Middle Paleolithic transition in Western Europe, North of the Pyrenees

Quaternary International 409 (2016) 104e148

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Lost and found: Technological trajectories within Lower/Middle Paleolithic transition in Western Europe, North of the Pyrenees Ariel Malinsky-Buller Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Mt. Scopus, 91905 Jerusalem, Israel

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Available online 19 December 2015

Over the last 150 years, the Paleolithic era was divided into the Lower, Middle and Upper Paleolithic. This scheme is an arbitrary research construct that confounds chronological, behavioral, and evolutionary meanings. Transitions between these discrete units, and in particular the Lower/Middle Paleolithic transition, received lesser attention. At present, the Lower/Middle Paleolithic transition is still depicted as a worldwide change from biface production to Levallois technology, similar to the way it has been perceived in the initial stages of research. Some key questions remain open for further inquiry: What changed technologically and typologically beyond those guide fossils? What is the geographical variation of this global change(s)? Did changes occur as a result of autochthonous developments in each region or by a diffusion wave (s)? What is the societal process(es) that promoted this evolutionary change? In this paper, I explore the techno-typological variations (reduction sequences and tool kits) in Europe north of the Pyrenees and how these traits pattern diachronically and spatially in the interval of MIS 9e7, the period during which the transition between Lower and Middle Paleolithic is suggested to occur. The first step will be to describe the range of behaviors that existed during each MIS. The presentation of those variants will track the decision-making processes within reduction sequences. The technotypological variants will be studied in relation to their relative abundance within each assemblage. Then, I will attempt to estimate if observed changes in those traits resulted from a continuous processes or whether the record constitutes of segmented local histories. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

Keywords: LowereMiddle Paleolithic transition Lithic technology Biface Levallois Innovation processes

1. Introduction The classificatory scheme of the Paleolithic era over the last 150 years into the Lower, Middle and Upper Paleolithic, has both chronological and cultural meanings and is used as the framework for reconstruction and understanding prehistoric behavior and cultural evolution (see Monnier, 2006a for the history of research). Initially, each period was characterized by diagnostic lithic fossiles directeurs. The Lower Paleolithic (LP hereafter) was associated with core and flake technology in its earlier phases (Mode 1 according to Clark's [1961] terminology) and later with bifaces (Mode 2), whereas the Middle Paleolithic (MP hereafter) was associated with Levallois/Prepared Core technology (Mode 3). Bordes (1950, 1961) developed and applied an analytical approach that included systematic characterization and quantification of Lower and Middle Paleolithic lithic assemblages. In the course of the last three

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decades, chaîne op
eratoire approaches gained broad acceptance. These approaches refer to the whole knapping process, from raw material selection through core preparation, blank production, usage and discard (Tixier et al., 1980; Geneste, 1985; Pelegrin, 1990; Inizan et al., 1999). Initially, the transition between the Lower and Middle Paleolithic has received relatively little attention, More recently, some authors have claimed that the boundary between the Lower and Middle Paleolithic is one of the most important changes in hominin evolution, a turnover point in which a million-year-long adaption
n had been replaced by a new one (Ronen, 1982; Foley and Mirazo Lahr, 1997; Gamble, 1999; Villa, 2009). Moreover, within this time span (ca. 500 and 200 ka) the final burst in hominin encephalization occurred (Rightmire, 2004). The current research aims to study the diachronic variations in technological (reduction sequences) and typological (tool kits) characteristics and their spatial patterns within the time interval of MIS 9e7 in western Europe north of the Pyrenees. Instead of

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dichotomizing the two classificatory entities of Lower and Middle, thus reducing the variation within each period, I focus on patterns of appearance, disappearance and reappearance of traits within this turbulent time period of MIS 9e7 (Fig. 1). Two main contradicting models have been suggested to explain the broadly contemporaneous global transition between the Lower and Middle Paleolithic, each with its own archaeological implications. The first scenario asserts that it occurred as a result of out-of Africa dispersal(s) conditioned by climatic and environmental
n Lahr, 1997, 2003; Lahr and Foley, constraints (Foley and Mirazo
n Lahr (1997, 1998; Marean and Assefa, 2005). Foley and Mirazo 2003) and Lahr and Foley (1998) suggested that during cold climate periods, barriers were created, causing population isolation and leading to diversification in cultural repertoires. While during the amelioration of climate conditions, during interglacial periods those isolated populations with their novel cultural traits expanded. Thus, the movement of populations together with new cultural traits during colonization of those areas that were emptied during the glacial period created what appear to be homogeneous
n Lahr (1997, 2003) and Lahr and Foley package. Foley and Mirazo (1998) assert that the severe glaciation of MIS 8 (303e245 ka) interrupted the long cultural continuity of the interglacial stages (MIS 11e9 423e303 ka) causing a cultural break. The amelioration of climate condition during MIS 7 (245e186 ka) enabled the dispersal of populations with new cultural traits. The second scenario stems mainly from a European perspective of lithic studies, and regards the worldwide occurrence of Levallois dominated industries as the result of a series of temporally and geographically disparate, discontinuous, and possibly autochthonous processes (White and Ashton, 2003; Moncel et al., 2005, 2011; Monnier, 2006a,b; Adler et al., 2014). In recent years, regional extinctions and re-colonization were suggested as the main demographic model for explaining the differences between northern Europe and southern Mediterranean Europe (Hublin and Roebroeks, 2009; Roebroeks et al., 2010). According to this model the populations of the northern parts, which were more impacted by climatic fluctuations, and their cultural repertoires, became extinct. At present, the LPeMP transition is still depicted as a worldwide change from biface production to Levallois flaking, despite the

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changes in the manner of analysis and interpretations of lithic artifacts and assemblages. Some key questions remain open for further inquiry: What changed beyond those guide fossils (Bifaces and Levallois modes of knapping) both technologically and typologically? Did changes occur as a result of autochthonous developments in each region or by diffusion waves? Which societal micro-evolutionary mechanisms promoted this evolutionary change? Questions about the origins of technological variants and which societal mechanisms operated in the emergence, retention or disappearance of modes of behavior attain special importance within this paper. Renfrew (1978: 90) distinguished between inventions e “the discovery or achievement by an individual of a new process, whether deliberate or by chance” e and innovations, which entail the adoption of an invention by a large number of individuals (Renfrew, 1978; Schiffer and Skibbo, 1987; van der Leeuw and Torrence, 1989; Kuhn and Stiner, 1998). The first-ever, original inventions underlying any innovation are most likely untraceable archaeologically (Hovers and Belfer-Cohen, 2006). Innovation as a process includes the testing of new ideas within the range of known possibilities; the manifestation of these experimentation of new possibilities create a range of testable hypothesis (Hovers and Belfer-Cohen, 2006; O'Brien and Shennan, 2010; Hovers, 2012; Hopkinson et al., 2013). Four modes of cultural transmission may explain how new variants become societal norms within a group. The first puts an emphasis on selective pressures, i.e., preferential adoption of one behavioral variant over alternative ones through time (Boyd and Richerson, 1985; Richerson and Boyd, 2005; Eerkens and Lipo, 2007). The second is modification of existing variants and refinement (Basalla, 1988; Kandler and Laland, 2009; Shennan, 2011). A third type of societal process takes place through stochastic culling of cultural variants analogous to mutation and drift in biological evolution (Neiman, 1995; Bentley and Shennan, 2003; Eerkens and Lipo, 2005). All those processes are part of innovation processes. A fourth process is the introduction and acceptance of new variants from outside the pool of known possibilities and variants (Boyd and Richerson, 1992). Those scenarios have testable quantitative predictions. In most cases, several reduction sequences co-occur within each assemblage. In the paper, I will characterize the techno-typological spatial and

Fig. 1. Map of sites distribution. MIS 9: 1. Cagny l'Epinette Layer I; 2. Revelles; 3. Purfleet; 4. Soucy 1e6; 5. Orgnac 3; 6. Les Bosses; 7. Petit Bost-layer 2. MIS 8: 1. Cagny l'Epinette H; 2. Gentelles; 3. Gouzeaucourt; 4. Longavesnes; 5. Mesvin IV; 6. Kesselt-op de schans; 7. Broom; 8. Harnham; 9. Orgnac 3; 10. Baume Bonne. MIS 7: 1.Biache-Saint-Vast; 2. Salouel; 3.
de re; 6. La Cotte St. Brelade; 7. Payre; 8. Coudoulous I; 9. Cantalouette I; 10. Baume Bonne; 11. Vaufrey cave; 12. Combe Brune 2; 13. Therdonne; 4. Le Pucheuil; 5. Maastricht-Belve Petit Bost layer 1; 14. Les Tares.

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diachronic variations of assemblages attributed to MIS 9, MIS 8 and MIS 7 in order to test those societal mechanisms concerning the LowereMiddle Paleolithic transition. 2. The studied area e paleoenvironment and population dynamics Western Europe north of the Pyrenees is a vast region with diverse climatic zones, today as well as in the past. Gamble (1986, 1999) divided the European continent into nine regions based on latitude, longitude, and relief. Lately, Gamble (2009; Fig. 1) clustered those nine regions into two main environmental and climatic zones, which he termed the refugium vs. the biotidal zones. The refugium area contains mainly the Mediterranean belt, of which southern France is part. As the term “refugium zone” incorporates an interpretation, I will refer to it here as “Mediterranean zone”. The biotidal zone includes the area of modern day northern France, England, Belgium and Netherland. The global framework of marine isotope stages, representing the orbitally-tuned succession of glacial/interglacial periods (Shackleton and Opdyke, 1973; Imbrie et al., 1984; Shackleton, 2000; Shackleton et al., 2000; Siddall et al., 2010; Grant et al., 2012), has been used for climate reconstruction within the time frame of interest for the current paper e MIS 9e7. The boundaries between those marine stages are affected by their inner oscillations (e.g. Railsback et al., 2015, Fig. 2). For example, the boundary between MIS 9 and 8 is in disputed. According to the isotope

stratigraphy, the boundary between MIS 9 and 8 was placed with respect to major global ice volume increase at ca. 310 ka, yielding a ca. 58 ky MIS 8 that included a major deglaciation episode (isotopic event 8.5, up to 245 ka (Shackleton and Opdyke, 1973; Prell et al., 1986; Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005)). Alternatively, pollen studies by Tzedakis et al. (1997; see also Martrat et al., 2007; Roucoux et al., 2006; Desprat et al., 2009; Fletcher et al., 2013) assert that MIS 8 commenced at ca. 280 ka and lasted only ca. 35 kyr. Opinions differ as to whether the deglaciation represented by isotopic event 8.5 should be included in the MIS 9 complex (with event 8.5 corresponding to MIS 9a) or was part of MIS 8. In this paper, I will adopt the marine isotopic stratigraphy, placing the start of MIS 8 at 310 ka. The interglacial complex MIS 9 is divided into three warm phases with low ice volume episodes (sub-stages a, c and e) and two intervening cold intervals of greater ice volume (sub-stages b and d). The fully temperate phase of MIS 9 (sub-stage 9e) can be shown to have been relatively brief (Tzedakis et al., 1997, 2004, 2009; Fig. 31; Petit et al., 1999). Tzedakis et al. (2004) suggested that MIS 9e was a period of no more than 3600 years. Compared to pervious and later glaciations, MIS 8 is considered as a relatively weak glacial (Bassinot et al., 1994; Waelbroeck et al., 2002; Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005; Siddall et al., 2007). It is divided into two distinct periods of larger ice volume, separated by a period of lower ice (marine isotope event 8.3) (Bassinot et al., 1994; Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005; Roucoux et al., 2006). High levels of solar radiation in northern latitudes during MIS 8 (Kukla, 2005) and increased insolation led to warming in the later part of MIS 8

Fig. 2. Innovation process schematic representation.

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(275e265 ka; Roucoux et al., 2006; Toucanne et al., 2009), preceding the end of MIS 8 (Termination III e 250 ka). MIS 7 includes three warm peaks of comparable magnitude, sub-stages MIS 7e (246e229 ka), 7c (216.8e206.8 ka) and 7a (200e190 ka) of which MIS 7e is the warmest in the Antarctic ice core records (Imbrie et al., 1984; Martinson et al., 1987). The cold conditions within MIS 7(d) are relatively similar to those of MIS 8 (Desprat et al., 2006; Roucoux et al., 2006). The terrestrial records are fragmentary, incomplete and influenced in different manners by local and regional factors (van Gijssel, 2006). The amplitude of variations as manifested in the biota and fauna in relation to the glacialeinterglacial fluctuations differ between the Mediterranean area and the biotidal ones. In particular, the western seaboard experienced major changes in seasurface levels and temperatures resulted in a southern movement of the polar front from 60
N latitude to 40
N. Within the biotidal area major landform changes occurred such as sea levels fluctuations, redirection of rivers and periglacial activity. Key terrestrial climatic proxies that enable potential correlations between the maritime framework and the terrestrial are pollen records (Munaut, 1988; Roebrokes et al., 1992a,b for historical background; Tzedakis et al., 1997; Reille et al., 1998, 2000; Tzedakis et al., 2004; Tzedakis et al., 2009). In the biotidal zone, during glacial periods the pollen studies portray open vegetation forming a steppic environment. At the transition to interglacial dry open woodland, and in interglacial climate optima the vegetation is of dense deciduous forests and with the return to glacial period humid forest (see discussion in Roebroeks et al., 1992a,b; Leroy et al., 2011). In the Mediterranean zone, the pollen spectra show that temperate episode was characterized by a succession of early, late and post-temperate vegetation mainly of deciduous forest while colder episodes signify prevalence of more open, grassland vegetation (Reille et al., 1998, 2000; Tzedakis et al., 2004). Another key framework for the past climate reconstruction mainly in the biotidal area are river terrace sequences. These are correlated with the global oceanic chronology and climatic framework. The most common model for river terrace development was established by Bridgland (1994, 2000), Bridgland et al. (2006), Bridgland and Westaway (2008), Antoine (1994) and Antoine et al.

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(2000, 2003, 2007). However, other models exist as well (Gibbard and Lewin, 2002; Vandenberghe, 2015). The terrace formation processes are coupled with Milankovich cycles within approximate synchrony of 100 ka glacialeinterglacial cycles and therefore can be correlated to MIS framework (Antoine, 1994; Bridgland, 1994; Antoine et al., 2000, 2003; Bridgland et al., 2006; Antoine et al., 2007; Bridgland and Westaway, 2008). The staircase terraces both in England and Northern France are used as both chronological and climatic frameworks for hominid occupations as most of the sites
et al., 2004; are located within them (Antoine et al., 2003; Chausse Bridgland et al., 2006; Antoine et al., 2007, 2015). The bestpreserved sediments within the terraces are interglacial deposits, in which climatic proxies such as pollen (Munaut, 1988; Roe and Preece, 2011) faunal remains (Auguste, 1995; Schreve, 2001; Schreve and Bridgland, 2002; Auguste, 2009) Malacofauna (Limondin-Lozouet, 2001; Limondin-Lozouet and Preece, 2014) insects (Green et al., 2006) can be found. Those climatic proxies enable on one hand, to specify the climatic conditions in each climate stage, mainly comparing between different interglacial to the Holocene, and in some cases, the interglacial inner oscillations (see below). On the other hand, those proxies promote the understanding of the formation stages of the terraces in comparison to the ideal models suggested above. Another contribution vital to prehistoric studies is the location of the sites within the paleolandscape and the changing
et al., 2004; Lhomme, 2007; environmental conditions (e.g. Chausse Lhomme et al., 2004). The reconstruction of each MIS (MIS 9e7) within the study area demonstrates the fragmentary nature of the terrestrial climatic records. The analysis of ostracods and pollen in the Purfleet and Hackney sequences in England, both attributed to MIS 9, suggested increased warmth in comparison with the present day (Green et al., 2006; Green et al., 2009; Bridgland et al., 2013). In southern France at the site of Orgnac 3 with its long sequence includes several paleoenvironmental proxies attributed to MIS 9 and the transition to MIS 8 (Moigne and Moncel, 2005, Table 1). The transition to MIS 8 involves the drying out of the environment; it is less evident in the large mammal compared to the microfauna, except for the replacement of the cervids by equids (Forsten and Moigne, 1998, Fig. 2).

Table 1 MIS 9e7 sites within the biotidal area. Site and studied layer

Location

Geographical location

Dating

MIS

Reference

Cagny l'Epinette I

Amiens, Northern France

Within the terraces of the Somme river

9

A

Cagny l'Epinette H Soucy 1e6

France (Yonne)

Within the terraces of the Somme river

8 9

B

Revelles Purfleet

France (Somme) England

9 9

C D

kesselt-op de schans

Belgium

Dolina Within the terraces of the Somme river Within the terraces of the Meuse river

ESR on quartz ESR and U-TH on teeth of a bovid Chrono-climatical model ESR/U-series Malacological biostratigraphy and Chrono-climatical model Chrono-climatical model Chrono-climatical model Chrono-climatical model

9e8

E

Broom Harnham Mesvin IV Gouzeaucourt H Gouzeaucourt G Gentelles CLG

England England Belgium
e du Muid between Arras Valle and Amiens, Northern France Near the city of Amiens, northern France

OSL OSL, biostratigraphy and amino acids TL þ Chrono-climatical model Chrono-climatical model

F G H I

Dolina

9e8 8 8 8 8 8

Longavesnes Salouel Biache-Saint-Vaast

Near the city of Amiens, northern France Near the city of Amiens, northern France Near the city of Lille, northern France

Dolina Within a terrace system Open

8/6 8/7 7

K L M

Le Pucheuil

Normandy

Dolina

7

N

Chalk landscape Within river terrace Karst depression

- Chrono-climatical model Bio-stratigraphy prior to OIS 6 - Earlier than MIS 7, by IRSL and ESR/U-series ages Chrono-climatical model Chrono-climatical model TL-ESR þ biostratography þ Chrono-climatical model Chrono-climatical model

J

(continued on next page)

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Table 1 (continued ) Site and studied layer

Location

Geographical location

Dating

MIS

Reference


de re Maastricht-Belve Therdonne La Cotte de St. Brelade

Netherland Oise, northern France Jersey Island

Within a terrace system On the foot of tertiary hillside Rockshelter

TL and biostratigraphy TL and Chrono-climatical model TL

7 7

O P Q

Reference: 1. A. Antoine et al. (2003), Antoine et al. (2007), Auguste (2009), Auguste et al. (2005), Bahain et al. (2007), Dibble et al. (1997), Lamotte (1999, 2001), Lamotte et al. (2005), Laurent et al. (1998), Tuffreau et al. (1995), Tuffreau et al. (1995, 1997, 2008). B. Lhomme et al. (2000), Limondin-Lozouet (2001), Lhomme and Connet (2001), Lhomme
et al. (2004), Voinchet et al. (2004), Lhomme (2007); C. Guerlin et al. (2008); D. Schreve et al. (2002), White and Ashton (2003), Bridgland et al. (2013); E. et al. (2003), Chausse Van Baelen et al. (2007, 2008, 2011); F. Hosfield and Chambers (2009); G. Bates et al. (2014); H. Cahen and Michel (1986), Van Neer (1986), Soriano (2000, 2001), Ryssaert (2006); I. Tuffreau and Bouchet (1985), Mcpherron (1994), Born (2001), Lamotte (2001); J. Tuffreau et al. (2001), Balescu and Tuffreau (2004), Goval (2005), Bahain et al.
risson (2012), Bahain et al. (2010); K. Ameloot-van der Heijden (1993); L. Amelot-van der Heijden et al. (1996); M. Tuffreau and Somme (1988), Auguste (1995), He
risson and Locht (2014); Q. Callow and Cornford (1986). (2015); N. Delagnes and Ropars (1996); O. Roebroeks (1988), de Loecker (2006); P. Locht et al. (2010), He

At the site of Mesvin 4, near the city of Mons, Belgium, Van Neer (1986) identified a faunal assemblage of a cold and open, probably steppe-like environment including mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, horse, reindeer, bison, and Arctic fox. A similar faunal composition was found in Ariendorf also dated to MIS 8. These were suggested to be the earliest indications of the Mammoth steppe in Western Europe (Gamble and Roebroeks, 1999 and reference therein; Hopkinson, 2007). Guthrie (1990, 2001) suggested that the mammoth steppe was a unique combination of grazing species linked to a particular tundra-steppe environment, characterized by a dry, cold continental climate and a complex, productive mosaic vegetation dominated by grassland. This environment consisted of many vegetation patches, mainly of grassland organized as a “plaid”, suggested as being a more productive rangeland for large mammals than the natural vegetation in those areas today. This ecosystem has no modern-day equivalents. It was suggested that during MIS 8 a westward expansion of the mammoth steppe biotope occurred (Guthrie,1984,1990; Gamble and Roebroeks,1999). For the MIS 7 the available climatic proxies within the biotidal area show a relatively high resolution. Auguste (1988, 1995, 2009), Schreve (2001) and Candy and Schreve (2007) proposed mammalian species turnovers resulting from sub-stage climatic forcing. Candy and Schreve (2007) distinguish between fully interglacial temperate woodland environment (7e and 7c), deterioration in climate conditions (7b) and fully interglacial open grassland environments (7a). The reconstruction of the settlement patterns and changes through time in Western Europe North of the Pyrenees varied between the biotidal and Mediterranean zones. Turq (1999) and Turq et al. (2010) for example views the Aquitaine basin and Southern France as a

refugium area, where continuous habitation occurred between 300 and 30 ka. Gamble and Roebroeks (1999) suggested a repeated pattern of population movement dictated by climate conditions. They labeled this dynamic as flow and ebb, in which populations were contracted during glacial stage into the Mediterranean area and expanded into the biotidal area during interglacial. Yet, Bruxelles and Jarry (2011) suggested, based on site distribution in southern France that there is no evidence for more prevalence of sites in this area during colder periods, such that the hypothesis of Mediterranean zone refugia during colder periods is not supported. Hublin (2009); Hublin and Roebroeks (2009), Premo and Hublin (2009), Roebroeks et al. (2010) and Dennell et al. (2011) promoted the view that instead of populations contraction during glacial periods, those areas were shaped by repeated regional extinctions of northern populations. Mapping the known sites in the biotidal and Mediterranean areas during the period of MIS 9e7 reveals an unexpected pattern (Fig. 1; Tables 1 and 2). The emerging picture suggests that during glacial period of MIS 8 there are sites in the biotidal area, unlike the previous glacial periods MIS 12 and 10, and the later MIS 6.. There are only two known sites attributed to MIS 8 in the Mediterranean zone. Within the biotidal zone were found outside the terrace sequences, for example in dolinas (e.g. Gouzeaucourt, Gentelles and Le Pucheuil), with no or very few faunal remains preserved, and therefore cannot be placed within a finer grain resolution of MIS 8 oscillations. Thus, several questions are still open for debate: whether there was discontinuous inhabitation in the biotidal area during MIS 8 into MIS 7, if we so, what is the implication of uninterrupted cultural record in this area, what are the connections between those two geographical regions and how can we identify refugia from the cultural repertoire.

Table 2 MIS 9e7 sites within the Mediterranean area. Site and studied layer

Location

Geographical location Date

MIS

Reference

Les Bosses Petit Bost e layer 2 Organc 3 e layer 5b Organc 3 e layer 3 Organc 3 e layer 2 Organc 3 e layer 1

Southern France Southern France On a plateau near the Rhone Valley, on the right bank and to the south of the Ardeche river gorges

Open-air site Open-air site Cave Rock shelter Open air site Open air site

9/8 9 9 9 8 8

A B C

Baume Bonne e ensemble III Payre e layer Ga þ Gb Payre e layer F Petit Bost e layer 1 Vaufrey cave e layers VIIIeVI Combe Brune 2 e layer VIIb

^ne valley and the Within the Rho small canyon of Payre Southern France Southern France Southern France

Cave Open air site Cave site Open air site

Cantalouette I Les Tares Coudoulous I e layer 7 Baume Bonne e ensemble II

Southern France Southern France Southern France Near Nice, Southern France

Open air sit Open air site Karstic depression Cave site

TL TL Earlier than 298 þ 55, 302 þ 2.5 KA Earlier than 298 þ 55, 302 þ 2.5 KA 298 þ 55, 302 þ 2.5 KA - Later than 302,000 þ 2.5 KA - Bio-stratigraphy ascribed to MIS 8

8 265 þ 59 e ESR e U/Th-series Ages (ka) 8e7 272 ± 69, 223 ± 59, 227 ± 59 by ESR/U-series Ages (ka) 7 TL dating 7 OSL-TT 7 OSL-TT 7 TL TL 7 Chrono-climatical model 7 TL 7 Chrono-climatical model 7

C D E F G H I J K

Reference: A. Jarry et al. (2007); B. Bourguignon et al. (2008); C. Combier (1967), Debard and Pastre (1988), Falgue'res et al. (1988), Forsten and Moigne (1988), Moncel (2000), Moncel and Combier (1992), Khatib (1994), Moncel (1995, 1999), Moigne and Moncel (2005), Moncel et al. (2005, 2011, 2012), Michel et al. (2013); D. Gagnepain and Gaillard (2005), Notter (2007); E. Daujeard and Moncel (2010), Baena et al. (in press), Moncel and Daujeard (2012), Rivals et al. (2009), Valladas et al. (2008); F. Geneste (1985), Geneste (1988), Rigaud (1988), Hernandez et al. (2014); G. Brenet et al. (2008, 2014), Brenet (2011), Frouin et al. (2014); H. Brenet et al. (2008, 2014), Brenet (2011); I. Geneste and Plisson (1996); J. Jaubert et al. (2005); K. Gagnepain and Gaillard (2005), Notter (2007).

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3. Methodology The organization of hunteregatherer lithic technologies entails decision-making regarding “the selection and integration of strategies for making, using, transporting, and discarding tools and the material needed for their manufacture and maintenance” (Nelson, 1991:57). In Paleolithic sites, lithic assemblages constitute proxies of such technological organization, reflecting mobility strategies and variable degrees of raw material economy (Binford, 1977, 1979; s, 1992; Andrefsky, 1994; Kuhn, Geneste, 1985; Bleed, 1986; Perle 1995). Thus, lithic assemblages are the outcome of this long chain of decision-making processes. Each of those stages has implications for the assemblage that archeologists study. The organization of technological behaviors is conditional and adopted in response to changes in circumstances. In order to suggest time-and place-dependent explanatory scenarios, one should explore the conditions that stimulated the preference of specific economic solutions (Holdaway and Douglass, 2012). The number of technological options and the relative frequency of each of them reflect the amplitude of variations within lithic assemblages, thus the given known variation of the group. Knapping contains two related facets that are inseparable. The materialization of the technological knowledge is referred to as know-how (savior faire) while the knowledge of the group is termed cultural know-how (connaissance) (Pelegrin, 1990). The physical actions by which the know-how is implemented create a reduction sequences (chaîne op
eratoire). Those chains of actions create dynamic, irreversible sequences consisting of reducing the volume and mass of an initial raw material. One may be able to reconstruct the technical know-how related to lithic production by identifying the reduction process from patterning of the artifacts properties. The occurrence of co-existing reduction sequences in the archaeological record can be studied quantitatively and show the process of selection of certain reduction sequences by the group (BarYosef et al., 1992; Tostevin, 2000; Bleed, 2001; Hovers, 2009). The analytical tool used in this study is a combination of the chaîne op
eratoire concept with an attribute analysis. The attribute analysis for lithic studies enables quantification of observations on physical, metric and technological attributes of a large number of items (Clark, 1967,1968; Isaac,1977; Goren-Inbar,1990; Bar-Yosef and Goren-Inbar, 1993; Tostevin, 2000, 2011; Hovers, 2009). The quantified

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information can be translated into sequential models that reconstruct the technological procedures. In the last 30 years, several abstract €da, 1986, schema op
eratoire were described (Levallois method e Boe €da, 1993, Peresani 1994; Van Peer, 1992; Discoidal method e Boe €da's discoidal 2003 and papers therein for the reevaluation of Boe concept; Quina method e Turq, 1992; Bourguignon, 1996, 1997; “alternating platform technique” or “SSDA” (Ashton, 1992; Forestier, €da, 1990; Re
villion, 1995), 1993); “laminar production system” (Boe the “Kombewa like Les Tares method” (Geneste and Plisson, 1996), and the “Pucheuil-type method” (Delagnes, 1993) to name a few). Those sequential models are an ideal representation of mode of shaping of the volume and the changes occurring during its reduction. In this paper, the models are used as generalized volumetric frameworks and serve as a dynamic and fluid classificatory system. As lithic reduction is a directional and irreversible process, these sequential models yield a set of testable expectations from the initial phases till discard. It is possible to position the artefacts within the reduction sequence taking into account the relative sizes, shapes, amount of cortical cover, number of dorsal scars and other characteristics of the artefacts, as described by the attribute studied. Thus, using an attribute analyses once can create a continuous feedback between the expected outcomes of the technical procedures observed upon the cores and the products, the debitage and core trimming elements (CTE here after) (Pelegrin, 1990; Tostevin, 2000; Hovers, 2009). Beyond identification of the reduction sequences and exploration of the diversity within them, I will focus on the temporal, spatial, quantitative, environmental, and subsistence contexts of different types of reduction sequences. Two of the reduction models that will be studied are those that were initially suggested as the guide fossils of the Lower and Middle Paleolithic e bifacial reduction sequences (handaxes or façonnage) and Levallois reduction sequences. The Levallois will be studied together with another hierarchical reduction sequence called in the literature “proto-Levallois”, which was claimed to be the initial phase from which Levallois flaking evolved. Other reductions sequences that appear in assemblages from this time span are the discoid reduction and cores made on flakes. The retouched component will be studied as well. Historically, flake tools were considered one of the key transformations within the transition between Lower and Middle Paleolithic (Monnier, 2006a for historical background;

Table 3 General break down of the Northern assemblages as published by Tuffreau et al. (2008).

Debitage Primary elements Flakes Kombewa flakes Levallois flake Blades Eclat de taille de biface Natural backed knife Core trimming elements Hammer stone and spalls Sub-total Debris Chunk Flakes <2 cm. Debitage Core Tested raw material Biface Tools Debris Total

Cagny l'Epinette I

Cagny l'Epinette H

Gentelles CLG

Gouzeaucourt G

Gouzeaucourt H

N

%

N

%

N

%

N

N

%

289 959 3 1 6 21 17 5 12 1313

22.0 73.0 0.2 0.1 0.5 1.6 1.3 0.3 0.9 100

362 1237 2 23 33 52 22 3 1624

22.3 76.2 0.1 1.4 0.0 2.0 3.2 1.3 0.2 100

906 3302 e e 102 39 10 123 1 4483

20.2 73.7 e e 2.3 0.9 0.2 2.7 0.0 100

139 882 63 16 5 84 68 4 e 1261

100

1092 3465 2 37 31 39 13 19 2 4700

23.2 73.7 0.0 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.3 0.4 0.0 100

70 725 795 1313 20 51 66 169 70 1689

8.8 91.2 100 77.7 1.2 3.0 3.9 10.0 4.1 100

318 12 330 1624 24 19 24 342 330 2363

3.6 96.4 100 68.7 1.0 0.8 1.0 14.5 14.0 100

e 151 151 4483 291 1 97 258 151 5281

e 100 100 84.9 5.5 0.0 1.8 4.9 2.9 100

314 164 478 1261 58 11 43 1068 478 2919

65.7 34.3 100 43.2 2.0 0.4 1.5 36.6 16.4 100

25 449 473 4700 130 22 282 1076 473 6683

5.3 94.7 100 70.3 1.9 0.3 4.2 16.1 7.1 100

% 11.0 69.9 5.0 1.3 0.4 6.7 5.4 0.3

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Table 4 General break down of the Orgnac assemblages according to Moncel (1999), Moncel and Combier (1992) and Moncel et al. (2005, 2011). Layer

1 (53 m2)

2 (39 m2)

3 (39 m2)

4a (39 m2)

4b (39 m2)

5a (39 m2)

5b (39 m2)

6 (39 m2)

7 (33 m2)

8 (24 m2)

Flakes >20 mm Levallois flakes Fragments of flakes and debris Eclat de bifaces Non-Levallois Cores Levallois cores Cores fragments Heavy duty tools Bifaces Total Tools on flakes

10,974 1676 13,750 e 52 540 522 26 1 27,541 1732

3371 434 1468 e 25 138 61 54 5 5556 460

1708 152 480 13 9 58 31 19 17 2487 371

846 64 553 32 16 8 11 15 10 1555 285

1644 37 568 31 17 11 28 21 8 2365 254

2983 14 194 66 31 3 30 40 18 3379 316

2022 54 1578 229 38 4 47 39(1) 28 4000 447

1327

219

14

712 128 25

65 42 8

2

35? 29(3?) 5 2287 337

2(?) 1 6 358 86

Brenet et al., 2014 for recent example). Yet, apart from those studied sequences there are more core types that were not studied in a comparative manner (cores with three platforms and more e migrating platforms, cores with alternating surfaces, tested nodules etc.). Such cores and their products do not bear derived features. There appearance in the assemblages crosscuts time and space boundaries. Nor do they produce diagnostic debitage that can be used to reconstruct the reduction sequences. These artifacts were studied but were not incorporated in this study. The sites studied for this research are located in both the biotidal and Mediterranean zones and from the whole time of span of MIS 9 to 7 (see Tables 3e6 regarding the sites). The sites are: Cagny l'Epinette (layers I and H); Gouzeaucourt (layers G and H); Gentelles layer CLG; Orgnac (layers 5b, 3, 2 and 1) and Payre (layers Ga and Fa). Within each assemblage the sample studied included at Table 5 General break down of the Payre according to Moncel (2008). Flint Layer Ga

Flakes <20 mm Flakes >20 mm Debris Cores Tools on flake Total Other raw material Quartz Quartzite Limestone Calcrite Basalt

Layer Fa

N

%

N

%

1253 967 525 90 546 3381

37.1 28.6 15.5 2.7 16.1 100

1199 611 163 24 270 2267

52.9 27.0 7.2 1.1 11.9 100

140 48

214 27

15 298

42 191

1

17 6

least 10% of each technological category (debitage, cores, bifaces and retouched tools), if it was possible to enlarge depending on feasibility and logistics (Tables 7 and 8). The attribute list and attribute definitions used in this research are based on Hovers (2009: appendices 2e4). Adaptations to this attribute list in order to analyze the bifacial component is added below. 4. Main reduction sequences 4.1. Bifacial reduction sequences The bifacial production (façonnage) consists of several stages: raw material selection, shaping, maintenance recycling. The analysis of technological, morphological together with metrical variables enables a description of the bifaces and reconstruction of production sequences as series of discrete reduction sequence. The variables include shaping of the upper 1/5 of the biface in comparison to the rest of the handaxe; the morphology of the tip (triangular, rounded or amorphous); the shaping of the lower 4/5 of the artifact and especially the butt; the mode of shaping (thinning, large removals, retouch and the combinations of those) as well as the number of removals and the shape of the active edge. The analysis also considers whether all the stages of production are represented in the assemblage or only the final shaping, and the degree of rejuvenation and maintenance of artifacts. The site of Cagny l'Epinette is located at an excellent raw material exposure. Knapping took place on-site. At Gentelles nodules were not reported, however according to the bifaces and cores affinities most probably the raw material source was close to the site and knapped on-site. At Gouzeaucourt, nodules of raw material were found during excavation (Lamotte and Tuffreau, 2016). Four reduction sequences of biface production are found in Northern France in assemblages dated to MIS 9e8. At in Cagny

Table 6 The studied sample in each assemblage within the biotidal area.

Primary 0 elements Flakes Kombewa flakes Levallois flake Possible Levallois flake Blades Eclat de taille de biface Natural backed knife Core trimming elements Debitage sub-total Core Biface Tools Total

Cagny l'Epinette I

Cagny l'Epinette H

Gentelles CLG

Gouzeaucourt G

N

%

N

%

N

%

N

%

N

%

62 97 e e e e 7 e 5 171 11 19 125 326

36.3 56.7 e e e e 4.1 e 2.9 52.5 3.4 5.8 38.3 100

44 87 e e e e 7 e 5 143 6 8 69 226

30.8 60.8 e e e e 4.9 e 3.5 63.3 2.7 3.6 30.5 100

11 64 e e e e e e 12 87 39 23 76 225

12.6 73.6 e e e e e e 13.8 38.7 17.3 10.2 33.8 100

35 101 3 e e 10

18.3 52.9 1.6 e e 5.2 0 12.6 9.4 49.4 5.7 15.8 29.7 100

70 119 e e e 2 18 5 14 228 47 96 62 433

30.7 52.2 e e e 0.9 7.9 2.2 6.1 52.7 10.9 22.2 14.3 100

24 18 194 20 61 115 387

Gouzeaucourt H

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Table 7 The studied sample in each assemblage within the Mediterranean area. Organc 1

Primary elements Flakes Kombewa flakes Levallois flake Possible Levallois flake Blades Eclat de taille de biface Natural backed knife Core trimming elements Debitage sub-total Core Biface Tools

Organc 2

Organc 3

Organc 5b

Payre Fa

Payre Ga

N

%

N

%

N

%

N

%

N

%

N

%

36 202 56 38 41 15 e 3 68 459 95 3 146

7.8 44.0 12.2 8.3 8.9 3.3 e 0.7 14.8 65.3 13.5 0.4 20.8

12 91 17 14 16 e e 1 14 165 26 1 20

7.3 55.2 10.3 8.9 9.7 e e 0.6 8.5 77.8 12.3 0.5 9.4

30 113 37 2 7 19 e 1 24 233 22 5 49

12.9 48.5 15.9 0.9 3.0 8.2 e 0.4 10.3 75.4 7.1 1.6 15.9

1 185 19 3 e 10 9

0.4 75.2 7.7 1.2 e 4.1 3.7 0 7.7 70.3 9.1 3.7 16.9

20 107 33 e e 5 e 4 24 173 41 e 58

11.6 61.8 19.1 e e 2.9 e 2.3 13.9 63.6 15.1 e 21.3

26 154 48 e e 4 e 2 34 268 34 5 118

9.7 57.5 17.9 e e 1.5 e 0.7 12.7 63.1 8 1.2 27.8

19 246 32 13 59

Table 8 A) Bifacial tools dimensions (part 1). B) Bifacial tools dimensions (part 2). A)

Cagny l'Epinette I

Cagny l'Epinette H

Gentelles

Gouzeaucourt G

Gouzeaucourt G e bifacial scrapers

Gouzeaucourt H

Gouzeaucourt H e bifacial scrapers

Orgnac 3 e lower levels

Orgnac 3 e level 3

Orgnac 3 e level 2 þ 1

Payre

average std CV N average std CV N average std CV N average std CV N average std N average std CV N average std CV N average std CV N average std CV N average std N average std N

Length

Mid width

Width

Thickness

Tip width

108.4 26.1 0.24 19 113.3 30.3

66.8 16.8 0.25 19 59.2 12.0

71.2 16.6 0.23 19 69.5 19.8

36.3 8.1 0.22 19 35.8 9.1

38.6 17.4 0.45 17 9.7 0.3

6 104.1 24.9 0.24 23 78.3 15.2 0.19 61 67.4 16.2 8 75.5 16.2 0.21 98 57.5 9.3 0.16 18 127.4 36.8 0.29 22 144.0 12.2

6 54.4 14.7 0.27 23 21.3 5.6 0.26 61

6 34.1 8.9 0.26 23 21.8 4.4 0.20 61 18.5 10.5 8 20.5 4.6 0.22 98 15.9 5.0 0.31 18 32.4 8.7 0.27 22 32.2 11.5

5 29.2 10.7 0.37 21 31.2 6.9 0.22 55

66.0 17.6 0.27 22 94.4 6.5

6 61.8 13.9 0.22 23 53.1 9.3 0.17 61 48.3 13.2 8 51.9 9.6 0.19 98 42.9 11.0 0.26 18 76.8 21.2 0.28 22 97.4 5.9

5 79.5 27.1 4 61.0 21.6 5

5 79.5 27.1 4 62.8 23.2 5

5 26.5 11.8 4 28.8 8.1 5

5 121.5 38.5 4 93.0 36.4 5

50.4 9.5 0.19 98

31.2 7.5 0.24 84

34.2 12.0 0.35 22 52.6 7.0 5 50.5 21.9 2 27.3 4.7 4

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B)

Cagny l'Epinette I

Cagny l'Epinette H

Gentelles

GouzeaucourtG

GouzeaucourtH

Orgnac 3 e lower levels

Orgnac 3 e level 3

Orgnac 3 e level 2 þ 1

Payre

average std N average std N average std N average std N average std N average std N average std N average std N average std N

Circumference

Circumference of working edge

% of worked edge

N of scars

N of scar upper 1/5

271.3 69.0 19 285.3 79.2 6 261.7 63.1 23 204.6 36.0 61 200.5 34.8 96 331.9 64.3 22 377.6 20.1 5 371.0 41.9 3 207.8 75.8 4

64.5 68.4 18 177.3 31.3 6 179.9 65.5 23 197.8 41.6 61 196.3 40.4 96 244.2 85.9 22 218.2 107.2 5 303.0 89.1 3 165.5 42.2 4

64.5

35.7 14.4 19 29.2 13.8 6 37.5 15.7 23 57.1 16.5 61 49.6 15.4 96 40.1 16.7 22 34.2 18.3 5 35.3 14.2 4 25.4 5.8 5

8.1 7.0 14 9.5 5.3 6 9.7 4.1 21 11.2 4.7 55 10.0 4.5 88 9.7 3.8 22 10.4 3.2 5 10.5 2.1 2 8.3 1.5 4

l'Eppinete I two main reduction sequences of biface co-exist (Fig. 3: 2e4). The first includes four stages. At first up to four large flakes were removed from the lateral edges. Some of these flakes exceed 10 cm in length and bear cortex (Fig. 3: 1). This shaping occurs on both faces of the biface. Usually one face was more intensively flaked. Then, thinning flakes were removed from the lateral edges. Few (n ¼ 7) of those flakes were found, two of which were possibly knapped by soft hammer (Fig. 3: 5). In the third phase, the tips of the handaxes were thinned. The thinning was limited mostly to the upper fifth of the handaxe. There are three ways of tip thinning (coup de tranchet): similar to a burin spall removals (Fig. 3: 6a), from the tip end (Fig. 3: 6b), or by lateral blow from the side of the biface (Fig. 3: 6c). In the final phase, some handaxes were retouched in a manner similar to a scraper retouch (e.g. Fig. 3: 2, 4). The extent of retouch is marginal and in most cases, it originated from one plain. The second reduction for biface production differs from the first by the lack of shaping of a targeted tip (Fig. 3: 4). It seems that the aim of the shaping was to create by thinning an elongated convex lateral active edge, while the side opposite to the active edge remained cortical or, in some cases, plain, shaped by large removal. This reduction sequence is less frequent in Cagny l'Epinette I compared to the first. These two reduction sequences persist into Cagny l'Epinette H dated to MIS 8 (Fig. 4: 1, 2). In layer H assemblage, six thinning flakes (Fig. 4: 5, 6) and five tip removal flakes (coup de tranche; Fig. 4: 7e9) were included in the sample. Both tip removal flakes and thinning flakes dimensions are smaller and thinner than regular flakes, and they are mostly asymmetrical (Table 10). These two modules prevail at Gentelles layer CLG (Fig. 4: 3, 4, 11), while a new one appears (Fig. 4: 10). The latter shows a minimal amount of shaping. At the first stage, few cortical flakes were removed creating an asymmetric cross-section. The second stage is shaping of the tip, done by either retouch or thinning. The endproducts are crude trihedrals or picks. There is sporadic recycling of bifaces in cores (n ¼ 3) (Tuffreau et al., 2001 Fig. 4: 1). At Gouzeaucourt layers G and H (MIS 8), a fourth reduction sequence appears which dominates the bifacial shaping (Figs. 5 and 6). When recognized, blank selections for the manufacture of the bifaces were mostly made on flakes. The blanks most probably were

62.1

68.8

96.7

97.9

73.6

57.8

81.7

79.7

manufactured off-site (see below). Where it is possible to recognize the original characteristics of the blanks, they appear to be mostly transversal flakes (Fig. 5: 3, 7e9, Fig. 6: 1, 6e7). The shaping of the biface changes the blank's original technological orientation during its thinning (Fig. 6: 6e7). The striking platforms of the flakes are generally plain or dihedral and with a mostly flat ventral curvature. Most probably, those blanks do not derive from Levalloisian reduction sequences. The thinning shows technological similarities to the tip thinning (coup de tranchet) that appears in earlier and contemporaneous sites (Fig. 5: 5, 6, 11e13). However, thinning is not restricted to the upper 1/5 of the biface, but rather penetrates the whole circumference of the biface (Fig. 5: 2, 7; Fig. 6: 4, 5). As a result, the shape of the tip is variable with no dominant form (Figs. 5 and 6) and there is no distinction between the tip and the remaining active edge of the biface. It seems that the emphasis in biface shaping shifted from the tip to thinning the circumference of the biface. There is some typological ambiguity between bifaces and bifacial scrapers (6 and 10 bifacial scrapers in layers G and H, respectively (Fig. 5: 1)). The blanks chosen for scraper production have similar technological traits as those blanks selected for the bifacial shaping. The similarities both in blank as well as in the mode of thinning between the two tool's types would suggest those bifacial scrapers represent an initial stages during the biface production. However, those scrapers are smaller in all dimensions than the bifaces per se (Table 8). At Orgnac 3 (MIS 9e8) the number of bifaces as well as their diagnostic byproducts is low, as their relative proportion to other reduction sequences throughout the entire sequence, as well (Tables 4 and 7). Still, there are significant variations within the bifacial component (Figs. 6 and 7). The low number of bifaces and the great variation in both blank selection and the mode of shaping hamper generalizations regarding the modules of production. In the lower layers of Orgnac 3 (layers 6e4) non-flint material (basalt, silicified wood) were also used beside flint (Fig. 6). Similar non-flints raw materials were not found in the debitage. Pebbles and flakes as blanks for biface production occur in similar frequencies. Interestingly, bifaces made on flakes are larger than those on pebbles. Still, the circumference of the active edge and the number of scars are similar between bifaces made on both blanks.

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Fig. 3. 1. Retouched flakes stemming from the initial phase of biface production Cagny l'Epinette layer I; 2e3. Handaxes made by the first reduction sequence; 4. Handaxes made by the second reduction sequence; 5. Three ways of tip thinning; 6a. burin like removals; 6b. removal from the tip end; 6c. lateral removals from the side of the biface.

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Fig. 4. 1 Handaxes made according to the first reduction sequence in Cagny l'Epinette Layer H 2. Handaxes made by the second reduction sequence in Cagny l'Epinette Layer H 3. Handaxes made according to the first reduction sequence in Gentelles Layer CLG. 4, 11. Handaxes made according to the second reduction sequence in Gentelles Layer CLG. 5e6. Thinning flakes. 7e9. Tip removal flakes in Cagny l'Epinette layer H. 10. The third mode of reduction sequence at Gentelles Layer CLG.

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Fig. 5. 1. Bifacial scraper from Gouzeaucourt layer G; 2, 3, 4, 10. Bifaces from Gouzeaucourt layer G fashioned in the fourth mode of reduction sequence. 5, 11, 12, 13. Thinning flakes from Gouzeaucourt layer G. 6. Tip removal flakes from Gouzeaucourt layer G. 7e9. Blanks on which bifaces were made from Gouzeaucourt layer G.

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Fig. 6. 1e5. Bifaces from Gouzeaucourt layer H fashioned in the fourth mode of reduction sequence. 6e7. Blanks on which bifaces were made from Gouzeaucourt layer H.

The tip was fashioned mainly by thinning, resulting in equal frequencies of triangular or rounded shape. The lower 4/5 of the biface is shaped by a variety of modes: crude removals, thinning and sometimes retouch. Initial knapping of the entire blank, of all raw materials, took place off-site. Evidence for maintenance is scarce. Two rejuvenation flakes from the bifaces tips were found in layer 5b (Fig. 7), together with 9 thinning flakes. In the upper part of the Orgnac sequence (layers 3e1) biface numbers (n ¼ 9) and relative frequencies within assemblage decline further (Fig. 8: 1, 4). Despite the small numbers of bifaces, a change in their characteristics in comparison to the lower levels can be

observed. The chosen blanks are almost exclusively of flint, mainly on thin tabular plaques. There is no evidence of on-site maintenance. At Payre (MIS 7), bifaces were found only in layers Gb and Ga (n ¼ 5; Fig. 8: 6e7). The biface reduction sequence is marginally represented in the assemblages. Three bifaces are made on flakes (one of them on a Kombewa flake), the rest being on nodules. The very low number of bifaces and the technological variation they present preclude generalizations regarding the modules of production. Examination of the façonnage reduction sequences from metrical point of view shows some patterns echoing the technological reading suggested above (Table 8). The similarities in metric dimensions between Cagny l'Epinette and Gentelles bifaces stem

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Fig. 7. 1. Biface made on flake, on silicified wood from Orgnac layer 5b; 2. Biface made on plaquette tabular flint from Orgnac, layer 5a.

most probably from the similar raw material affinities. It can be demonstrated by the thickness of the bifaces from both sites, which is measured on their cortical butts, thus representing the original nodule thickness. Cagny l'Epinette and Gentelles also show technological similarities in the percentage of the worked edge and number of scars per volume (Table 8). It appears that for bifacial knapping, the original size of the pebbles was the most significant factor in affecting the finished morphology of the artifacts. The Gouzeaucourt bifaces from both layers show divergence from the

Cagny l'Epinette and Gentelles pattern, as the bifaces are smaller, with lower coefficient of variance values attesting lesser variation in all metrical measurements. Moreover, they are shaped all over their circumference (96.7% and 97.9% of the worked edge in layer G and H respectively), with higher numbers of scars per volume and no emphasize on shaping the tip (Table 8). At Orgnac 3, despite the small numbers of studied specimens, the length of the biface and the standard deviation do not show the expected linear trend toward reducing in size or in degree of

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Fig. 8. 1. Biface made on tabular flint from Orgnac, layer 3. 2. Biface made on flake from Orgnac layer 5b 2. Biface made on flake from Orgnac layer 5b. 3, 5. Tip removal flakes from Orgnac, layer 5b. 4. Biface made on tabular flint from Orgnac, layer 1. 6. Biface made on Kombewa flake from Payre layer Ga. 7. Biface from Payre layer Ga.

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shaping (percentage of worked edge and number of scars per volume). Similarly, in Payre the standard deviation of the few bifacial tools also show the unstandardize nature of this category. 4.2. Hierarchical reduction sequence €da (1993, Refitting and replication studies by Geneste (1985), Boe €da et al. (1990) led to definition of the Levallois 1994, 1995) and Boe concept as the outcome of well-defined procedures to create and maintain core surfaceevolume relationships. The technological criteria recognized by them translate into tangible, observable properties mainly of the cores. The definition of a Levallois cores €da, 1995). The Levallois was sub-divided contain six criteria (See Boe into two methods of flaking within the Levallois flaking system e lineal or recurrent. A lineal flaking method in which the core is designed for the removal of a preferential, large flake from a €da, 1995). The second method of flaking Levallois flaking surface (Boe is a recurrent core exploited through the method produces several flakes from any given flaking surface. The recurrent Levallois flaking system are most abundant mode of flaking in the Middle Paleolithic. Another level of variation lies in the modes of core preparation (i.e., centripetal, unidirectional, unidirectional convergent, and bidirectional). Most Levallois morpho-types were produced through more than one combination of flaking modes and methods (Van Peer, 1992; Dibble, 1995a; Hovers, 2009). During the course of reduction in order to extend the core's use-life before its discard changes of flaking modes are often documented (Baumler, 1988; Van Peer, 1992; Dibble, 1995a; Van Peer, 1995). €da's approach broadened the Levallois concept to such a deBoe gree that one needs to wonder about the “limits of Levallois.” and whether all the criteria must be applied by the knapper and recognized archaeologically for a Levallois flaking system to be identified (Kuhn, 1995). Moreover, the identification of the Levallois reduction sequence within an assemblage, as a fluid mode of production should include all stages of production-cores and all the flakes, including rejuvenation flakes. There is a problem of equifinality, the shape of Levallois core can be achieved without implanting Levallois reduction sequences; similarly, Levallois flakes can be produced accidentally from other reduction sequences (Copeland, 1983). The refitting and replication studies showed that during Levallois reduction sequences non-Levallois flakes are also removed (Geneste, 1985; Van €da, 1994; Van Peer, 1995; Schlanger, 1996). Thus, the Peer, 1992; Boe question of Levallois identification needs to quantified in order to be validated in a given assemblage (Hovers, 2009). Defining flakes as Levallois or non-Levallois remains very much a subjective matter, on which analysts often disagree (e.g. Perpere, 1986). Flakes rather than cores, however, form the majority of lithic assemblages. Thus, from the abstract Levalloisian model that it is based on the core's characteristics those in turn enable to derive characteristics of the debitage. Those technological traits that are expected from the application of the Levallois volumetric concept accordingly the resultant flakes are relatively flat and thin. They

119

often have a slightly concave longitudinal ventral profile, the result of their axis of removal being sub-parallel to the slightly convex prepared flaking surface of Levallois cores. On their dorsal face, the flakes bear complex scar patterns that reflect the modification of €da, 1991:44, 71). Levallois convexities and (in many cases both; Boe flakes are less likely to have punctiform, thin, or crushed striking platforms and more likely to have discernible platforms most probably faceted, plain, or cortical. Inherent within the definition of the Levallois volumetric concept is the mandatory need for rejuvenation of the lateral and distal convexities. This required removal of the exploited surface and extensive rearrangement of the flaking surface. Two types of designated flakes for that technical procedure
clat's de bordants (Beyries and Boe €da, 1983) and e
clat's outre
e
bordants are removed from passes (Tixier et al., 1980:95). Eclat's de the lateral edge of a Levallois core when the flaking surface is reorganized for continued flaking, and their lateral edges bear residual scars of preparation flakes that had been removed from the preparation face of the core. They are expected to occur during

relatively advanced stages of Levallois reduction. Eclat's outre passes are usually large flakes, designed to remove the whole of the
passes were detached when deformed flaking surface. Eclat's outre intensive use of both the striking platform and the flaking surface of the core. Those two types of items are expected to show a large number of dorsal face scars and a complex dorsal face scar pattern. Several reduction sequences that mostly predate the appearance of the Levallois share some of the Levallois technological criteria. The nomenclature of these technologies is quite varied: ‘recurrent non-Levallois technique’ (Ameloot-van der Heijden, 1993); ‘central surface cores’ (Barzilai et al., 2006); Cores with two surfaces perpendicular to each other with hierarchy (MalinskyBuller et al., 2011); ‘simple prepared-core’ technology (White and Ashton, 2003; White et al., 2011). The common criteria (mostly based on the analysis of the cores) are the use of two surfaces in an interchangeable manner, with one surface being used as a flaking surface and the other as preparatory surface. The angle between those two surfaces is typically close to 90
. The unchanging hierarchy of the core surface is main key to core organization. This knapping organization has long roots going back to the Early Pleistocene (de la Torre and Mora, 2005). The possible linkage between this volumetric conception and those of the Levallois will be dealt in the discussion of the paper. However, unlike in the Levallois reduction sequence, there is no maintenance of distal and lateral convexities and the preparatory surface is minimally treated, mainly by large removals (White and Ashton, 2003; Barzilai et al., 2006; Malinsky-Buller et al., 2011; White et al., 2011). Compared to Levallois there is less control over the morphology of the resultant flakes. The flakes will be flat in their ventral curvature, with mostly plain striking platforms. The suspected CTE will show large removals preparing the surface, mostly flat ventral curvature. The presentation in the paper first will deal with the ‘hierarchical cores’ technologies and later with the “full fledged” Levallois technology. All metrical data appear in Table 9.

Table 9 A) Cores metrics all sites (part 1). B) Cores metrics all sites (part 2). C) Cores metrics all sites (part 3).

A) Cagny l'Epinette I

Cagny l'Epinette H

Gentelles all cores

Average STD. N Average STD. N Average STD. N

Length

Wide

Width

Length of dominant scar

Wide of dominant scar

Length of last scar

Wide last scar

83.1 26.7 11 103.4 25.0 8 90.8 22.1 39

68.3 24.6 11 83.5 24.7 8 66.0 17.1 39

36.9 14.0 11 52.1 21.8 8 48.0 16.6 39

38.3 20.7 11 35.4 15.1 7 51.6 14.0 33

36.9 23.5 11 38.7 16.7 7 39.1 13.2 33

26.6 19.2 7 22.4 6.6 5 30.6 15.2 35

21.3 11.7 7 27.2 9.7 5 28.0 8.9 35 (continued on next page)

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Table 9 (continued )

Gentelles e Cores with hierarchy

Gouzeaucourt G all cores

Gouzeaucourt G e Cores with hierarchy

Gouzeaucourt G e Cores on flake

Gouzeaucourt H e all cores

Gouzeaucourt H e Cores with hierarchy

Gouzeaucourt H e Cores on-flake

B) Orgnac 5b e cores on nodules

Orgnac 5b e cores on flake

Orgnac 3 e cores on nodules

Orgnac 3 e levallois cores

Orgnac 3 e cores-on flake

Orgnac 2 e on nodules

Orgnac 2 e Levallois cores

Orgnac 2 e cores-on-flake

Orgnac 1 e cores on nodule

Orgnac 1 e Levallois cores

Orgnac 1 e cores-on flake

C) Payre Ga e cores on nodule

Payre Ga e cores-on flake

Payre Fa e cores on nodule

Payre Fa e discoidal cores

Payre Fa e cores-on-flake

Length

Wide

Width

Length of dominant scar

Wide of dominant scar

Length of last scar

Wide last scar

Average STD. N Average STD. N Average STD. N Average STD. N Average STD. N Average STD. N Average STD. N

92.3 22.6 23 74.5 23.9 20 70.8 16.8 4 72.3 19.2 4 68.9 20.8 47 68.7 9.4 14 63.8 22.0 8

67.7 17.7 23 52.1 12.0 20 53.3 11.8 4 49.0 7.4 4 53.0 13.6 47 54.6 10.1 14 57.8 18.9 8

47.0 13.7 23 38.6 10.6 20 33.3 7.3 4 31.3 14.2 4 31.6 8.9 47 27.7 5.6 14 30.5 13.4 8

53.5 13.1 19 34.4 9.0 20 31.5 6.1 4 31.8 13.6 4 32.1 9.3 40 31.0 9.2 12 31.6 11.8 8

34.9 10.1 19 26.7 11.5 20 28.5 3.9 4 19.3 8.5 4 28.8 7.8 40 26.8 6.8 12 29.3 7.7 8

27.0 15.0 20 20.5 9.9 16 16.3 3.5 3 15.0 5.2 3 19.2 9.1 39 18.5 7.0 10 18.1 12.7 7

24.5 5.7 20 18.6 9.7 16 17.0 5.2 3 12.0 3.6 20.6 10.5 38 21.1 13.0 10 18.2 6.8 6

Average STD. N Average STD. N Average STD. N Average STD. N Average STD. N Average STD. N Average STD. N Average STD. N Average STD. N Average STD. N Average STD. N

62.8 21.8 32 63.1 23.7 17 74.6 22.1 5 77.3 35.7 3 54.4 17.0 14 75.8 39.0 6 68.6 16.9 9 55.0 8.1 11 66.4 19.1 29 68.9 23.9 16 57.8 12.9 50

45.8 14.0 32 44.1 12.1 17 61 11.1 5 65.7 32.9 3 37.6 9.6 14 59.7 23.8 6 60.8 14.1 9 44.8 9.3 11 54.8 17.1 29 59.2 20.9 16 47.9 10.9 50

28.3 11.3 32 24.8 9.3 17 37.6 7.0 5 26.0 15.6 3 22.1 6.7 14 35.8 17.4 6 26.4 7.5 9 19.1 4.9 11 32.8 12.4 29 24.1 10.6 16 21.5 8.3 50

24.0 9.9 30 22.3 10.0 17 40.6 9.4 5 37.5 12.0 2 20.6 5.6 14 35.3 17.8 6 34.0 11.8 9 21.2 8.0 11 28.9 13.0 29 33.4 19.6 16 24.3 6.6 50

25.9 11.0 30 24.0 7.6 17 33.8 9.1 5 44.5 21.9 2 22.9 5.3 14 31.2 11.3 6 33.3 8.9 9 21.5 6.1 11 29.4 8.1 29 30.9 12.6 16 26.6 8.9 50

18.2 9.0 28 17.9 6.0 14 15.8 2.9 4 27.3 12.0 3 15.1 5.7 14 25.7 6.9 6 18.4 5.1 9 14.2 4.3 11 17.4 11.1 27 20.5 8.1 15 16.8 5.3 48

19.3 7.4 28 19.6 6.8 14 20.0 5.4 4 26.3 6.4 3 14.5 5.1 14 29.8 15.4 6 21.3 7.6 9 18.5 5.6 11 21.1 9.2 27 21.5 8.6 15 17.4 4.6 48

Average STD. N Average STD. N Average STD. N Average STD. N Average STD. N

55.8 12.8 15 53.4 13.2 19 56.0 15.1 6 49.6 10.4 7 51.5 13.1 29

41.7 8.5 15 41.8 12.2 19 41.5 5.4 6 34.7 11.2 7 36.3 9.0 29

29.4 7.9 15 19.5 8.8 19 33.8 6.3 6 23.6 10.8 7 20.3 5.5 29

30.5 9.6 10 25.3 7.7 15 22.7 7.1 6 23.0 6.8 7 16.3 4.6 21

30.7 13.4 10 25.6 9.1 15 25.3 8.1 6 21.9 3.5 7 20.0 6.7 21

18.9 10.2 14 18.9 9.2 18 12.7 3.3 6 12.3 3.7 7 13.5 5.4 26

19.1 7.2 14 18.6 6.1 18 16.0 5.0 6 17.9 2.9 7 18.2 6.8 25

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At Cagny L'Epinette layer I there are few cores (11 studied, Tables 3 and 6), most of which are tested cobbles or minimally used. Four cores can be described as ‘cores with two perpendicular hierarchical surfaces’. Three of those are minimally utilized (22.5% of

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their circumference, low scar numbers (8.5 ± 3.2) with only few scars on the preparatory surface (Fig. 9: 1). The scar pattern is unipolar. The fourth core (Fig. 9: 2) resembles the ‘simple preparedcores’ in Purfleet (White and Ashton, 2003; Figs. 2 and 3). This core

Fig. 9. 1. A ‘core with two perpendicular hierarchical surfaces’ from Cagny l'Epinette layer I 2. A ‘simple prepared-core’ from Cagny l'Epinette layer I Cagny l'Epinette layer I 3. A ‘core with two perpendicular hierarchical surfaces’ from Gentelles layer CLG. 4, 6. CTE's from Cagny l'Epinette layer H. 5. CTE's from Cagny l'Epinette layer I.

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is unique in all parameters; it is larger in dimensions, worked in its entire circumference and the number of scars is almost four times higher than the other cores (30 scars), with bidirectional scars removals (Fig. 9: 2). The few core trimming elements (n ¼ 7) fit the expectation from the technological readings of the cores (Fig. 9: 3). Most of the CTEs bear cortical cover and have plain striking platforms. The CTE's are similar in their dimensions to the primary elements (Table 10), as well as The number of scar is relatively low (6.8 ± 3.1) with mostly unipolar side scar pattern. At layer H in Cagny L'Epinette the percentage of cores in the assemblage is also low (the studied sample is 8 cores, Tables 3 and 6). Five of those are ‘cores with two perpendicular hierarchical surfaces’. The degree of utilization is slightly higher than in layer I (38.6%), with more removals per core (15 ± 4.2), but still nearly exclusively unipolar scar patterns. A higher number of preparation scars is evident per core. As in layer H, CTEs are few (n ¼ 8). Most of them bear between 26 and 50% cortex had have plain or cortical striking platforms. The mean number of scars is relatively low (7.1 ± 5.2) with mostly ridged scar pattern (Fig. 9: 4, 6). At Gentelles layer CLG the relative frequency of cores is higher

The two groups of cores differ slightly in length (the ‘cores with two perpendicular hierarchical surfaces’ are larger) but in all other technological categories the two groups show similarities (size and number of scars removed per core, low utilized percentage and unipolar and unipolar and side scar pattern, Tables 9 and 11). There are few CTEs (n ¼ 11) with few scars on them (5.4 ± 2.1) mostly unipolar and side scar pattern. The striking platforms are mostly plain or cortical. At Gouzeaucourt layer G, 20 cores were studied. Three lack hierarchical organization and four have such organization. Two of the latter were used previously as hammerstones (Fig. 10: 1). One differs from the others (Fig. 10: 2) in the high number of scars and bipolar scar pattern that resembles the ‘simple prepared-cores’ of White and Ashton (2003, Figs. 2 and 3). The CTEs fit technological expectations from the cores yet are slightly larger in all dimensions than the primary items and flakes (Table 12; Fig. 10: 7e8). Generally, the debitage fit the technological characteristics in the curvature, number of scars and their scar pattern, as well as in the striking platforms. The types of cores in Gouzeaucourt layer H are similar to those of layer G (N ¼ 47, Tables 3 and 6). 14 cores are with hierarchy and

Table 10 Debitage metrics Cagny l'Epinette layers I and H.

Cagny l'Epinette I P.E

Flakes

CTE

Eclat de taille

Tools

Cagny l'Epinette H P.E

Flakes

CTE

Eclat de taille

Tools

Length

Wide

Thickness

Platform width

Platform depth

AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N

51 19.3 62 43 18.1 93 51.7 18.4 7 37.6 12.4 7 60.3 25.4 125

34.3 13.7 62 30 14.1 93 36.0 15.6 7 27.7 11.3 7 41.7 18.1 125

12.4 8.4 62 7.8 5.3 93 17.0 10.1 7 4.7 2.4 7 13.8 7.7 125

21.5 12.4 34 16.7 9.2 65 11.7 5.9 6 17.6 9.3 7 21.6 12.0 74

6.5 4.9 54 4.8 3.7 84 4.0 2.3 7 2.1 0.8 6 6.9 4.9 93

AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N

56.4 22.2 56 42 17.5 74 69.1 24.5 8 38.3 10.6 11 68.9 25.4 69

35.6 15.7 56 29 11.7 79 42.3 21.1 8 30.7 8.5 11 49.0 20.8 69

13.6 10.9 56 7.7 3.9 79 23.4 13.1 8 6.5 3.1 11 17.7 11.0 69

17.3 9.6 24 17.2 10.2 65 22.1 11.3 5 23.1 14.8 6 24.7 14.2 42

5.9 7 51 4.6 3.2 77 6.1 3.0 8 5.2 6.9 8 7.8 5.7 54

with the lithic assemblage (38 out 291 cores were studied, Tables 3 and 6), allowing reconstruction of reduction sequences. Two groups of cores are ‘cores with two perpendicular hierarchical surfaces’ (n ¼ 23) and cores without hierarchy (n ¼ 9). Only hard hammer technique was used for knapping. Most of the cores are made on round cobbles. The ‘cores with two perpendicular hierarchical surfaces’ initial stage were the opening of a preparatory platform by a large flake; later a few flakes were removed from the debitage surface. The knapping stops when the flaking surface is flattened, without maintenance of lateral and ventral convexities (Fig. 9: 5).

two were classified as Levallois cores. Ten of the analyzed cores are non-hierarchical (Fig. 10: 3). Cores with and without hierarchy are similar in their dimensions, the number of scars removed, their distribution of scar patterns and the dimensions of the removed flakes (measured from scars on the core surfaces) (Table 9). The 12 analyzed CTEs are larger than the primary elements and flakes (Table 11). The flakes characteristics correspond to expectations from the cores e many are flat in their curvature, with unipolar or unipolar and side scar patterns and plain striking platforms. The two cores that resemble Levallois do not reflect a separated

A. Malinsky-Buller / Quaternary International 409 (2016) 104e148

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Fig. 10. 1. A ‘core with two perpendicular hierarchical surfaces’ from Gouzeaucourt layer G. 2. A ‘simple prepared-cores’ from Gouzeaucourt layer G. 3. A ‘core with two perpendicular hierarchical surfaces’ from Gouzeaucourt layer H. 4, 5, 6. Cores-on- flakes from Gouzeaucourt layer G. 7.8. Cte's from Gouzeaucourt layer G. 9.10. Cte's from Gouzeaucourt layer H.

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reduction sequence but more likely, a higher degree of utilization of those hierarchical cores (see White and Ashton, 2003). The most common blanks for tools, mainly bifacially shaped, were likely knapped outside the locality.

four tools are made on possible Levallois blanks, were studied). In level 2, the percentage of the Levallois items increases (Tables 3 and 9; the studied sample include nine Levallois cores and two cores with hierarchy a single CTE as well as three tools were made on possibly Levallois flakes). In level 1 the dominancy of the Levallois it

Table 11 Debitage metrics Gentelles layer CLG. Gentelles CLG P.E

Flakes

CTE

Tools

AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N

Length

Wide

Thickness

Platform width

Platform depth

65 11.1 11 56.3 13.8 65 57.7 10.9 10 64.5 16.1 76

42 11 11 37.8 11.1 65 40.4 12.0 10 42.9 11.6 76

18.8 5 11 13.7 5 65 19.9 5.0 10 17.8 6.2 76

27.6 12.4 7 22.5 10.3 55 20.3 7.5 8 25.0 10.7 52

10.2 6.3 11 9.1 5 62 8.7 4.7 9 10.5 4.2 63

Table 12 Debitage metrics Gouzeaucourt G and H.

Gouzeaucourt G P.E

Flakes

CTE

Blades

Eclat de taille

Tools

Gouzeaucourt H P.E

Flakes

CTE

Eclat de taille

Tools

Length

Wide

Thickness

Platform width

AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N

50.3 15.8 35 44 16.4 104 58.6 14.9 18 61.1 23.1 10 33.9 10.4 24 59.2 14.1 115

33.5 10.5 35 28.8 10.4 104 35.8 13.2 18 27.4 11.5 10 23.5 8.7 24 39.3 10.9 115

13.1 6.5 35 9.5 4.7 104 18.6 6.3 18 10.8 4.1 10 5.3 2.8 24 14.4 5.8 114

15.3 8.5 24 18.2 9.1 86 14.7 8 13 18.6 5.2 5 11.9 6 16 21.1 9.7 82

7.2 6.1 31 6.6 4.5 90 4.9 2.3 15 6.2 3.5 7 3.7 1.6 17 8.4 4.3 94

AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N

47.6 14.3 70 43.2 12.9 119 50.1 12.2 14 32.0 9.7 18 55.1 14.9 73

33.6 10.5 70 29.2 8.7 119 34.4 12.7 14 22.7 8.1 18 37.6 11.7 73

13.2 6.6 70 10.8 4.9 119 16.8 9 14 4.8 1.9 18 14.6 6.0 73

19.9 11 50 18.7 8.7 95 17.4 10.7 12 12.5 8.0 14 20.6 8.4 48

7.6 4.9 65 6.4 3.8 108 7.7 5.1 12 3.0 1.3 16 8.6 4.3 55

At Orgnac 3, the Levallois reduction sequence appears within the studied samples in layers 3 to 1 (it is absent from layer 5b). In all three layers at Orgnac Levallois cores show similarities in their size and the dimensions of scars of removed flakes (Table 9). The selection of raw material shows preference for relatively flat tabular raw material (Fig. 11: 1, 3, 5). In level 3, the relative frequency of the Levallois reduction sequence appears to be low (Tables 3 and 9; three cores are Levallois cores and two are cores with hierarchy,

Platform depth

is in highest frequency (Tables 3 and 9; 16 Levallois cores, 9 cores with hierarchy, 3 CTEs are Levalloisian and 8 are possible Levallois, six tools are made on Levallois blanks and 10 on possibly Levallois blanks were studied). The Levallois cores in all three layers of Orgnac 3 were highly utilized, mostly with centripetal flaking. The three Levallois cores of layer 3 (Fig. 11: 1) bear the highest number of scars per core (25.7 ± 3.2) compared to layer 2 and 1 (19.9 ± 5.1 and 21.2 ± 5.6

A. Malinsky-Buller / Quaternary International 409 (2016) 104e148

Fig. 11. 1. Levallois core from Orgnac layer 3. 2e3. Levallois cores from Orgnac layer 2. 4e5. Levallois cores from Orgnac layer 1.

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Fig. 12. 1. Levallois Flake from Orgnac layer 3. 2. Levalloisian Eclat outrepass
e from Orgnac layer 2. 3. Levallois flake from Orgnac layer 2. 4. Levalloisian
eclat outrepass
e from Orgnac layer 1. 5. Levalloisian
eclat d
ebordant and outrepass
e from Orgnac layer 1. 6e7. Levallois flake from Orgnac layer 1.

A. Malinsky-Buller / Quaternary International 409 (2016) 104e148

respectively). The cores with hierarchy from layers 2 and 3 show a lower number of scars per core and were reduced with unipolar flaking. However, the nine cores with hierarchy from layer 1 are very similar Levallois cores in their dimension as well as size of removed flakes (as seen from scars), number of scars (18.9 ± 6.3) and the centripetal scar pattern. In layer 3, the two Levallois flakes (Fig. 12: 1) and seven possible Levallois differ from the “regular” flakes in their higher number of scars (5.0 ± 2.3 on flakes while 8.9 ± 2.3). The scar pattern is mostly centripetal (6/9) or unipolar and unipolar and side. Those Levallois flakes are slightly larger yet thinner than the “regular” flakes (Table 13). The striking platforms are plain (n ¼ 6) or facetted (n ¼ 3).

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thinner in both layers (Tables 15 and 16). The striking platforms of Levallois flakes in layer 2 are mostly dihedral (57.1%) or plain (21.4%), with few faceted butts (14.7%). The possible Levallois flakes are mostly dihedral (37.5%), plain (31.3%), or faceted (25.0%). In layer 1 half of the Levallois flakes are faceted, 27.0% are plain, and 21.6% are dihedral. The possible Levallois flakes have mostly plain (41.5%), followed by faceted (31.7%) dihedral (17.1%) striking platforms. Levallois CTEs appear mainly in layer 1 Two of are
eclats outrapass
es (overpassed flakes), and one is both outrapass
e and d ebordant (Fig. 12: 2, 4, 5). The possible Levallois CTEs are mainly
bordants and fewer outrapass
de es. The scar number per CTE resembles the Levallois flakes (8.5 ± 3.6). The scar pattern is mostly

Table 13 Debitage metrics Organc layer 5b.

P.E

Flake

Kombewa

CTE

Eclat de taille

Tools

AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N

Length

Wide

Thickness

Platform width

Platform depth

48.8 20.5 17 40 15.9 168 35.8 7.1 19 46.3 14.6 19 39.8 10.6 11 56.0 10.0 51

32.9 16.5 17 27.1 10.1 168 26.7 7.9 19 29.1 10.9 19 28 6.9 11 36.4 8.3 51

12.3 6.6 17 7.7 4.3 168 8.1 3.4 19 11.6 4.2 19 5.8 3.7 11 14.9 5.6 51

23.5 15.9 15 17.7 9.1 158 21.8 9.6 16 13.9 7 14 13 5.9 10 23.1 10.8 36

5.8 3.1 16 5.7 3.9 154 6.7 3.4 18 6.5 4 14 3.9 2.6 10 8.4 4.9 39

Table 14 Debitage metrics Orgnac layer 3.

P.E

Flake

Kombewa

CTE

Tools

AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N

Length

Wide

Thickness

Platform width

Platform depth

48.6 13.1 30 46.8 14.7 113 40.1 5.9 37 47.8 14.6 24 57.7 16.5 48

33.8 11.1 30 32.3 12.2 113 27.8 7.1 37 35.3 15.4 24 37.6 11.9 48

11.5 4.5 30 10 6.7 113 7.6 3.2 37 12 5.3 24 12.3 5.0 48

16.6 11.9 26 20 10.2 106 19.1 8.6 35 18.5 12 23 23.2 10.2 38

5.4 2.6 29 6.5 4.4 109 5.5 3 36 5.5 3 23 8.2 4.8 42

In layer 1 and 2 the Levallois flakes and possible Levallois flakes have higher dorsal face scars per flake (8.4 ± 2.8 and 7.5 ± 2.9 and 7.6 ± 2.7 and 7.2 ± 2.9, respectively for layer 1 and layer 2; Fig. 12: 3, 7) compared to the “regular” flakes (5.0 ± 2.1 and 5.0 ± 2.3, respectively for layer 1 and layer 2). The scar patterns of the Levallois flakes and possible Levallois flakes in layer 2 are mostly centripetal (ca. 64%), unipolar and unipolar and side (ca. 28%) and bipolar (ca. 7%). In layer 1 the scar pattern distribution is similar with ca. 55% centripetal, ca. 37% unipolar and unipolar and side and few bipolar (ca. 7%) scar patterns. Levallois flakes are larger but

centripetal with fewer occurrences of bipolar. The striking platforms of Levallois CTEs are mostly plain (6), facetted (3) or dihedral (2). Those CTEs echo the technological reading of the cores and flakes and are expected in a Levallois centripetal mode of reduction in order to maintain the lateral and distal convexities. In layer Fa at Payre, seven flakes were classified as Levallois. They differ from the “regular” flakes in their larger dimensions, although they do not bear any cortex (Table 17). The scar patterns are diverse, mostly unipolar and convergent (n ¼ 4), while two are

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Table 15 Debitage metrics Orgnac layer 2.

P.E

Flake

Kombewa

CTE

Levallois

Maybe-Levallois

Blade

Tools

AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N

Length

Wide

Thickness

Platform width

Platform depth

54.3 17.2 12 43.6 11.6 91 42.1 7.2 16 55.6 23.7 16 59.1 12 14 44.2 10.3 16 51.3 16.9 8 56.0 15.6 21

39.2 15.7 12 31.1 8.9 91 28.6 6.3 16 39.2 21.1 16 44.5 9.4 14 31.8 10.5 16 21.3 8.1 8 35.7 14.3 21

14.6 10.6 12 9 4.2 91 7.3 2.2 16 15.1 8.5 16 7.9 3 14 6.4 2.8 16 7.6 3.1 8 12.4 5.3 21

24.6 14.1 10 19.6 9 85 17.9 11.6 14 20.9 19.7 16 24.5 10.8 13 15.5 7 15 9.8 3.1 8 22.1 14.3 19

9.3 6.8 11 5.8 3 86 5.6 3.6 14 6.5 4.1 16 6.2 2.2 13 4.3 1.6 16 3.1 1 8 6.4 4.0 19

Table 16 Debitage metrics Orgnac layer 1.

P.E

Flake

Kombewa

CTE

Levallois

AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N

Maybe-Levallois flakes

Blade

Tools

AVG STD N AVG STD N

Length

Wide

Thickness

Platform width

Platform depth

55.8 15.9 37 48.2 12.3 202 47.4 16.1 57 50.7 12.3 72 55.3 13.3 37 49.9 9.6 41 58.8 14 18 54.1 12.0 139

36.2 9.3 37 33.8 9.2 202 32.2 11.9 57 33.3 9.3 72 40.4 9.3 37 37.6 9.2 41 24.2 7.4 18 36.8 9.1 139

12.2 5.5 37 10.3 4.7 202 9.3 4.9 57 13 5.5 72 7.5 3 37 7.3 2.5 41 9.3 4.1 18 11.6 4.1 139

19.1 12.6 36 21.9 11.3 192 19.9 10.2 53 15.4 6.5 62 23.7 8.9 35 22.8 11.6 39 12.1 5.3 13 21.9 10.1 125

6.9 4.4 36 6.4 3.3 193 5.8 5.7 53 6.6 3.5 66 6 2 36 5.6 2.5 39 4.4 1.8 14 7.0 3.7 131

centripetal and only one bipolar. Striking platform is mostly facetted. No corresponding cores or CTEs were found within the assemblage of Payre. Those flakes might have been brought into the site as personal gear (Binford, 1979; Kuhn, 1995). 4.3. Discoidal reduction sequence €da (1993, 1995) defined discoidal flaking method as a voluBoe metric concenpt contrasting it with the Levallois recurrent centripetal method. The dicoidal core volume is conceived of two asymmetric convex surfaces with no hierarchization between the two surfaces of a core. The two flaking surfaces interchange during knapping. The angle created by this organization of the two sur€da, 1993, 1995). The variation within faces secant (closer to 45
) (Boe

discoidal core reduction strategies and associated end-products has been emphasized in later research (e.g. Locht and Swinnen, 1994; Jaubert and Mourre, 1996; Mourre, 2003; Peresani, 1998, 2003
baut, 2013). and paper therein; Slimak, 2003; Thie The discoidal volumetric concept encompass several flaking modalities manifested in the relationship between the two core surfaces. The unifacial modality means no preparation in the second surface, creating a pyramidal section. A second modality is bifacial removals ending in a biconical section. The third modality is multifacial creating a globular section. Each of those options has a different grade of hierarchization between the two surfaces (Terradas, 2003: Fig. 2). The implementation of one mode or the other might be conditioned by the initial morphology of the raw material blocks or flakes (e.g. Bourguignon and Turq, 2003) and by

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Table 17 Debitage metrics Payre layers Ga and Fa.

Payre layer Ga P.E

Flake

Kombewa

CTE

Tools

Payre layer Fa P.E

Flake

Kombewa

CTE

Levallois flakes

Tools

Length

Wide

Thickness

Platform width

Platform depth

AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N

38.9 9.7 27 38.1 11.9 163 39.1 12.4 49 41.7 11 27 59.2 13.6 77

27.2 8.9 27 26.4 8 163 27.1 8.6 49 28.6 8.1 27 39.3 9.9 77

9.8 4.2 27 7.5 3.9 163 7.8 3.8 49 14.8 6.8 27 15.4 4.8 77

15.2 8.5 17 18.8 10.5 144 21 10.2 44 19 10.4 23 27.4 16.1 51

6 3.7 25 5.9 3.7 150 6.4 3.9 48 7.3 4.4 26 9.1 4.8 61

AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N AVG STD N

39.4 11.1 21 39.4 13.3 116 36.8 9.3 32 42.8 13.8 24 48.6 10.5 7 50.0 17.7 56

27 8.4 21 26 8.7 116 27 10.1 32 30.6 11 24 34.9 3.9 7 34.1 11.5 56

10 4 21 8.5 4.2 116 7 2.6 32 11.8 5.3 24 6.9 2 7 13.1 5.2 56

15.4 6.9 15 18.8 9.7 110 19.4 8.3 26 15.4 6.3 20 13.8 5.7 7 22.3 13.1 37

6.3 3.4 20 6.8 5 113 6.9 5.2 32 6.5 3.7 23 4 2 6 8.2 4.4 47

intensity of production. However, these modalities are not exclusive, for the same core can be modified by different modes during its reduction. Jaubert and Mourre (1996) emphasized the need to study all technological products in order to identify the debitage concept and method employed (Jaubert, 1993; Mourre, 2003). The predicted outcomes of this organization of the cores are a-symmetrical flakes, their longest axes and technological axes not necessarily aligned. Some flakes will be quadrangular with centripetal scar pattern. Pseudo-Levallois points can also be the €da, 1993). product of such a reduction sequence (Bordes, 1953; Boe The diagnostic CTE's from discoidal reduction sequence will be €da, 1993). eclats a dos d
ebordant (Boe In the studied sample, discoidal reduction sequences were only found in Mediterranean area. In Orgnac, discoidal cores appear in low frequencies in all studied assemblages (in layer 5b 2/32; in layer 3 2/22, layer 2 4/26 and in layer 1 1/95). However, there are no diagnostic byproducts of discoidal reduction sequence within these assemblages. The discoidal flaking method is the most common reduction sequence only at Payre in layers Ga and Fa. Evidence for discoid reduction derives in both layers from products of the entire reduction sequence e cores, flakes and CTE (Figs. 13 and 14). Among the cores, the percentage of discoid cores is similar (6/34e17.6% and 7-41e17.1% respectively for layer Ga and Fa). In layer Ga most of the discoid core blanks are flakes (4/7; Fig. 13: 1, 2) while in level Fa most blanks are unknown (Fig. 13: 5, 6) due to their high level of utilization, with only one made on flake. The discoidal cores of layer Ga are slightly larger and thicker in comparison to level Fa (Table 9). There are on average fewer scars on the cores of layer Ga (8.7 ± 5.3) that in Fa (17.6 ± 7.6). In Ga the volumetric utilization is mostly

unifacial and a lower portion of edge were utilized (46.0%) compared to Fa, where cores were used in a bifacial manner, and 90.4% of the edge were utilized. The scar patterns also vary; while in layer Ga they are mostly unipolar and unipolar and side, in layer Fa it is mostly centripetal. The flakes in both layers are similar in their metrical dimensions (Table 17). Yet, there are slight variations in the technological characters (Fig. 14: 4e7, 10e12). Level Ga, the number of scars on the flakes is higher in comparison to level Fa, in contrast to the low number of removals on the discoid cores. The scar patterns upon the flakes are similar in both layers; ca. 70% of the cases bear unipolar and unipolar and side scar patterns, but the frequencies centripetal scar patterns are higher in layer Fa. The lower degree of preparation in level Ga as opposed to Fa is expressed in the higher percentage of cortical striking platforms (31.3% vs. 21.6% in Ga and Fa, respectively) Some of the CTEs can be linked to the discoidal  dos limit
reduction sequence, e.g.,
eclats d
ebordants a e (Fig. 14: 13; Slimak, 2003; Fig. 8). The discoidal reduction sequences in both layers of Payre show similarities and divergence. The subtle differences are manifested in higher degree of reduction in layer Fa, mostly in bifacial mode of removals with slightly more occurrence of centripetal scar pattern (in all categories e cores, flakes and CTE). 4.4. Cores-on-flakes A selection of flakes as sources for generating new flakes separates this technological process as a distinct reduction sequence from nodule cores. Given that the choice of blanks is the starting point for a new reduction sequence, the selection of a flake as a

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Fig. 13. 1. Discoidal core made on flake from Payre layer Ga. 2. Discoidal core from Payre layer Ga. 3e4. Cores on flake from Payre layer Ga. 5e6. Discoidal core from Payre layer Fa. 7e8. Cores-on-flake from Payre layer Fa.

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Fig. 14. 1. Kombewa Flake from Payre layer Ga. 2. Kombewa eclat outrepass
e from Payre layer Ga 3. 4e7. Flakes removed during discoidal reduction sequence from Payre layer Ga. 8. Kombewa Flake from Payre layer Fa. 9. Kombewa
eclat d
ebordant from Payre layer Fa. 10e12. Flakes removed during discoidal reduction sequence from Payre layer Fa. 13. Eclat d
ebordant removed during discoidal reduction sequence from Payre layer Fa.

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blank signifies the beginning of a new reduction sequences though not necessarily a new flaking concept (Hovers, 2007). The defining condition for a flake to become a core is a sequence of three or more spatially related removals from a given surface (Newcomer and Hivernel-Gurre, 1974; Goren-Inbar, 1988; Hovers, 2007). Ashton advocated a broader categorization, promoting a more comprehensive definition and using the term ‘flaked flakes’ (Ashton et al., 1991; Ashton, 1992; Ashton and McNabb, 1996; Ashton, 1998, 2007), from which one to four (and sometimes more) flakes were removed. These removals may derive from lateral, proximal or distal edges and from both the ventral and dorsal faces of the parent flake (Ashton, 2007: 1). Within this loosely defined category lies yet another classificatory dilemma: should ‘flaked flakes’ be considered as tools or as cores? Ahton refers to this group sometimes as cores and sometimes as tools in various publicaitons (Ashton, 1992 vs. Ashton and McNabb, 1996). Other scholars (Dibble, 1984 vs. Dibble and McPherron, 2006) have changed and modified their opinion on the differentiation of cores-on-flakes from tools. The possible implications of the various categorizations have been in the center of a long-standing discussion over the last 30 years (Dibble, 1984; Goren-Inbar, 1988; Delagnes, 1992; Dibble and Mcphearn, 2006; Hovers, 2007; McPherron 2007 and papers therein). I follow the criteria set by Newcomer and Hivernel-Guerre (1974) and Goren-Inbar (1988). Artifacts with one or two isolated removals from the detached flake, without spatial associations, are classified with the tools (Hovers, 2009; Figs. 16 and 17.2). This classification of cores on flakes encapsulates much technological diversity, manifested in the mode of preparation (if exists), hierarchical organization, regularity in blank selection, or intensity of usages (i.e. number of flakes and dimensions). The volumetric outcome varies as a result of these many possible variations in technical procedures. An important question is the relationship between the volumetric conceptions implemented upon the flakes turned into cores compared to those applied to nodules. The use of flakes as cores is an economizing behavior, thus can be perceived as ad-hoc economic response to raw material deficiency (e.g. Munday, 1976). According to this view, the occurrence of cores-on-flakes is an aspect of lithic curation (Hovers, 2007 and reference therein). Alternatively, some authors suggested that cores-on-flakes should be perceived as a planned behavior for future need (Bourguignon et al., 2004). In between these opposing views, some scholars analyzed cores-on-flakes as an expedient yet well-designed facies within a structured system of lithic production (Goren-Inbar, 1988). The relative proportions of cores-on-flakes vary greatly within the studied assemblages. It is 1/11 in Cagny-l'Epinette layer I and 1/ 39 in Gentelles CLG. In Gouzeaucourt layers H and G it is 8/47 and 4/ 20, respectively. In all the studied assemblages from Orgnac 3 the cores-on-flakes constitute ca. half of total cores (layer 5b e 16/32, layer 3 e 11/22, layer 2 e 13/26 and layer 1 e 50/95), and more than this in Payre (19/34 and 28/41 in the samples studies from layers Ga and Fa, respectively). The presence of Kombewa flakes varies accordingly. In Cagny l'Eppinete, Gentelles, Gouzeaucourt H such flakes are absent, and only three were observed in Gouzeaucourt layer G. Within the sequence of Orgnac 3 and Payre the number of Kombewa flakes also varies (Tables 4 and 5). It should be borne in mind that Kombewa flakes reflect the minimal number of flakes stemming from coreson-flakes, as some flakes that derive from this reduction sequence do not contain sufficient remnants of the previous ventral face. Interestingly, within both Orgnac 3 and Payre there are core bordants, removed from cores-ontrimming element, mainly de flakes (Orgnac layer 5be3; layer 3e4; layer 2e3 and layer 1e11, Fig. 16: 7, 9, 12, 13; in Payre layer Ga-2 an Fa-3; Fig. 14: 9).

At Gouzeaucourt layer G, the cores on-flakes do not differ in their dimensions, dimensions of the removed flakes and the percentage of utilization from the nodule cores (Table 9; Fig. 10: 4e6). The dimensions of blanks chosen to be transformed into cores are larger than the other debitage, suggesting selection of the larger items for this technical procedure (Tables 9 and 12). In general, the cores-on-flakes in layer G follow technological modes similar to the ones implemented on the cores on nodules. In layer H, the coreson-flakes are somewhat smaller but the average size of the removed scars is similar to that of the nodule cores (Table 9, part 1). Fewer scars are removed per blank (9.3 ± 5.8 per core-on-flake; 14.2 ± 5.8 per nodule core). Scar pattern are similar to those seen in the nodule cores and are mostly unipolar and unipolar and side. In both layers, typically there are no preparations prior to the removals of the secondary flakes. Within the Orgnac 3 sequence, cores on flakes are the dominant core reduction sequence in each of the assemblages studied along the sequence (Figs. 15 and 16). The dimensions of the blanks chosen to be transformed into cores are on average larger than the other debitage, suggesting selection of the larger items for this technical procedure (Tables 8, 13e16). The dimensions of the cores, and of the scars of the dominant and the last removed flakes (not necessarily the same), are similar along the sequence. Still, there are some major changes between the lower levels (layers 5b and 3; Fig. 15) and the upper ones (layers 1 and 2, Fig. 16: 1e5). The chosen blanks differ between layers 5b and 3, where mainly non-cortical flakes were selected (5be3/19, 3e1/11 are cortical flakes), and layers 2 and 1, where cortical flakes are more abundant (2e14/26, 1e21/50). The number of cores with striking platform preparation prior to flake removal is low in layer 5b (2/19) and in layer 3 (2/14), and is much higher in levels 2 (5/11) and layer 1 (21/50; Fig. 16: 3, 4). Hierarchical treatment of the surfaces in the cores-on-flakes in the upper layers leads to higher percentage of utilization as well as more removals per core. The scar pattern of the cores-on-flakes of layer 5b is unipolar. At Layer 3 and 2, the dominant scar pattern within the cores-on-flakes is unipolar and unipolar and side, yet there is a slight rise in the centripetal or bipolar scar patterns. Layer 1 diverges as the cores-on-flake exhibit mostly centripetal scar pattern. Observations on the Kombewa flakes in each layer at Orgnac show similarities in their dimensions, which are also similar to those of flakes in the debitage (Tables 13e16; Fig. 16: 6e8, 11, 14). The number of scars on the Kombewa flakes is relatively low in layer 5b, and slightly higher in layers 3, 2 and 1 (ca. 3.5 scars per flake). The scar pattern is usually unipolar or unipolar and side, as the use of centripetal flaking would lead to obliteration of the previous ventral face. The striking platforms of the Kombewa flakes in layer 5b are mostly plain, while there is an increase in the percentage of dihedral and facetted striking platforms from layer 3 and layer 2. Layer 1 shows the highest frequency of faceting and dihedral platforms. The pattern observed on the Kombewa flakes fits the expectations from the analysis of the cores-on-flakes, with more utilization and investment in the preparation prior to the removals of the flakes. At Payre in both layers (Ga and Fa) the selection of flakes to become cores is predominant (Ga e 55.9% and Fa 68.3%; Fig. 13: 3, 4, 7, 8). In layers Ga and Fa ca. third of those blanks (6/19 and 8/29, respectively) are cortical flakes. The length and width of the cores made on nodules and those made on flakes are similar in both layers but the cores-on flakes are much thinner (Table 9, part c). The length and width of the scars on the cores-on-flakes are slightly less than the counterpart measurements on cores on nodules. The cores-on-flakes are larger in comparison to the debitage, suggesting selection of the larger flakes in the debitage population for the transformation of flakes into cores. There are few preparations

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Fig. 15. 1e2. Core-on flake from Orgnac, layer 5b; 3e5. Core-on flake from Orgnac, layer 3.

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Fig. 16. 1e2. Core-on flake from Orgnac, layer 2; 3, 5. Core-on flake from Orgnac, layer 1. 4. Core-on flake from Orgnac with truncation prior to removal, layer 1. 6e7. Kombewa flake from Orgnac, layer 5b. 8. Kombewa flake from Orgnac, layer 3. 9e10. CTE on Kombewa flake from Orgnac, layer 3. 11. Kombewa flake from Orgnac, layer 2. 12e13. CTE on Kombewa flake from Orgnac, layer 1. 14. Natural backed Knife on Kombewa flake from Orgnac, layer 1.

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prior to detachments in both layers; however, the percentage of utilization in layer Ga is much higher (83.3%) than layer Fa (43.9%). The number of scars in both layers is almost similar, 6.9 ± 5.5 in layer Ga and 5.7 ± 3.5 for Fa, and much lower than on nodule cores (10.6 ± 5.8, 15.7 ± 5.7 for layer Ga and Fa respectively). The scar patterns on cores-on-flakes also show slight variation between the layers, with the unipolar and unipolar and side as dominant in both layers (84.2% and 75.8% in layers Ga and Fa respectively), yet the percentage of centripetal scar patterns is much higher in Fa (20.7% compared to 10.5% in Ga). In layer Ga, four cores-on-flakes show similar volumetric affinities to discoidal methods, but only one such case was registered in layer Fa. The Kombewa flakes echo the observations on the cores themselves. The dimensions of the Kombewa flakes are similar to those of the debitage, with few scars per core (3.1 ± 2.4, 2.8 ± 1.7 scars per flakes for Ga and Fa respectively). The scar pattern is mostly unipolar and unipolar and side (69.4% in layer Ga and 61.8% in layer Fa). The centripetal scar pattern is less prone to enable observation the original ventral face. The striking platforms in layer Ga are mostly plain, with high frequency of faceting (18.4%); in layer Fa similarly mostly plain fewer faceting (11.8%), but high number of cortical platforms (29.4%). A third of the cores-on flake in layer Fa are made on cortical pieces. Within the assemblages under discussion in this paper, we can observe assemblages in which core-on flakes are the result of adhoc knapping, possibly not related to raw material economy (Gouzeaucourt layers G and H). At Organac and Payre the ubiquitous utilization of flakes as the primary source of raw material, demonstrates a systematic behavior. Moreover, in all these assemblages there is selection of larger flakes to be transformed into cores in comparison to the debitage. We can observe variations in the volumetric utilization among the cores-on-flakes, as well as in their preparation, degree of utilization and scar pattern. These volumetric variations can be linked to the mode of flaking

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employed upon the nodules, i.e., the rise in the frequency of Levallois in Orgnac mainly layer 2 and 1 or Discoidal in Payre. 4.5. Flake tools Historically, flake tools were considered one of the key transformations within the transition between Lower and Middle Paleolithic (Monnier, 2006b for historical background). In this study, two integrated perspectives were investigated. The first, classifying the tools according to Bordes' typology list (1950, 1953, 1961) with slight modifications. In the current study, I lumped the tools into five major groups. The Mousterian group comprised mainly of scrapers (Bordes types 9e29). The retouched items as defined by Goren-Inbar (1990, 63) are flakes and blades with regular and continuous 1 cm long retouch along an edge. Unlike typical scraper retouch, however, retouched items are characterized by the presence of a lighter retouch with minimal invasiveness, with attrition confined to the margin of the tool. The purpose of this new typological category is to differentiate between “true” scrapers and tools with lighter retouch. The third group is the notches and denticulates. The fourth is the “Upper Paleolithic” group consisting of end-scrapers, burins, awls and truncations. The last group is the composite tools. This type includes blanks that were retouched into two or three distinct tool types. Another tool type that does not exist in Bordes list is isolated removals. This type is defined as flakes bearing no more than two post-flaking removals without spatial associations (Hovers, 2009; Figs. 16 and 17.2). The second perspective emphasizes the technological and metrical patterns that guide the selection of blanks to be further retouched. This approach emphasizing the life history of the tools e the design, production, maintenance, systems of use, reuse and recycling, that contribute to changes in the character of an implement (Andrefsky, 2009: 3). Two tendencies crosscut diachronic trends or geographical boundaries. In all the assemblages, the two main frequent groups

Fig. 17. Five major groups of tool diachronic and spatial divergence.

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Fig. 18. The chronological and geographic patterning of the various reduction sequences.

Sites abbreviations The biotidal area: CE-I- Cagny L'epinette layer I; S 1-6- Soucy sites 1-6; Rev- Revelles; Pu- Purfleet; CI-H- Cagny 'Lepinnete layer I; G-G- Gouzeaucourt layer G;
de re; The- Therdonne. The Mediterranean G-H- Gouzeaucourt layer H; Me- Mesvin; Lo- Longavesnes; Pu- Le Pucheuil layer A and C; Bia- Biache-Saint-Vaast; Mas- Maastricht-Belve area: Bos: Les Bosses; P-B-2 e Petit Bost layer 2; O-5b- Orgnac layer 5b; O-3- Orgnac layer 3; O-2- Orgnac layer 2;O-1- Orgnac layer 1;B-B- Baume Bonne; P- Ga- Payre layer Ga; PFa- Payre layer Fa; Ta- Les Tares.

are scrapers and retouched items (Fig. 17). Within the scraper group the most frequent types are single straight side-scraper and single convex side-scraper. An exceptional typological makeup appears in Gouzeaucourt layer G, where the ratio of convergent scrapers is relatively high (18/50 scrapers). The convergent scrapers have similar frequencies to those of the single side scrapers (18/50). In layer Ga in Payre, the transverse scrapers appear in relatively high frequency. Those scrapers are longer compared to other tool groups as well as to the debitage while similar in width and thickness. They do not bear cortical cover (only 2/15 are primary flakes). The step scaled retouch similar to Quina retouch. The Quina (scale and stepped retouch) or semi Quina (only stepped but not scaled) modes of shaping occur also in other assemblages but in minor

frequencies. The uniqueness of those transverse scrapers is the combination of their typology, morphology and their mode of shaping. The second shared pattern is the selection of larger artifacts for retouch; in all assemblages, the dimensions of the tools are larger than the debitage, including the primary elements (Tables 9e16). The ratio of cortical items chosen for retouched differs between assemblages. At Cagny l'Epinette in layer I and H ca. 45% and 30% respectively of the chosen blanks are cortical, most probably chosen from flakes removed in the initial stages of bifacial production. In Gouzeaucourt layer G ca. 30% of the tools are primary flakes while layer H it is ca. 20%. In Orgnac 3 and Payre within all studied assemblages, the ratio of primary flakes within the tools is between

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10 and 15%. Cagny l'Epinette is located upon the raw material and it is suggested that knapping took place at the locality, and the selection of blanks for further retouch followed the ‘provisioning of place’ (Binford, 1977, 1979; Kuhn, 1995). At Gouzeaucourt both ‘provisioning of place’ introduction of ‘personal gear’ (Binford, 1979; transport of prepared blanks or retouched items knapped/ modified off-site, presumably for specific tasks planned in advance) took place. In Orgnac and Payre the percentage of introduced blanks is probably higher in comparison to the other assemblages. 5. Chronological and geographic patterning of the various reduction sequences In this section, I will summarize the results of this study and compare them to sites known from each time period of the article (MIS 9, 8 and 7) within both biotidal and the Mediterranean areas (details of the sites is listed in Tables 1 and 2). The order of presentation will follow the order of the paper: Bifacial reduction sequence, hierarchical reduction sequence including Levallois, discoidal flaking methods, cores-on flake and the tool kit repertoire. The schematic presentation of the diachronic and spatial variation is illustrated in Fig. 18. 5.1. Bifacial production The MIS 9 bifacial reduction sequences in the biotidal are the dominant ones and appear in relatively high frequencies, in the southern assemblages (e.g. Orgnac 3 lower layers) they are represented in negligible numbers. At Cagny l'Epinette, two main variants of reductions sequences were recognized (Fig. 18). The first aimed to achieve through several few repeated steps a pointed tip. While the second module, lack the shaping of a targeted tip and the aim of production is to produce an elongated convex lateral active edge thorough thinning. Similar observations pertain to the Soucy sites (Lhomme et al., 2000; Lhomme and Connet, 2001; Lhomme et al., 2003; Lhomme, 2007; Fig. 18). At the four sites (Soucy 5 level I, Soucy 3, Soucy 1 and Soucy 3 level P), the main reduction sequence is the bifacial one. At Soucy 3 level P 276 biface were found in comparison to three cores. At Soucy 5 level II 80 percent of the assemblage is attributed to biface production, however no finished bifaces were found at the site (Lhomme and Connet, 2001; Lhomme, 2007). The two technological variants of Cagny l'Epinette appears also in Soucy sites with similar modes of thinning of the upper part of the biface (Lhomme et al., 2000; Lhomme and Connet, 2001, Fig. 7: 4; Lhomme, 2007, Fig. 9: 2). An important contribution of these sites is the possibility of tracing biface movement across the landscape
et al., 2004; Lhomme, 2007). Lhomme (2007) distin(Chausse guished between three types of sites. In biface production sites, the bifaces were manufactured and the taken out of the site, hence their absence from the assemblage (e.g. Soucy 5 level I). In biface use site, the tools were introduced into the locality already knapped (e.g. Soucy 5 level I). Finally, there are bifaces manufacture and used in the sites, where both the production phase and the biface themselves are represented (Soucy 3 level P). At the site of Revelles, the bifacial production is the dominant reduction sequence within the assemblage (52 bifaces vs. 148 cores; Guerlin et al., 2008; Fig. 18). The technological reconstruction of the biface manufacture showed similarities to Cagny l'Epinette, likewise there different degree of shaping between the tip (thinned) and the lower 4/5 part of the bifaces, usually shaped by large removals and the butt remains cortical (Lamotte and Tuffreau, 2016). Interestingly, there is a high frequency of tip thinning, sometimes with intentional removal, 40 such fragments were found, some were refitted. In general, the technology of this assemblage

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resembles the first reduction variant of biface production in Cagny l'Epinette. In the lower layers of Orgnac 3, in the Mediterranean zone, the low frequencies of items associated with the bifacial production still allows some conclusions regarding the geography of production. The studied bifaces from layers 6 to 4 were produced on non-flint material like basalt and silicified wood, of which no flakes were found on-site. Those bifaces that were made on flakes where larger than those on pebbles. The data thus suggest that bifaces were introduced into the site in their final stage into the locality. Similar assemblage characteristics were found in the site of Les Bosses. The few bifaces found in the assemblage (14 out of 2626 artifacts) are made mostly on quartzite, flint and quartz (Mourre et al., 2007). The morphology of the biface is varied with shaping by few large removals. At the site of Petit Bost layer 2, the bifacial component is only 1.1% of (n ¼ 8) of the entire assemblage. The biface are variable in their volumetric conception from crude to well made. Most probably, they were brought into the site, while knapped outside the locality (Bourguignon et al., 2008). In the northern sites during bifacial production becomes more variable during MIS 8, with four variants of reduction sequences of bifacial manufacture (Fig. 18). The two variants identified in MIS 9 at Cagny l'Eppinete layer I continue in layer H. At Gentelles too those two modules appears, as well as a new third module that entails minimal shaping, resulting in crude trihedrals or picks (Fig. 18). In both layers G and H at Gouzeaucourt a fourth new module emerges, which shows common traits that modified from modules 1 and 2 as well as some major differences. Despite the fact that the lithic assemblages have never been fully published, the current study and the various publications (Tuffreau and Bouchet, 1985; Mcpheran, 1994; McPherron, 1999; Soriano, 2000; Lamotte, 2001; Born, 2001; Tuffreau et al., 2008; summary in Table 3) demonstrate that bifaces production is by far the most predominant technological category in comparison to the cores (Fig. 18). Moreover, the selection of flakes as the main blanks diverges from earlier and contemporaneous assemblages discussed here. The metric and technological characteristics of the blanks suggest that they probably were not products of a Levallois reduction sequence. When compared to the debitage, it seems likely that the blanks were imported into the locality. The mode of blank shaping by thinning is similar to the tip thinning in MIS 9 and 8, however it is not restricted to the tip, but rather penetrates into the whole circumference of the biface. It seems that the emphasis in biface shaping shifted from the tip to thinning the circumference of the biface. At the site of Longavesnes, the bifacial reduction sequence is also the most common reduction sequence (52 cores vs. 191 bifaces; Fig. 18). Some of the bifaces are made on flakes (e.g. Ameloot-van der Heijden, 1993, Fig. 6.2). Moreover, the thinning of the pieces was also made by coup de tranche that penetrates into the biface, similar to Gouzeaucourt (e.g. Ameloot-van der Heijden, 1993, Figs. 5.1 and 6.2). Another line of similarly with Gouzeaucourt, mainly the layer G assemblage, is the high frequency of bifacial scrapers (e.g. Ameloot-van der Heijden, 1993, Table 1; Figs. 3.7 and 4.1). Again, the blanks for bifaces and bifacial scrapers were probably imported into the locality (cf. Amelootvan der Heijden, 1993). At the site of Mesvin IV, 16 complete and two broken bifaces were found. The bifaces include two main groups. The first group is non-homogenous including diverse types of handaxes. Those of the second group are mostly made on thick flakes (8/9), thinned in a manner that creates an asymmetrical form with thinning of the tip by burin-like tranchet blow, creating a unstandardized tip (Cahen and Michel, 1986; Ryssaert, 2006).

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Those bifaces (Cahen and Michel, 1986: Fig. 7: 1, 2, 4, 5, 8) show similarities to the Gouzeaucourt artifacts both in the selection of flakes as blanks and in the mode of bifacial shaping, the invasive burin like thinning removals and the variations in the tip form. At the site of Harnham, at trench 58, 19 handaxes, 16 rough-outs and three cores were found. With a single exception, the handaxes are made on nodules. Their shapes are pointed with transverse removals (Bates et al., 2014, Fig. 13), similar to reduction sequence 1 as defined above. Reduction sequence 2 also appears. The collection of bifaces from Broom, dated to MIS 8, showed high typological variability in biface characteristics. Many were made on flakes, and some with thinning of tip similar to burin removals (Hosfield and Chambers, 2009), resembling reduction sequence 2. MIS 8 and MIS 7 assemblages in the Mediterranean area contain a marginal bifacial component, In the upper sequence of Organac (layers 3e1) attributed to MIS 8, the numbers of bifaces (n ¼ 9), as well as their relative frequencies within each layer are even lower than in the older layers (Moncel and Combier, 1992; Moncel, 1995, 1999). The change from the reduction sequences found in the older layers is expressed in the nearly exclusive choice of tabular flint plaques as the blanks and in the absence of evidence for on-site maintenance (no thinning flakes). During MIS 7, some assemblages contain low percentage of bifaces while others do not contain bifaces at all (Fig. 18). Minute numbers of highly variable bifaces (n ¼ 5) appear at Payre layers Gb and Ga dated to MIS 7 (Moncel and Daujeard, 2012), constituting a marginal reduction sequence within the assemblages. At the site of Petit Bost layer 1, only two bifaces were found each with a different mode of production (Bourguignon et al., 2008, Fig. 12). In the later assemblage (layer Fa) from Payre no bifaces were found similar to other sites such as Vaufrey cave (Geneste, 1985, 1988; Rigaud, 1988). At Baume Bonne, bifaces constitute 0.2% of the assemblage attributed to MIS 8. That low frequency of bifaces portrays variations in the raw material used, form, and intensity of exploitation (the number of scars and degree of penetration into the biface; Gagnepain and Gaillard, 2005; Notter, 2007). Notter descried (2007, planche 2e3) in Baume Bonne bifacial/cores; merging shaping (façonnage) and debitage conceptions similar few robust bifacial pieces were found at Combe Brune 2 in assemblages dated to MIS 7 (Brenet et al., 2008, 2014). In the same region, at the site of Cantalouette 1, layer V (MIS 8), two modes of biface production were recognized. The first comprises ca. a quarter of the bifaces (n ¼ 17). The bifaces are small and shaped on flakes derived from centripetal cores. The second mode of biface production is made on tabular plaques (N ¼ 5; Brenet, 2011; Brenet et al., 2008, 2014), similar to Orgnac layers 1e3. Examining biface production from diachronic and spatial perspectives, MIS 9 to 7 in both the biotidal and Mediterranean zones reveals several trends (Fig. 18). The assemblages dated to MIS 9 in the north (e.g. Cagny l'Epinette level I , Revelles and Soucy sites.) contain two main modes of handaxe shaping as the assemblage main technological trait. Later MIS 8 assemblages (Cagny l'Epinette level H, Gentelles, Gouzeaucourt, Mesvin IV, Harnham and Longavesnes) demonstrate continuity of these MIS 9 modes of handaxe shaping, while novel traits appear, such as handaxes made on flakes shaped through thinning similar to the previous and contemporaneous assemblages but in more extensive manner. MIS 7 assemblages from the biotidal area lack biface production or appear in very low numbers. On the other hand, in the Mediterranean zone biface production continued from MIS 9 to MIS 7, throughout this period the bifacial reduction sequence occurs in low frequencies and shows high technological variability and heterogeneity.

5.2. Hierarchical reduction sequences Assessment of the diachronic and spatial appearance of hierarchical reduction sequences for flake productions involves three inherent difficulties. The first issue is identification of the Levallois flaking method based on all the technological elements (cores, byproducts and rejuvenations stages). The second issue is identification of the “limits of Levallois”, given the broadening of the €da and Geneste. In this article, I used the Levallois concept by Boe classificatory term of “hierarchical reduction sequence”. Such reduction sequences share some criteria of Levallois flaking such as the volume conception of two surfaces separated by a plane of intersection, a striking platform that is perpendicular to the axis of percussion and oriented to allow the removal of flakes from the flaking surface. The most important divergence from the narrow definition of Levallois is the lack of maintenance of the distal and lateral convexities and minimal platform preparation before flake detachment. This results in lesser control on the morphometric properties of the detached flakes. The third issue is that of chronological continuity and persistence over time. Within the studied assemblages the cores with hierarchy appear in MIS 9 layer I in Cagny l'Epinette appear in low frequencies (n ¼ 4). Most of them are minimally utilized, with low scar numbers, a unipolar scar patterns and minimal preparation. A single core diverges from this pattern (Fig. 18). At the sites of Soucy, in most assemblages very few cores are found (Lhomme et al., 2000, 2003; Lhomme, 2007). In Soucy 1, a refitted core and byproducts was found, but the observe technological reading show un-hierarchical reduction sequence (Lhomme et al., 2000; Fig. 17). At Revelles, there are the flake production sequences including refitting of flakes and cores. Most of those cores (75%) show hierarchy with one surface function as preparatory to the debitage surface (Guerlin et al., 2008; Figs. 7e9). In most cases, the mode of removal is unipolar. Flakes that were ascribed to Levallois flaking in this assemblage probably stem from such cores (Guerlin et al., 2008; Fig. 15): their ventral curvature is flat attesting the lack of maintenance of lateral and distal curvature. An important contribution to this issue is the studies at the site of Purfleet (Wymer, 1968; Roe 1968; Schreve et al., 2002; White and Ashton, 2003; Brigland et al., 2013). The lithic collection from the locality included 268 cores and 3500 flakes (White and Ashton, 2003). Previous analysis of the material by Wymer (1968) described some of the cores as proto-Levallois, and Roe (1968:228) too detected a much higher level of controlled flaking and considered some to represent a “reduced” Levallois method. White and Ashton (2003) designated these cores as simple prepared cores. The flakes from the site have between two and four scars mainly unipolar and unipolar and side with plain striking platforms, occasionally dihedral, and never faceted. White and Ashton (2003) suggested viewing this technology as a forerunner invention, attesting to local evolution of the Levallois in Europe. Recently, Bates et al. (2014, p. 173e174) questioned their attribution to early Levallois. They claim that even before considering the provenance of claimed Levallois elements at Purfleet, it is important to recognize that much of the reported Levallois material is at best proto-Levallois, and the quantity of “full fledged” Levallois elements in the various Purfleet collections is meager. These authors also question the placement of this assemblage in MIS 9. Levallois reduction sequences do not occur during MIS 9 in the Mediterranean area (e.g., layer 5b in Orgnac). There are penecontemporaneous sites for which claims for an early appearance of Levallois reduction sequence exist. In Pettit Bost layer 2, Bourguignon et al. (2008) claimed that there is an early appearance of Levallois technology based on classification of a few cores as

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Levallois. A Levallois component was identified at Bosses on cores made of flat flint cobbles (Mourre, 2003; Mourre et al., 2007: Figs. 50e52), exploited by centripetal flaking. However, no Levallois flakes or CTE were noted in the assemblage. Another technological component within the Bosses assemblage is discoidal reduction. Discoidal cores are frequent and made on other raw materials (Quartz and Quartzite). When on flint, they occur on large rounded cobbles (Mourre et al., 2007; Figs. 53e57). Mourre (2003, Fig. 5) emphasized the overlapping between the unifacial discoidal employed in centripetal mode of reduction and the centripetal Levallois. In the biotidal area, the hierarchically organized technologies persist into MIS 8 (Fig. 18). At Gentelles, layer CLG as well as the few cores in Gouzeaucourt layers H and G display similar technological principles. The main reduction sequence at Gouzeaucourt entails systematic production of non-Levallois blanks for bifacial production. At both sites, the flakes characteristics correspond to those expected from the traits of the discarded cores: the ventral curvature is flat, with unipolar and unipolar and side scar patterns and plain striking platforms. At Gouzeaucourt, the blanks were knapped outside the locality and later were transported to the site. In layer H at Gouzeaucourt two cores were classified typologically as Levallois, however, they do not reflect a separated reduction sequence but rather a higher degree of utilization. A similar phenomenon was observed at Mesvin IV (Fig. 18). The assemblages contain 16 Levallois cores and 9 “reduced” Levallois cores out of the 90 cores at the site (Ryssaert, 2006; for a different interpretation see; Cahen and Michel, 1986). While scar patterns on the Levallois cores tend to be centripetal, on the “reduced” Levallois cores it is mostly unipolar and bipolar. Those “reduced” Levallois are larger than the Levallois cores and are less intensely modified. Ryssaert (2006) interpreted the “reduced” Levallois cores as belonging to an initial phase of knapping while the Levallois cores as a later stage of exploitation. According to this view, the Levallois cores in Gouzeaucourt should be regarded as belonging to the category of “reduced” cores. At Mesvin, the Levallois by-products, flakes and retouched items constitute 2% and 4% of the debitage and the retouched category respectively. The “regular” flakes 86% of them contain up to four scars mostly in unipolar and bipolar direction. The striking platforms are mostly plain; facetted is limited only to 9% of the flakes. Therefore, there is no indication of “fullfledged” Levalloisian characteristics within the debitage supporting the interpretation from the cores. At Keselt-Opde Schans a knapping floors dated to MIS 9eMIS 8 refitted sequence shows similarities with White and Ashton's (2003) description (Van Baelean et al., 2007, 2008, Fig. 3; Van Baelen and Rysaeart, 2011). At the site of Longavesnes, ca. 30% of the cores were classified as recurrent non-Levallois flaking (the most abundant core type, Ameloot-van der Heijden, 1993; Fig. 4.1). Most of the cores show unipolar scar patterns but a few are centripetal. The author emphasized the possible identification of flakes as Levallois although they appear to have been derived from non-Levalloisian centripetal cores (Fig. 18). In the biotidal area there is a shift to the dominance of “full fledged” Levallois at the end of MIS 8 and the transition to MIS 7 (Fig. 18). At site C in Massricht, 41 flakes were refitted into a Levallois core, enabling analysis of the history of use of the cores and detecting changes through the use life of the core, including the maintenance of distal and lateral curvature (Roebroeks, 1988; Schlanger, 1996; de Loecker, 2006). In general, the industry of site C is the result of Levallois recurrent centripetal. The technology is not dictated toward a production of single large flake, but rather aimed at the production of a series of carefully prepared flakes (de Loecker, 2006). Based on a sample of the cores and Levallois flakes,

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€da (1986, 1988) identified in Biache-Saint-Vaast layer IIa two Boe parallel Levallois schemes of reduction, the unipolar recurrent and bipolar recurrent. Dibble's (1995a,b) reanalysis of the whole assemblage suggested that the two modes of reduction graded into one another. Dibble emphasized the changes along the use life of the core, similar to the results from the reffiting studies of Maas
risson (2012) analyzed the entire assemblages from the tricht. He seven archeological layers at the site attesting a relatively homogenous dominancy of Levallois reduction throughout the sequence with variation within the different modes of reduction (unipolar, €da, but bipolar and centripetal) not parallel as described by Boe rather similar to Dibble's reconstruction. At other sites from the biotidal area (Le Pucheuil; Delagnes, 1996a,b, Saleul; Amelot-van Der Heijden et al., 1996; West Thurrock; Schreve et al., 2006; Crayford; Scott et al., 2010) unipolar, bipolar or centripetal modes of Levallois reduction dominate the lithic assemblages. At Therdonne and Le Pucheuil B, dated late within MIS 7, the Levallois reduction includes also point production
risson, 2012; He
risson and (Delagnes, 1996a,b; Locht et al., 2010; He Locht, 2014). There is also blade production in the two sites during
ry e de Heinzelin and Haesaerts, 1983; Therdonne MIS 7 (Saint-Vale e Locht et al., 2010, Fig. 6). For the Mediterranean area during MIS 8, the main source of information is the sequence of Orgnac (Fig. 18). Within the layers studied by the author (3, 2 and 1) the Levallois artifacts (both cores, flakes and CTEs) appear in negligible frequencies in layer 3 and increase in layers 2 and 1. The Levallois cores and debitage are mainly of centripetal reduction, made upon flat tabular raw material. In the MIS 8 assemblages at the site of Baume Bonne, Levallois reduction does not appear at all. During MIS 7, some assemblages in the Mediterranean area contain Levallois reduction sequences, while in others, it does not exist and discoidal and coreon flake reduction sequences dominate. For example at the cave of Vaufrey (Geneste, 1985, 1988; Rigaud, 1988; Fig. 18), in the assemblages from layers VIII and VI the Levallois reduction sequence is present, including refitted flakes into Levallois centripetal core in layer VIII (Geneste, 1988, Fig. 21) and a unidirectional core in layer VII (Geneste, 1988, Figs. 32 and 33). At Pettit Bost, layer 1, there are few indications for use of the Levallois concept; however, most probably some of the Levallois flakes as well as those Levallois blanks chosen for further modification as tools were brought already knapped into the locality (Bourguignon et al., 2008). At Cantalouette, Levallois reduction appears in small frequencies mainly on centripetal cores (Brenet et al., 2008; Brenet, 2011). At Combe Brune 2 layer VIIb the lithic assemblage is dominated by Levallois debitage with a fairly pronounced laminar tendency, including refitting (Brenet, 2011, Fig. 132). However, Discoidal debitage is also present in smaller proportions as well as some cores that demonstrate possible passage between the Levallois and Discoidal concepts (Brenet et al., 2014). In the western area at Combe Brune 2, six stratified lithic assemblages were identified all demonstrating coherent techno-economic characteristics, dominated by the Levallois and Discoidal flaking systems. Other MIS 7 sites, however, do not contain Levallois reduction sequences (e.g. Coudoulous I unit 7; Jaubert et al., 2005 or Baume Bonne; Gagnepain and Gaillard, 2005; Notter, 2007). The lack of Levallois reduction in the MIS 7 layers of the site of Payre is of interest, since this site is located in the same region as Orgnac 3, where during MIS 8 Levallois reduction is prominent. The Discoidal reduction sequence is frequent in Payre layers Ga and Fa discoidal reduction sequence is frequent reduction sequence, with subtle differences between the two layers. At layer Fa the cores are more utilized, usually through discoidal bifacial mode of removals with slightly higher frequencies of centripetal scar patterns, in all the technological categories. In Layer Ga most of the discoidal core

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blanks are flakes, with lower numbers of removals per core and lower degree of utilization. Seven Levallois flakes in the assemblage differ in their technological traits and larger dimensions compared to “regular flakes”. 5.3. Cores-on flake The use of flakes as cores also shows temporal and spatial divergences. During MIS 9 in the biotidal area cores made on flake appears in very low frequency almost none exist. In the site of Soucy 6 some refits were attributed to this reduction sequence (Lhomme et al., 2003), which were compared by Lhomme to the “flaked flakes” of Ashton et al. (1991) and Ashton (2007). This mode of flaking is unstandardized and reflects an ad-hoc behavior. At the site of Revells the frequency of the cores-on-flakes is relatively high, ca. 21.6% of the cores. They vary in size between 4 and 11 cm, are mostly without platform preparation and with unipolar removals (Guerlin et al., 2008). During late MIS 9 in the Mediterranean area, cores-on-flakes constitute ca. half of total cores in layer 5b from Orgnac 3 (Fig. 18). As suggested above, there is selection for larger items to be transformed into cores. The cores are mostly on non-cortical flakes, with few preparations prior to the removal of the secondary flakes. In the assemblage of Petit Bost layer 2, the ratio of cores-on flakes among the cores is much lower (14.7%). During MIS 8 in the biotidal at Gouzeaucourt the cores-on flake constitute 20% and 17% in layers G and H, respectively. The coreson-flakes do not differ from the cores made on nodules, in their technological traits as well as their dimensions. Cores-on-flakes from both layers in Gouzeaucourt may be perceived as ad-hoc knapping sequences, possibly without pre-planning. In this habitat, cores-on-flakes are not reported from other sites of this period (Fig. 18). During MIS 8 in the Mediterranean area, the use of flakes as cores is highly diverse. In the assemblages from layers 3, 2 and 1 at Orgnac the selection of flakes as cores is the dominant reduction sequence in each of the assemblages. Similar to layer 5b there is selection of the larger flakes to be transformed into cores. The chosen blanks in layers 2 and 1 tend to be more cortical. The number of cores with striking platform preparation prior to flake removal is much higher in the upper levels. The hierarchical treatment of the cores-on-flakes in these layers led to a higher degree of utilization, more removals per core. The scar pattern of the cores-on-flakes at Layer 3 and 2 is mostly unipolar and ‘unipolar and side’ while in layer 1 it is mostly centripetal. At the MIS 7 layers of Payre, in layers Ga and Fa the selection of flakes for producing cores is predominant. Ca. a third of the blanks are cortical flakes. In layer Ga, four cores-on-flakes show similar volumetric affinities to discoidal methods, but only one such case was registered in layer Fa. At both Orgnac and Payre the ubiquitous utilization of flakes as the primary source of raw material represents a systematic behavior. Moreover, in all these assemblages there is selection of larger flakes to be transformed into cores. There are however variations in the volumetric utilization of the coreson-flakes, as well as in the preparation prior to the removals of the secondary flakes, degree of utilization and scar patterns. The volumetric variations can be linked to the mode of flaking employed upon the nodules, i.e., the Levallois in Orgnac layers 2 and 1 and discoidal in layers Ga and Fa at Payre. At Les Tares, Geneste and Plisson (1996, Fig. 2; Geneste et al., 1997, Fig. 2) identified a specialized non-Levallois reduction sequence for the manufacture of blanks to be used as cores-onflakes (Fig. 18). The flakes resulting from this sequence were fashioned in a similar mode to Quina retouch (Geneste and Plisson, 1996, Fig. 2). At Pettit Bost, layer 1, there are few indications for

use of the Levallois concept; most probably, some of the Levallois flakes as well as those Levallois blanks chosen for further modification as tools were brought already knapped into the locality (Bourguignon et al., 2008). In the site of Baume Bonne the few cores-on flake occur mainly in MIS 8 assemblages and less in MIS 7 assemblages (Notter, 2007). At the site of Cantalouette 1 (Brenet et al., 2008) and in layers VIII and VII at Vaufrey cave (Geneste, 1988, Tables 19 and 20) only few of the cores were made on flakes. In the Biotidal area during MIS 7 most of the cores-on flake (truncatedefacetted items) were classified as tools such as in Le
risson, Pucheuil AeC (Delagnes, 1996a,b), Biache-Saint-Vaast (He 2012, Fig. 92; Beyries, 1988, Fig. 19.4; Rots, 2013, Fig. 7); Therdonne (Herisson, 2012; Fig. 188), La Cotte de Saint Brelade (Callow, 1986; Callow and Cornford, 1986) and Creffield Road (Scott et al., 2010). Dibble and McPherron (2007) reanalyzed layers C and D from La Cotte de Saint Brelade suggesting that many of the truncatedefacetted should be perceived as cores. However, inconclusive use-wear analysis on a single truncatedefacetted suggested usage for woodworking (Beyries, 1988) or as a hafted wood-adze (Rots, 2013). Yet, in the absence of use-wear studies of truncatedefaceted edges in most cases, the best way to address this issue is by technological and metric analyses as done in this paper (see also Dibble and McPherron, 2007). The Levallois cores were classified as such are not related to the
risson (2012), in his analysis of Biache-Saint-Vaast blanks used. He reduction sequences states that 29% and 41% of the Levallois cores in layers H and IIA respectively were made on flakes. In Therdonne the percentage of flakes as blanks for Levallois cores is
risson, 2012). Those cores-on flakes are agglomerated in the 26% (He Levallois reduction sequence, similar to Bourguignon et al. (2008) in Pettit Bost layer 1. Delagnes (1995) suggested that flakes in their natural morphology contain the Levalloisian volumetric configuration, therefore requiring less investment in preparation as required for nodules cores. The choice of a blank is the initial phase of reduction sequence, thus by default, when a flake is selected to be a blank for creation of new flakes, it separates it from the original reduction sequence and signifies it as a new reduction sequence, though not necessarily a new flaking concept (Hovers, 2007). At Le Pucheuil layer 2, later within MIS 7, 199 products (38 cores, 161 flakes) represent a specialized core-on flake sequence. A high proportion of the items refitted, indicating that this production was largely performed on-site, with tool use and discard
n and Delagnes, 2014). The blanks for also occurring on-site (Lauze cores stem from a Levallois reduction sequence. The blanks created a secondary reduction sequence entailing the removal of a series of flakes in parallel sequence from a single platform, each removing all traces of the preceding flakes from the core. This resulted in transversal flakes with flat distal end with a distinctive ‘bird's wing’ form when viewed in profile (Delagnes, 1993, 1996a). None of the removed flakes was retouched, however many of those flakes mostly the larger one showed signs of use (Lazuen and Delagnes, 2014). The use of flakes as source for new blanks demonstrates as with other reduction sequence geographical and diachronic patterning (Fig. 18). In the biotidal area, it appears that the rise in frequencies of cores-on-flake seems to be linked to the appearance of Levallois reduction sequences within the lithic assemblages of late MIS 8 and 7. In assemblages within the Mediterranean area, cores-on-flakes appear in most assemblages. In some assemblages, this is the most frequent core category. Yet, there are changes within the cores-on flake technologies in regard the degree of preparation, utilization, and order of removal (unipolar, bipolar or centripetal). Those variations co-vary with the volumetric conception of cores made on nodules as seen in Orgnac with the Levallois and in Payre with the Discoidal reduction sequence.

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5.4. Flake tools Examination of the retouched component within this time period of MIS 9e7 highlights three main issues. The most striking tendency is the typological homogeneity between MIS 9, MIS 8 and MIS 7 assemblages in both the biotidal as well as in Mediterranean zone (Fig. 17; Geneste, 1988; Roebroeks, 1988; Rigaud, 1988; Moncel and Combier, 1992; Tuffreau et al., 1997; Moncel, 1999; de Loecker, 2006; Monnier, 2006a,b; Lhomme, 2007; Mourre et al., 2007;
risson, 2012; Bourginoun et al., 2008; Tuffreau et al., 2008; He Brenet et al., 2014; Baena et al., in press). No new tool-type emerged. In most assemblages, the two main frequent groups of tools are scrapers and retouched items. Against this typological uniformity, some unique features emerge, for example, the high frequency of convergent scrapers in Gouzeaucourt layer G or the transversal scrapers with Quina retouch in layer Ga in Payre. Similarities for those exceptions can be found for example the high frequency of convergent scrapers in Biache-Saint-Vaast unit IIa
risson, 2012; Rots, 2013). (Tuffreau, 1988; Dibble, 1995a,b; He Another unique example is the implementation of Quina retouch in Les Tarres (Geneste and Plisson, 1996). The second pattern is the selection of larger artifacts for retouch. Within the sample studied in all assemblages, the dimensions of the tools are larger than the debitage, including the primary elements. Similar pattern were observed by many other studies
risson, 2012; Monier, 2006a,b). (Geneste, 1988; He The third important issue is the movement of tools (as well as items from different stages of the reduction sequence) across the landscape (see also Roebroeks et al., 1992a; Roebroeks et al., 1997; Turq et al., 2013). In MIS 9, at Soucy, Lhomme (2007) proposed three types of sites, based upon the movement of the handaxes. Lhomme (Lhomme et al., 2000; Lhomme, 2007) suggested a distinction between the use of handaxes, which could be prolonged and which could be transported from one locale to another, and flake tools, mainly retouched items (his “lightly retouched scrapers”) that were most probably retouched, used and discarded on spot. A similar scenario can be suggested for the bifaces of the lower layer in Orgnac, which were probably introduced already knapped into the site or carried out of it. A Systematic transport of blanks for future shaping into a bifaces into the locale can be observed in layers G and H of Gouzeaucourt. In the biotidal area during MIS 7, a special technology for rejuvenating scraper edges occurs. The observed special spalls were first defined by Cornford (1986) as an integral part of La Cotte de St. Brelade assemblages. Cornford (1986) suggested that the relative frequency of such re-sharpening flakes should be correlated with the changing availability of raw material. Re-sharpening flakes were found in Maastricht but the scrapers themselves were apparently transported outside the locality (Roebroeks et al., 1992a; Roebroeks, 1988; de Loecker, 2006; Turq et al., 2013). A similar phenomenon was reported in Pucheuil B (Delagnes, 1996a; Fig. 68: 5e7). The movement of the tool kit or part of it across the landscape is an integral part of the organization of technology not related to time and place constraints. 6. Discussion The terms Lower and Middle Paleolithic are building blocks for our understanding of the past. Periodization, however, does not create neutral frameworks. Supposedly, those cultural and chronological structures should be perceived as working hypothesis and as such, they supposed to be subjected to continuous testing and reassessment (Roebroeks and Corbey, 2001). Thus, instead of dichotomizing between those two entities, in this article, the emphasis shifted toward the amplitude of technological variations in

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order to move from the fossiles directeurs approach into a more comprehensive view of technological organization of each time units of MIS 9e7. Throughout the entire time span, the biotidal and Mediterranean zones differ in their amplitude of technological variations. The range of technological variants within the biotidal zone during the MIS 9 assemblages shows a relatively homogeonous repertoire. This includes the dominance of handaxe production, with lesser input of flake production, and negligible frequencies of cores-on flake. Within the debitage, hierarchical flaking appears in low quantity. During MIS 8, the assemblages show continuation with traits of MIS 9 coupled with a higher degree of variation. The bifacial production remains the main mode of production with some reduction sequences that persist from MIS 9 as well as new variants of biface reduction sequences. Flake production is based on non-Levallois modes of hierarchical flaking. There is very sporadic indication of the use of cores-on flake mostly as ad-hoc circumstances. The higher degree of variations within MIS 8 assemblages may stem from the spatial organization of resources within a mammoth steppe environment. Within mammoth steppe, the distribution of vegetal and faunal resources is patchy (Guthrie, 1990). The spatial distribution of the resource promotes isolation of various groups across the landscape and the development of greater variation in the cultural repertoire (Hopkinson, 2007; Hopkinson et al., 2013). Another possible interpretation is that during harsh cold periods the increase in the diversity of lithic repertoire is a result of the need to maintain carrying capacity (Bocquet-Appel and Tuffreau, 2009). At the end of MIS 8 and the beginning of MIS 7 there is a cultural break with assemblages dominated by Levallois reduction sequence, mainly centripetal, together with abundance of cores-on flake within Levalloisian conceptual frame. Another unique phenomenon is the use of re-sharpening flakes for maintenance of scrapers in order to prolong their life history. Technological variations in the Mediterranean area appear to be stochastic without time trajectory, questioning whether the transition between Lower and Middle Paleolithic is viable categorization in this region. A highly variable bifacial component is represented in very low frequencies throughout the time considered here. The predominant reduction sequence varies within MIS 9 assemblages between of cores-on-flake, discoidal, and cores with hierarchy. Of the few sites known in this area during MIS 8, centripetal Levallois reduction sequences occurs in Orgnac accompanied with high frequencies of cores-on flakes, while at Baume Bonne there is no Levallois within MIS 8 assemblages. During MIS 7, Levallois flaking is replaced by the discoidal (e.g. Payre), while cores-on-flakes continue to be abundant in the assemblages, however with low frequency of preparation prior to removals. At other contemporaneous sites, there is great variability in the presence of Levallois. Similarly, in some sites there are high frequencies of unprepared cores-on-flakes while in others the coreon-flake reduction sequence was perceived as part of the Levallois framework. In two cases, there are assemblages resembling Quina reduction sequence. An example of high rate of appearance and disappearance of technological traits is the Quina reduction sequence appearing at Payre, layer Ga while later in the sequence does not appear at all. The raw material economy involved of two aspects as suggested by Binford (1977,1979) and Kuhn (1995). The movement of raw material into the locality was termed provision of place while the transportation of already prepared toolkit for use was termed as ‘personal gear’ (Binford, 1979). The current study in various case studies demonstrated both patterns of behaviors. However, those two modes of provisioning took place not limited by time during the MIS 9e7 or by place, thus occurring in both biotidal and Mediterranean areas. These sort of economizing behaviors are

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conditional and are adopted in response to changes in local circumstances (Holdaway and Douglass, 2012). It was suggested that glacial condition of MIS 8 was the cause for cultural break, thus the question of continuity of habitation within the entire span should of MIS 8 is vital for our understanding. Unlike the previous glacial periods MIS 12 and 10, and the later MIS 6 the biotidal area was inhabited during MIS 8. Some of these sites were found outside the terrace sequences, for example in dolinas (e.g. Gouzeaucourt, Gentelles and Le Pucheuil)
risson and Locht with no or very few faunal remains preserved. He (2014, Fig. 7) assert that there existed a population hiatus during times of the harshest conditions of MIS 8 (for similar view see Scott and Ashton, 2011). On the other hand, Bates et al. (2014) suggest that a population could persist in the UK (and the biotidal area at large) from MIS 9 through to a late MIS 8, although the cold peak of MIS 8.2 may have been too harsh for this population to persist through to MIS 7. Soriano (2005, Fig. 5) presents the dates attributed to sites within MIS 9e7, highlighting the standard deviations that prevent accurate positioning of the sites within a finer-grained chrono-climatic framework. Moreover, the lack of climatic markers (faunal or other) prevents placing these sites within sub-stages of MIS 8. At the Mediterranean area as well the question of population stability throughout MIS 8 should be questioned as there are fewer known sites in this region than in the biotidal area. Thus, the continuity of populations during the entire time span of MIS 8 should be taken as a possibility as the current resolution does not enable us to refute or support either of these hypotheses. How do the geographic and diachronic patterns described in this work fit the various models of micro-evolutionary societal processes (Figs. 2 and 18)? If a trait occurs in low frequencies in the early stages and its frequencies increase gradually, it will support a selective process. Similarly, if we can identify technological traits that evolve into new variants that become quantitatively dominant, it will support a mechanism of modification and refinement process. If we find a package of traits that persists through time, but only their relative frequencies vary, until one variant become the dominant, it would suggest a stochastic process. Finally, if a trait emerges “full-fledged” and in high frequencies, replacing previous variants, it will support a diffusion scenario and the introduction of external variants, erasing previous histories. For the sequence of Orgnac, it was suggested that within the sequence, Levallois reduction gain predominance as a selective innovation processes (Moncel and Combier, 1992, Fig. 44; Moncel, 1999; Moncel et al., 2011). However in the broader context of the Mediterranean area, the appearance of Levallois in the upper levels of Orgnac is unusual, and it is not present in other contemporaneous sites. This variation continues into MIS 7 assemblages, in some of which Levallois flaking dominates, while others it is completely absent. From this point of view, the record in the Mediterranean area presents a stochastic mode of variation. The Levallois is a trait similar to others that appears and disappears in this region. White and Ashton (2003) suggested that the Levallois in the biotidal area is a result of local invention, the “full-fledged” Levallois being a result of modification and refinement of MIS 9 “simple prepared cores”. As shown above, a hierarchical mode of flake production appears in many of MIS 9 and 8 assemblages as a minor quantitative reduction sequence. The grading of hierarchical cores into morphologically Levallois ones in Gouzeaucourt H and Mesvin IV may support this hypothesis of modification and refinement. The scenario of modification and refinement for the Levallois reduction sequence within the biotidal area can explain one element of the transition. However, the change in the lithic assemblages in the biotidal area during the MIS 8/7 reflects a

significant turnover encompassing a technological package of traits e the disappearance of bifacial production, previously the most abundant reduction sequence, and the rise of Levallois as the main reduction sequence. Adding the selection of flakes as core blanks within the conceptual frames of the Levallois also suggests a fundamental change. This package of technological traits has a clear trajectory, unlike the parallel dynamics in the Mediterranean area. Thus, it is more likely that the explanatory scenario for the appearance of the Levallois in the biotidal zone is a result of a diffusion rather than local transformation. An underlying factor within the questions of the societal processes of innovation is the role of demography. There is an obligatory need for population stability in order to maintain cultural traits (Kuhn and Stiner, 1998; Shennan, 2001; Hovers and BelferCohen, 2006). Shennan (2001) and Powell et al. (2009) have argued that as hominin population size increases so do the rate of cultural innovation. On the contrary, cultural richness and complexity are reduced due to local group extinctions. The model of flow and ebb as suggested by Gamble and Roebroeks (1999) views population dynamics as a repeated pattern of northern populations retreat, into the Mediterranean area in face of climate deterioration until conditions improved. Then during interglacials, the populations expanded again into the empty biotidal area. Thus, between the Mediterranean and the biotidal areas there is a “sink” and “source” relationship. The Mediterranean area functioned as glacial refugia for the northern populations (Bennett and Provan, 2008). According to Hopkinson (2011) metapopulation comprised of partially isolated subpopulations or groups. Metapopulation encompasses both gene flow and knowledge flow; it can be perceived as network in which local populations interact (Hopkinson, 2011; Hopkinson et al., 2013). The populations of the Mediterranean and biotidal area are part of a metapopulation. In recent years, it was suggested that the small populations in the biotidal area got extinct in glacial periods (Hublin and Roebroeks, 2009; Roebroeks et al., 2010; Dennell et al., 2011). The suggested scenario for the change occurring at the end of MIS 8/ beginning of MIS 7 within the biotidal area fits this scenario of recolonization by groups bearing new cultural repertoires. However, the stochastic variation of technological traits within the Mediterranean area could be interpreted in two manners. One that it was a result of demographic instability within the Mediterranean area, thus the new variants could not be maintained within those populations. Alternatively, the high innovation rate can be result of refugium conditions, an outcome of interaction of highly mobile populations that moved in and out of this region. The relationships between the “source” (Mediterranean area) and the “sink” (the biotidal area) are difficult to resolve. In the current state of knowledge, it is hard, if not impossible, to pinpoint culturally the source for the package of technological traits in the biotidal area that signifies the transition between Lower and Middle Paleolithic and place it within the range of traits of the Mediterranean area. The perception of LowereMiddle Paleolithic transition as a worldwide transition from biface production to Levallois technology has been tested in this paper. Moreover, the transition was suggested to be a diffusion wave of an out-of Africa dispersal. The area of Western Europe, north of the Pyreneans and west of the Rhine River would be the last frontier (and cul-de-sac?) of out-of Africa human dispersals during the earlier parts of the Pleistocene. Thus, Europe was suggested to be part of a global process of transition. The results of the current study suggest that within two geographic and ecological regions of Europe north of the Pyrenees, with supposedly source and sink relationship there are great variations in cultural repertoire. The variation and changes in the

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cultural repertoire are beyond the bifaceeLevallois transition. The study emphasized the variations in population dynamics and their possible societal implications as an alternative model. The results show that the starting point as well as finish line of the transitional period in each region varies in their technological variants and their relative frequencies. The local dynamics that created segmented histories had more impact on the long-term evolutionary questions rather than global interpretive scenarios. Acknowledgments I thank my advisor; Professor Erella Hovers for her guidance, help, time and efforts and for her insights and comments on earlier versions of this paper. Professor Alain Tuffreau and Dr. Anges Lamotte kindly allowed me to study the lithic materials from Cagny-l'Epinette, Gentelles and Gouzeaucourt. I thank them for their help and hospitality. I also thank Dr. Jean-Luc Marcy, Dr. Jean
risson for their help Luc Locht, Dr. Emilie Goval and Dr. David He  le ne Moncel provided during my stay in Lille. Professor Marie-He access to the lithic materials from Payre. I wish to thank Dr. M.
n, Dr. Alice Leplongeon and Professor Chris Clarkson for Gema Chaco their help during my stay in Paris. Thanks go to Professor Henry de Lumley and Professor Jean Combier for allowing me to study the lithic materials from Orgnac. I thank Dr. Vincenzo Celiberti, Professor Anne-Marie Moigne and Djibril Thiam for their help and hospitality during my stay in Tautavel. I am grateful to Alex Bogdanovsky for his help and support preparing the figures of this paper. Data collections trips were supported by The Ruth Amiran Fund for Archaeological Research, the Leah Goldberg traveling Fund, and The Hebrew University graduate students travel Fund. I wish to thank Christian Tryon and the anonymous reviewer their comments improved the paper greatly. References Adler, D.S., Wilkinson, K.N., Blockley, S., Mark, D., Pinhasi, R., Schmidt-Magee, B.A., Yeritsyan, B., Nahapetyan, S., Mallol, C., Berna, F., Glauberman, P.J., Raczynski€ ris, O., Macloud, A., Smith, V., Gasparian, B., Henk, Y., Cullen, V., Frahm, E., Jo 2014. Early Levallois technology and the transition from the Lower to Middle Palaeolithic in the Southern Caucasus. Science 345, 1609e1613. Ameloot-van der Heijden, N., 1993. L'ensemble lithique du gisement de Longme de reconnaissance du de
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