiler chicken body weight and gain, feed and water consumption

261

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patterns, and feed conversion ratios were not significantly affected by the color of the

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lighting (red or white) during night time (Senaratna et al., 2008).

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Lewis and Morris (2000) found an adverse relationship between light

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wavelength and body weight in broiler chickens grown between 530-750 nm in the

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light wavelength range and a reduction of approximately 50 g in body weight per 100

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nm wavelength rise. Classen (2003) reported that short wavelengths (blue and green)

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have a stimulating effect on rapid growth, whereas long wavelengths (orange and red)

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have an accelerating effect on development and sexual maturity. However, Bayraktar

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and Altan (2005) stated that blue or green LEDs were better than FL tube lights of the

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same colors in terms of broiler performance. They concluded that the determinant

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factor in the performance of broiler chickens was related to the spectral distribution

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rather than the perceived light color. In contrast, Atapattu and Wickramasinghe (2007)

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reported a high body weight gain and feed conversion ratio of broiler chicks under red

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light.

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Recently, Jiang et al. (2012) and Kim et al. (2012) showed increased growth in

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broilers reared in light of short wavelengths (i.e., green and blue), although yellow

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light has also been found to have a stimulating effect on growth. Hogshead (2015)

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showed that maximum broiler body weights were observed in broilers raised under

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blue light, whereas those with the lowest body weights were raised under green light.

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No significant mortality differences have been detected among broilers raised

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under white, green, blue or red lights (Rozenboim et al.,1999a). andMortality rate in

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chicks under green FL light reached 8.87 percent at the 6th week of age (Bayraktar and

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Altan, 2005), considerably greater than that observed under the other light types (cold

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white FL, white thermal lamp, and green LED). The elevated mortality rate was likely

285

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due to a high body weight gain for broilers raised under green FL lighting within the

286

first two weeks.

287

Cao et al. (2008) found a greater carcass, breast, and thigh yield for broiler

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chickens subjected to blue LED artificial lighting. Additionally, Ke et al. (2011)

289

showed that under blue light, the yield of carcass was higher than that under green,

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white and red colored monochromatic light. However, Liu et al. (2010) observed that

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birds reared under green light had higher breast muscle weight than those reared under

292

blue, red, and white light. Moreover, different LED colors (red, yellow, blue, and

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white) had the same effect as FL lights on broiler performance and carcass yield

294

(Santana et al., 2014).

295

Finally, Kumar et al. (2017) evaluated LED bulbs (white, green, and blue) and

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found that LEDs could be a better alternative source of light than Inc light bulbs

297

without affecting Cobb broiler performance and carcass characteristics. The results

298

demonstrated that broiler performance in terms of body weight, weekly body weight

299

gain, feed intake and feed conversion ratio was insignificantly higher in the LED light

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treatment groups than in the Inc light group. Additionally, no significant difference

301

was found in carcass quality and yields.

302 303

Light color and broiler welfare parameters

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Recently, poultry producers and consumers have become concerned with

305

raising poultry under improved comfortable conditions (Harper and Henson, 2001).

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Consumers are demanding good animal welfare standards with healthy feathers and

307

feet. Therefore, selecting optimal lighting colors allows birds to achieve a normal life.

308

Light environments can affect lameness and mortality directly through light intensity,

309

color and photoperiod regimes and indirectly via the properties of the quality (Bizeray

310

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et al., 2002). However, bone parameters (length, circumference and tibia ash content)

311

were not affected by red and white light (Senaratna et al., 2008). Lighting treatments

312

jave had insignificant effects on both plumage and foot conditions (Senaratna et al.,

313

2011; Farghly and Mahrose, 2012).

314 315

Animal welfare can be defined as “the ability of an animal to cope physiologically,

316

behaviorally, cognitively and emotionally with its physiochemical and social life

317

environment, including the animal’s subjective experience of its condition” (Seijan et

318

al., 2011). The goal of lighting efficacy is to achieve maximum production

319

performance in broilers with simultaneous conservation of bird welfare (Škrbić et al.,

320

2012). Riber (2015) found no difference between the light treatments (neutral-white,

321

4,100 K and cold-white, 6,065 K) in any of the welfare parameters (scored gait, foot

322

pad dermatitis, and hock burns) studied. Hesham et al. (2018) showed that Fayoumi

323

chickens raised under different light colors (yellow, red, green and blue) had no

324

significant differences in plumage scores or foot condition. Gait score in broiler

325

chickens was not significantly affected by either light source or intensity (Kristensen

326

et al., 2006). Four colors (red, white, green and blue incandescent bulbs) of artificial

327

light had no effect on welfare indicators, foot pad dermatitis, breast blisters and hock

328

burning damage scores in Cobb broiler chickens (Senaratna et al., 2011). Kristensen et

329

al. (2006) reported that an increase in the body weight of broilers housed under blue

330

light may negatively affect leg health.

331

Blue light may play a role in alleviating the stress response (Xie et al., 2008) and fear

332

reactions (Sultana et al., 2013) in broilers. Rearing broilers under blue and green light

333

for 23 h per day could improve growth performance and welfare by reducing stress

334

and fear responses (Mohamed et al., 2017). Applying blue LED in broiler houses is

335

14

preferable than other lighting colors because it keeps the birds calmer and shows a

336

significant positive effects on productive and physiological performance (Abdel-

337

Azeem and Borham, 2018). Blue LED light was able to improve significantly the

338

efficiency of Newcastle vaccine, as well as significantly reduce intestinal bacterial

339

load compared to traditional white and red LED lights (Soliman and Hassan, 2019).

340

However, broiler metabolism and growth could be affected by the green/blue mixed

341

light as a new effective strategy for maximizing the growth performance of broilers by

342

using mixed LED technology (Yang et al., 2016).

343 344

Conclusions

345

To optimize the profits of broiler chickens production, light wavelengths must

346

be considered when rearing broilers for higher growth rates. LED lighting, in terms of

347

color diversity and homogeneous distribution, has proved efficient in improving the

348

performance of meat chickens compared to other sources of lighting. Most of the

349

recent broiler studies indicated that green and blue light gave positive results on body

350

weight, while red light increased the activities and aggressive behavior of birds, which

351

negatively affected body weight. Behavioral parameters of broiler chickens, in

352

general, were affected significantly by light colors, a factor that must be considered in

353

productivity decisions. Mixed lights as a new strategy to maximize broiler

354

productivity should be of greater interest to researchers in the future.

355 356

Acknowledgements

357

The authors are grateful to the Egyptian Knowledge Bank (https://www.ekb.eg/web/

358

guest/home) for its support.

359 360 15

Conflict of interest

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The authors declare that there is no known conflict of interest associated with this

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publication.

363 364

Compliance with ethical standards

365

No ethical approval was required as this is a review article with no original research

366

data.

367 368

References

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Atapattu, N.S., Wickramasinghe, K.P., 2007. The effect of color of lighting on broiler

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Baxter, M., Joseph, N., Oshborne, V.R., Bedecarrats, G.Y., 2014. Red light is

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Bizeray, D., Leterrier, C., Constantin, P., Le Pape, G., Faure, J.M., 2002. Typology of

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activity bouts and effect of fearfulness on behavior of meat-type chickens.

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