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Low-Grade Sugar, a Potential Carbohydrate Feedstuff for Laying Chickens1
LOW-GRADE SUGAR IN LAYING RATIONS
tional factors are interrelated in their effects on feather pigmentation. REFERENCES Bird, H. R., M. Rubin and A. C. Groschke, 1947.
69
An inborn characteristic determining the response of chickens to a diet free of animal protein. J. Nutrition, 33: 319-330. Lillie, R. J., and H. R. Bird, 1949. A breed difference in feather pigmentation of vitamin D deficient chicks. Poultry Sci. 28:140-142.
Low-Grade Sugar, a Potential Carbohydrate Feedstuff for Laying Chickens 1
(Received for publication May 27, 1952)
I
N MANY regions of the world, particularly the tropics, it is economically neither feasible nor possible to raise corn, wheat, and other grains for poultry. As a consequence, carbohydrate feedstuffs are imported since earlier investigations had shown the superiority of these grains over certain indigenous sources of carbohydrates. This dependence on imported feed has tended to discourage the expansion of poultry enterprises in tropical areas and increase the costs of production. Then, too, there are grain-deficient areas in the Temperate Zone; deficient not only for animal production but, more important still, for humans as well; and the shipment of Temperate Zone grains to the tropics can only tend to aggravate this situation. It is apparent, then, that indigenous plants from other geographical areas must be investigated and developed to supplement or materially add to the world's supply of carbohydrate feedstuffs. While numerous studies have been reported on potential carbohydrate feeds [Bice (1932), avocado, banana, papaya, and sweet potato meals; Tillman and Davis (1943), sweet potato meal; Gericke 1
Published with the approval of the Director of the Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station as Technical Paper No. 257.
(1940), Maw (1933), Ott et al. (1942), Upp (1937) and Winter (1929), cane molasses; McMillan and Dudley (1941), steamed potatoes; and others], none has shown much promise of substantially replacing the cereal grains as an economical source of carbohydrates in poultry rations. In a personal communication, Dr. John H. Payne, Principal Technologist of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, stated that cane sugar production during 1950 in areas supplying the United States (Continental U. S., Puerto Rico, Cuba, Philippines, and Hawaii) was 10,193,000 tons of raw sugar. Of this amount, approximately 25 percent could have been retained as low-grade sugar. Low-grade sugar, also known in sugar parlance as third-strike sugar, is obtained from the third centrifugation of the heated, concentrated cane juices containing sugar crystals (massecuite). This product consists of the crystals that remain in the centrifuge along with the adherent molasses. Analyses of samples utilized in this study were somewhat variable but showed in general that this intermediate product of sugar processing contained 96.55 percent solids, 82.98 percent sucrose, 5.71 percent reducing sugars,
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M. M. ROSENBERG
Department of Poultry Husbandry, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii
70
M. M. ROSENBERG
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This experiment consists of two separate trials. In trial 1, 32 New Hampshire pullets were randomized into four pens at 198 days of age, and all were fed the same diet (ration 2) for 3 weeks. During the following 2 weeks (interim), experimental diets 9, 10, and 11, shown in Table 1, were gradually exchanged for the control ration; thereafter, these rations were fed ad libitum for 20 weeks, supplemented only by oyster shell that was fed in separate hoppers. The pullets were artificially inseminated twice every other week, and eggs were saved for incubation for 7 consecutive days during each biweekly period. Data were collected biweekly on body weight, feed consumption, and hatchability; and daily on egg production, egg size, and mortality. In total, data were collected for 25 weeks. With the exception of low-grade sugar, the remainder of the ingredients and synthetic supplements were imported from the Mainland United States.
Because low-grade sugar is a viscous mass and exceedingly difficult to mix uniformly with such ingredients as corn meal and soybean meal, it was "homogenized" with bagasse pith* in the ratio of 10 parts of low-grade sugar to one part of pith, by weight, and then added to the experimental diets that were tested in trial 2. This technique greatly facilitated the incorporation of low-grade sugar into the experimental diets because the combination was free flowing and nonviscous, and, therefore, easy to blend with the other ingredients. In the second trial, 112 New Hampshire pullets were randomized into seven pens at 169 days of age and fed ration 2 for 3 weeks. Experimental rations 14 through 19, shown in Table 1, were introduced during the interim period and then fed ad libitum plus oyster shell for 20 weeks. The same characteristics observed in trial 1 were recorded in trial 2. The experimental pullets were penmated rather than artificially inseminated in the second trial. Fourteen New Hampshire cockerels of approximately similar body weight were selected from the same hatch and employed in the following manner. For 1 week seven males were shifted daily, Monday through Friday, in the pens, while seven cockerels were housed in individual cages where their feed consumption was carefully recorded. Every seven days the two groups of males were reciprocally exchanged. The average feed consumption of the cockerels housed in the individual cages were subtracted every week from each pen to correct for the feed consumed by the pen-mated males. * Bagasse pith consists of fine particles of the ground, crushed, and pulped sugar cane stalks that were separated by liquid screening. The dehydrated fibers were then ground in a hammer mill (1/16-inch screen). i
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and 3.38 percent ash. Since low-grade sugar is such a rich source of carbohydrates, albeit sucrose, one may wonder why interest had not centered earlier on this product as a potential carbohydrate feedstuff. Although Ingram et al. (1950) were not directly concerned with its potentialities, they have fed sucrose in purified diets to laying hens for intervals of 4 weeks, and they hazarded an opinion that one of their experimental diets (B115) could support egg production "indefinitely." Should this be true, it was thought that low-grade sugar, although it contains much ash from the adherent molasses, might be a good source of carbohydrates for poultry. Consequently, this investigation was undertaken to determine the practical limitations of feeding lowgrade sugar to mature pullets.
71
Low-GRADE SUGAR IN LAYING RATIONS TABLE 1 —Composition
of rations fed in trials 1 and Z Experimental rations*
Ingredients 2 Low-grade sugar Bagasse pith Ground wheat Ground yellow corn Ground oats Herring meal Tuna meal Sesame meal Soybean meal
30.0 30.0 19.0 5.5
— _
9
—
44.5 44.5 4.5 4.5
16
17
18
19
52.3 5.2
52.3 5.2
—
31.25
15.0
—
28.0
28.0
11.5
11.5
—
.—•
—
5.0 8.0 16.0
— — 32.0
5.0 9.0 18.0
35.0
— —
5.0 10.0 20.0
— —
3.0 0.5 3.0 6.0 200.0 200.0 200.0 200.0 30.0
35.0
15 32.3 3.2
—
5.0 0.5 1.0 2.5
— — —
14
—
32.25 45.5
29.0
15.0 30.0 10.0
11 56.0
32.3 3.2
9.0
— — —
10
—
4.54 500.0 180.0 130.0 180.0
— —.
32.0
— —
36.5
29.0
As shown in ration 9
* Unit of measure is pound (s) unless otherwise specified. (A) Aurofac (Lederle): guaranteed potency of 1.8 mg. Bi2 activity and 1.8 gm. aureomycin per pound. (B) Delsterol: 2,000 A.O.A.C. units of D per pound. (C) Fortafeed (Lederle): guaranteed potency of 2,000 mg. each of calcium pantothenate, niacin, and riboflavin, and 10,000 mg. choline chloride per pound. RESULTS
Trial 1. Although there was no significant difference between treatments during the pretest period, egg production differed significantly (P <0.01) during the experimental period that followed. This was due to the significantly greater egg production of the group fed ration 9. During the 20-week study the controls averaged 48.3 percent hen-day production, while the groups fed experimental diets 9,10, and 11 averaged 5'8.4,46.4, and 48.3 percent, respectively. Since the least significant difference was 6.37 percent, there was no real difference in rate of lay between the groups fed rations 2, 10, and 11. Because there was a range of 3.0 grams in the average egg weights of the four
groups during the pretest period, the analysis of variance was based on the average weekly egg weight increase of each group from its own average pretest egg weight. In this manner, a highly significant difference in egg weight increase was observed among the four groups (P < 0.01). When measured by the least significant difference, no real difference existed between the groups fed rations 2 and 9, while the egg weight of the group fed ration 10 was significantly larger, and that of the group fed ration 11 was significantly smaller than the control. No significant effect of treatment on hatchability was found, although all of the groups fed low-grade sugar did not hatch as well as the control. The average percentage hatch of fertile eggs for the
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Alfalfa meal Salt Defluorinated phosphate Manganese sulfate, gm. Copper sulfate, gm. Ferrous sulfate, gm. Aurofac, gm. (A) Choline chloride, gm. Delsterol, gm. (B) Fortafeed, gm. (C) Niacin, gm. Pantothenic acid, mg. Pyridoxine-hydrochloride, mg. Riboflavin, mg. Thiamine, mg.
— —
72
M. M. ROSENBERG
No mortality occurred in the pens fed rations 2, 9, and 11. However, in the pen fed ration 10 (i.e., 45.5 percent low-grade sugar), 20 percent mortality was recorded during this 25-week study. Portions of the above-mentioned data are summarized in Table 2. Trial 2. Following 20 weeks of observation, it was found that the controls averaged 68.9 percent hen-day egg production while the groups fed rations 14, 16, and 18 averaged 68.1, 58.9, and 61.0 percent, respectively. The weekly hen-day production of these groups is shown in Figure 1. It was calculated that the variation in production, both between and within these groups, was highly significant (P<0.01). Although rations 16 and 18 supported an excellent rate of lay, the groups fed rations 2 and 14 laid significantly better. When rations 15, 17, and 19 were compared with the control, the F values for differences in egg production were also highly significant (P<0.01) both between and within groups. All three sugar Nations supported significantly lower
TABLE 2.—Performance of experimental groups in trial 1 Characteristic Percentage hen-day egg production x increase in egg weight, gm. Percentage hatchability Feed-egg conversion* Increase in body weight. lb. Percentage mortality
Rations fed experimental groups 2
9
10
11
48.3
58.4
46.4
48.3
6.8 83.5 6.1
6.4 77.9 5.4
7.8 72.5 7.0
4.6 74.4 7.1
0.8 0.0
0.9 0.0
1.5 25.0
1.7 0.0
* Feed-egg conversion: pounds of feed to produce one dozen eggs.
egg yields. As may be seen in Table 3, the groups fed rations 15,17, and 19 averaged 61.0, 55.7, and 54.6 percent hen-day egg production for 20 weeks. The weekly henday production of these groups is shown in Figure 2. Despite these, statistical comparisons, it is nevertheless noteworthy to emphasize the excellent egg production of the groups fed rations 18 and 19. The pullets fed these diets averaged 61.0 and 54.6 percent production on rations containing a concentration of 52.3 percent low-grade sugar plus 5.2 percent bagasse pith and no cereal grains! The variation in egg weight-was highly significant, both between and within groups. The pullets fed rations 14 and 18 produced significantly smaller eggs ( P < 0.05) than did the controls, whereas the egg size for the pullets fed ration 16 was not depressed. When rations 2,15,17, and 19 were compared, the groups receiving 32.3 and 44.5 percent low-grade sugar showed a larger egg-weight increase than did the controls, while the groups fed ration 19 produced significantly smaller eggs. It would appear that concentrations of low-grade sugar ranging from 52.3 to 56.0 percent of total ration tend to depress egg size while lesser concentrations ranging from 32.25 to 45.5 percent do not have any consistent effect on egg size, either positively or negatively. The data on hatchability are shown in
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groups fed rations 2, 9, 10, and 11 was, respectively, 83.5, 77.9, 72.5, and 74.4 percent. When the total feed consumption of each group was divided by the total dozens of eggs produced, it was found that the birds fed the control ration required 6.10 pounds of feed to produce a dozen eggs, while the groups fed rations 9, 10, and 11 required 5.41, 7.05, and 7.12 pounds, respectively. Concomitantly, the controls gained 0.79 pound during the 25-week study, whereas the groups fed rations 9, 10, and 11 gained, respectively, 0.91, 1.52, and 1.69 pounds. It is possible that the lower efficiency of feed conversion into eggs of the groups fed rations 10 and 11 was confounded by the great increase in body weight of the pullets fed these rations.
73
Low-GRADE SUGAR IN LAYING RATIONS
TABLE 3.—Performance of experimental groups in trial 2 Rations fed experimental groups Characteristics Percentage hen-day egg production ^increase in egg weight, gm. Percentage hatchability Feed-egg conversion* Increase in body weight, lb. Percentage mortality
2
14
16
18
15
17
19
68.9 7.6 92.2 4.6 0.7 0.0
68.1 6.0 90.0 5.1 0.8 12.5
58.9 7.6 85.3 5.8 0.8 6.2
61.0 6.1 83.5 5.5 0.4 0.0
61.0 8.1 89.8 5.4 0.7 0.0
55.7 7.8 85.5 6.0 0.9 6.2
54.6 6.3 86.0 5.9 0.5 6.2
* Feed-egg conversion: pounds of feed to produce one dozen eggs.
100 Z
o
90
I-
80
o o
70
u
60 Q t
Z Ui X
50 40
UJ
o
30
ztil
1
1
20
l-
1 3
1
bl
10
1Ul
1 DC UI
1 . 1-
< I-
o
co DC 0.
T.
i r
.
U
i H
.
. •—. • li WEEKS
13 ON
15
17
19
21
EXPERIMENT
FIG. 1. Weekly hen-day egg production of pullets fed graded concentrations of lowgrade sugar and bagasse pith.
23
25
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There was no marked increase in body weight in this trial as the concentration of low-grade sugar was increased. As may be seen in Table 3, the gains made by the groups fed rations 14 through 17 were similar to that of the controls. When 52.3
Table 3. While no significant difference was observed between the groups fed either ration 14 or 15 and the controls, the hatchabilities obtained from the groups fed rations 16 through 19 were significantly lower.
74
M. M. ROSENBERG
percent of low-grade sugar plus 5.2 percent bagasse pith was fed, as in rations 18 and 19, the rate of increase in body weight was decreased almost by half. In trial 2 the controls required 4.56 pounds of feed to produce a dozen eggs
protein while rations 15, 17, and 19 contained sesame meal and Hawaiian tuna meal also, the remainder of the rations being comparable, it was possible to compare the two types of rations. The derived t values for hen-day production and RATIONS _ Z
100
-t
90 3
a o cc a. $ ztua
80 70 60 50
X
UJ
o iS z UJ o K UJ
a.
40 30 20
10
I
kl
III
Ul
I-
w w
9 WEEKS
II
13 ON
15
17
19
21
23
25
EXPERIMENT
FIG. 2. Weekly hen-day production of groups fed sugar rations in which sesame and tuna meals were also fed.
and the groups fed rations 14, 16, and 18J" 'efficiency of feed utilization in terms of required 5.08, 5.77, and 5.54 pounds, re-1 egg production were significantly in favor spectively, while those fed rations 15, 17, of the groups fed soybean meal alone as and 19 required 5.45, 6.04, and 5.88 the principal source of amino acids. Real pounds of feed. Although none of the ex- differences were not observed between the perimental-sugar groups utilized their two sets of contrasting rations for egg feed as efficiently as did the controls, the size and body weight. efficiency of feed conversion among the No deaths occurred among the groups six sugar groups was still good. fed rations 2, 15, and 18. The mortalities Since rations 14, 16, and 18 contained that occurred in the other groups are soybean meal as the principal source of listed in Table 3. As in trial 1, livability
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19
I-
o
IS
-e IT
LOW-GRADE SUGAR IN LAYING RATIONS
was not significantly affected among the lots fed the highest concentrations of sugar. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
Great difficulty was encountered in manually mixing this intermediate sugar product. Due to its adhesiveness, balls of sugar of various sizes were obtained thinly coated by the rest of the ration, and chickens demonstrated a great liking for this confectionary. In a pilot test (unpublished data), egg production dropped markedly and within a short time when low-grade sugar was fed in this manner. Thus, every ball had to be crushed and mixed, again and again, until the sugar was dispersed. It was found that bagasse pith readily adsorbed and absorbed lowgrade sugar, so that the preliminary admixing of this sugar product with bagasse pith in the ratio of 10 to 1 by weight simplified the final mixing of the ration. When this new feedstuff was biologically assayed in an all-vegetable layer ration, it was found that egg production and hatchability were not depressed when it was fed at 35.5 percent of total ration. At the two higher concentrations, 49.0 and 57.5 percent of total ration, egg production and hatchability were significantly depressed. Essentially, the same results
were obtained from other rations containing similar concentrations of low-grade sugar and bagasse pith to which sesame meal and Hawaiian tuna meal had been added. The group fed ration 18 containing 57.5 percent low-grade sugar and bagasse pith was able to maintain a rate of lay of 61.0 percent and hatched 83.5 percent of all fertile eggs during an experimental period lasting 20 weeks. Similarly, those fed the same concentration of sugar products, ration 19, averaged 54.6 percent production and 86.0 percent hatchability .Despite the fact that chickens did not utilize the sugar mix as efficiently as corn meal at the two higher levels, this condition may be offset by a compensatory reduction in price, particularly in grain-deficient areas where sugar cane is grown. Egg weight was significantly reduced when all the grain was eliminated from the experimental diets. However, no clearcut effect of low-grade sugar on egg size was determined when it was fed at concentrations ranging from 32.3 to 44.5 percent of total ration. Under these conditions, the variation in egg size, both larger and smaller than the respective controls, suggests that chance effects due to randomization were more influential than the level of sugar fed to the various groups in effecting these differences. Johansson and Sarles (1949) have prepared a complete survey of the literature on the effect of various carbohydrates on the intestinal flora of both rats and chickens. Pertinent among these were papers by Couch et al. (1948) and Johansson et al. (1948). Couch et al. reported that hens fed a synthetic diet containing dextrin synthesized adequate amounts of biotin in their intestinal tracts that ensured high hatchability, while sucrose failed to support microbial synthesis of this vitamin. Johansson et al., in a con-
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These trials have shown that low-grade sugar, containing sucrose primarily, may be fed to laying chickens as a substitute for corn, wheat, oats, etc. When fed in trial 1 at 32.25 percent of total ration no depression in egg production, egg size, and hatchability was observed, and the economy of feed utilization was superior to that of the controls. At higher levels, 45.5 and 56.0 percent of total ration, an enormous increase in body weight was obtained resulting in lower feed efficiency, even though egg production was not depressed.
75
76
M. M. ROSENBERG
Throughout this experiment, all groups fed low-grade sugar tended to produce loose droppings. While the laxation due to low-grade sugar proved to be of no consequence in this study since the layers were maintained on 1"X2" wire-fabric floors and the droppings passed through cleanly, this phenomenon has practical connotations to the poultry man who maintains his chickens on litter. Until other studies bind these loose ends together, this condition may detract from the use of low-grade sugar wherever chickens are maintained on litter. This investigation supports the conclusion that low-grade sugar mixed with bagasse pith is a potential carbohydrate
feedstuff for poultry. In areas of the world where cereal grains are sometimes not available, as in Hawaii during prolonged shipping strikes, low-grade sugar can serve as an emergency source of carbohydrates with satisfactory results. Whether it will be fed in exchange for cereal grains at other times, in partial substitution or total, will depend on the comparative prices charged for each in any given locality. SUMMARY
Low-grade sugar was fed in graded concentrations for 20 weeks to laying pullets in two consecutive trials. In the first trial it was fed at 32.25, 45.5, and 56.0 percent of total ration in partial and complete substitution for the cereal grains. The group fed 32.25 percent low-grade sugar laid significantly more eggs and at a greater economy of feed conversion than did the controls. Egg weight, body weight, and hatchability were not adversely affected at this concentration. At 45.5 percent of total ration, egg production was 1.9 percent lower than the controls, egg weight was significantly larger, body weight was markedly increased, hatchability was depressed, and economy of feed conversion was much poorer. At 56.0 percent of total ration, egg production was equal to the control, and body weight was much greater; but egg size, hatchability, and economy of feed utilization were inferior. The reduction in feed efficiency in this trial may have been due, in part, to the tremendous increase in body weight in the lots fed low-grade sugar at 45.5 and 56.0 percent of total ration. Because low-grade sugar is highly adherent and difficult to mix with conventional ingredients, it was combined with bagasse pith in the ratio of 10 to 1 by weight and fed in this manner in trial 2.
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current study, found that the substitution of sucrose for dextrin greatly reduced the coliform flora in fecal droppings. Because the samples of low-grade sugar employed in this study contained 87.2 percent sucrose, the experimental diets were adequately fortified with certain water-soluble vitamins. This was done to avoid, insofar as possible, the confounding effects that lowered vitamin synthesis may induce due to the substitution of lowgrade sugar for corn meal. Biotin, however, was not included. Despite this omission, three rations lacking any corn meal or other grains supported, during a period of 20 weeks, 74.4, 86.0, and 83.5 percent hatchability of all fertile eggs. Were the biotin stores inadequate—and the calculated content of the experimental rations led to that conclusion-—hatchability, in accordance with Couch's findings, should have fallen to a low level. As a consequence of these observations, other studies have been undertaken to elucidate the effects of low-grade sugar and yellow corn meal on carbohydrate metabolism and on the distribution of the intestinal microflora.
LOW-GRADE SUGAR IN LAYING RATIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Funds for expanding this study were made available by the Industrial Research Advisory Council. The sugar products were provided through the courtesy of
the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association. The author wishes to acknowledge the generous assistance of Dr. John F. Payne and Mr. William Kenda of the H.S.P.A. in providing the analytical data of the raw-sugar ingredients: of Mr. Saburo Yoneda, foreman at the poultry farm, and Mr. Robert E. Strohman, Department of Agricultural Engineering, for their assistance in building a machine to combine sugar products with bagasse pith. REFERENCES Bice, C. M., 1932. Poultry feed supplements. Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 4. Couch, J. R., W. W. Cravens, C. A. Elvehjem and J. G. Halpin, 1948. Relation of carbohydrate to intestinal synthesis of biotin and hatchability in mature fowl. J. Nutrition 35: 57-72. Gericke, A. H., 1940. The feeding of molasses to poultry. Rhodesia Agr. J. 37: 324-325. Ingram, G. R., W. W. Cravens, C. A. Elvehjem and J. G. Halpin, 1950. Relation of tryptophan and lysine to egg production, hatchability and composition of the protein of hens' eggs. Poultry Sci. 29: 793-803. Johansson, K. R., and W. B. Sarles, 1949. Some considerations of the biological importance of intestinal microorganisms. Bact. Rev. 13: 25-45. Johansson, K. R., W. B. Sarles and S. K. Shapiro, 1948. The intestinal microflora of hens as influenced by various carbohydrates in a biotindeficient diet. J. Bact. 56: 619-634. Maw, A. J., 1933. Feeding cane molasses to growing chicks and laying hens. Sci. Agr. 13: 734-745. McMillan, A. M., and F. J. Dudley, 1940. Steamed potatoes in table poultry rations. Harper Adams Utility Poultry J. 25: 251-252; Exp. Sta. Record 84: 233, 1941. Ott, W. H., R. V. Boucher and H: C. Knandel, 1942. Feeding cane molasses as a constituent of poultry rations. Poultry Sci. 21: 536-539. Tillman, A. D., and H. C. Davis, 1943. Studies on the use of dehydrated sweet potato meal in chick rations. Louisiana Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 358. Upp, C. W., 1937. Cane molasses in poultry rations. Louisiana Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 289. Winter, A. R., 1929, Cane molasses for poultry. Poultry Sci. 8:369-373.
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Following 20 weeks on the experimental rations, the controls averaged 68.9 percent hen-day egg production while the groups fed 3.5.5 percent sugar mix averaged 68.1 and 61.0 percent. Those fed 49.0 and 57.5 percent sugar mix laid at a significantly lower rate. Nevertheless, the two groups fed the highest concentrations of sugar averaged 61.0 and 54.6 percent production in the complete absence of corn, wheat, oats, etc. This level of sugar mix, namely 57.5 percent of total ration, caused a reduction in egg size, hatchability, and economy of feed conversion. It was found—in three rations containing graded concentrations of low-grade sugar plus bagasse pith—-that all-vegetable rations containing soybean meal as the primary source of protein were significantly superior to similar rations containing also sesame meal and Hawaiian tuna meal for hen-day egg production and efficiency of feed utilization. Although low-grade sugar increases the looseness of hens' droppings, no adverse effects were noted other than as reported above. During strikes or crop failures when grains are expensive and/or are difficult to procure, low-grade sugar mixed with bagasse pith can completely replace them for periods up to 20 weeks and possibly longer. The percentage of this sugar mix that may be employed in layer rations under normal circumstances will be dependent on its comparative advantage.
77
tional factors are interrelated in their effects on feather pigmentation. REFERENCES Bird, H. R., M. Rubin and A. C. Groschke, 1947.
69
An inborn characteristic determining the response of chickens to a diet free of animal protein. J. Nutrition, 33: 319-330. Lillie, R. J., and H. R. Bird, 1949. A breed difference in feather pigmentation of vitamin D deficient chicks. Poultry Sci. 28:140-142.
Low-Grade Sugar, a Potential Carbohydrate Feedstuff for Laying Chickens 1
(Received for publication May 27, 1952)
I
N MANY regions of the world, particularly the tropics, it is economically neither feasible nor possible to raise corn, wheat, and other grains for poultry. As a consequence, carbohydrate feedstuffs are imported since earlier investigations had shown the superiority of these grains over certain indigenous sources of carbohydrates. This dependence on imported feed has tended to discourage the expansion of poultry enterprises in tropical areas and increase the costs of production. Then, too, there are grain-deficient areas in the Temperate Zone; deficient not only for animal production but, more important still, for humans as well; and the shipment of Temperate Zone grains to the tropics can only tend to aggravate this situation. It is apparent, then, that indigenous plants from other geographical areas must be investigated and developed to supplement or materially add to the world's supply of carbohydrate feedstuffs. While numerous studies have been reported on potential carbohydrate feeds [Bice (1932), avocado, banana, papaya, and sweet potato meals; Tillman and Davis (1943), sweet potato meal; Gericke 1
Published with the approval of the Director of the Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station as Technical Paper No. 257.
(1940), Maw (1933), Ott et al. (1942), Upp (1937) and Winter (1929), cane molasses; McMillan and Dudley (1941), steamed potatoes; and others], none has shown much promise of substantially replacing the cereal grains as an economical source of carbohydrates in poultry rations. In a personal communication, Dr. John H. Payne, Principal Technologist of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, stated that cane sugar production during 1950 in areas supplying the United States (Continental U. S., Puerto Rico, Cuba, Philippines, and Hawaii) was 10,193,000 tons of raw sugar. Of this amount, approximately 25 percent could have been retained as low-grade sugar. Low-grade sugar, also known in sugar parlance as third-strike sugar, is obtained from the third centrifugation of the heated, concentrated cane juices containing sugar crystals (massecuite). This product consists of the crystals that remain in the centrifuge along with the adherent molasses. Analyses of samples utilized in this study were somewhat variable but showed in general that this intermediate product of sugar processing contained 96.55 percent solids, 82.98 percent sucrose, 5.71 percent reducing sugars,
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at Serials Acq (Law) on May 24, 2015
M. M. ROSENBERG
Department of Poultry Husbandry, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii
70
M. M. ROSENBERG
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This experiment consists of two separate trials. In trial 1, 32 New Hampshire pullets were randomized into four pens at 198 days of age, and all were fed the same diet (ration 2) for 3 weeks. During the following 2 weeks (interim), experimental diets 9, 10, and 11, shown in Table 1, were gradually exchanged for the control ration; thereafter, these rations were fed ad libitum for 20 weeks, supplemented only by oyster shell that was fed in separate hoppers. The pullets were artificially inseminated twice every other week, and eggs were saved for incubation for 7 consecutive days during each biweekly period. Data were collected biweekly on body weight, feed consumption, and hatchability; and daily on egg production, egg size, and mortality. In total, data were collected for 25 weeks. With the exception of low-grade sugar, the remainder of the ingredients and synthetic supplements were imported from the Mainland United States.
Because low-grade sugar is a viscous mass and exceedingly difficult to mix uniformly with such ingredients as corn meal and soybean meal, it was "homogenized" with bagasse pith* in the ratio of 10 parts of low-grade sugar to one part of pith, by weight, and then added to the experimental diets that were tested in trial 2. This technique greatly facilitated the incorporation of low-grade sugar into the experimental diets because the combination was free flowing and nonviscous, and, therefore, easy to blend with the other ingredients. In the second trial, 112 New Hampshire pullets were randomized into seven pens at 169 days of age and fed ration 2 for 3 weeks. Experimental rations 14 through 19, shown in Table 1, were introduced during the interim period and then fed ad libitum plus oyster shell for 20 weeks. The same characteristics observed in trial 1 were recorded in trial 2. The experimental pullets were penmated rather than artificially inseminated in the second trial. Fourteen New Hampshire cockerels of approximately similar body weight were selected from the same hatch and employed in the following manner. For 1 week seven males were shifted daily, Monday through Friday, in the pens, while seven cockerels were housed in individual cages where their feed consumption was carefully recorded. Every seven days the two groups of males were reciprocally exchanged. The average feed consumption of the cockerels housed in the individual cages were subtracted every week from each pen to correct for the feed consumed by the pen-mated males. * Bagasse pith consists of fine particles of the ground, crushed, and pulped sugar cane stalks that were separated by liquid screening. The dehydrated fibers were then ground in a hammer mill (1/16-inch screen). i
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and 3.38 percent ash. Since low-grade sugar is such a rich source of carbohydrates, albeit sucrose, one may wonder why interest had not centered earlier on this product as a potential carbohydrate feedstuff. Although Ingram et al. (1950) were not directly concerned with its potentialities, they have fed sucrose in purified diets to laying hens for intervals of 4 weeks, and they hazarded an opinion that one of their experimental diets (B115) could support egg production "indefinitely." Should this be true, it was thought that low-grade sugar, although it contains much ash from the adherent molasses, might be a good source of carbohydrates for poultry. Consequently, this investigation was undertaken to determine the practical limitations of feeding lowgrade sugar to mature pullets.
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Low-GRADE SUGAR IN LAYING RATIONS TABLE 1 —Composition
of rations fed in trials 1 and Z Experimental rations*
Ingredients 2 Low-grade sugar Bagasse pith Ground wheat Ground yellow corn Ground oats Herring meal Tuna meal Sesame meal Soybean meal
30.0 30.0 19.0 5.5
— _
9
—
44.5 44.5 4.5 4.5
16
17
18
19
52.3 5.2
52.3 5.2
—
31.25
15.0
—
28.0
28.0
11.5
11.5
—
.—•
—
5.0 8.0 16.0
— — 32.0
5.0 9.0 18.0
35.0
— —
5.0 10.0 20.0
— —
3.0 0.5 3.0 6.0 200.0 200.0 200.0 200.0 30.0
35.0
15 32.3 3.2
—
5.0 0.5 1.0 2.5
— — —
14
—
32.25 45.5
29.0
15.0 30.0 10.0
11 56.0
32.3 3.2
9.0
— — —
10
—
4.54 500.0 180.0 130.0 180.0
— —.
32.0
— —
36.5
29.0
As shown in ration 9
* Unit of measure is pound (s) unless otherwise specified. (A) Aurofac (Lederle): guaranteed potency of 1.8 mg. Bi2 activity and 1.8 gm. aureomycin per pound. (B) Delsterol: 2,000 A.O.A.C. units of D per pound. (C) Fortafeed (Lederle): guaranteed potency of 2,000 mg. each of calcium pantothenate, niacin, and riboflavin, and 10,000 mg. choline chloride per pound. RESULTS
Trial 1. Although there was no significant difference between treatments during the pretest period, egg production differed significantly (P <0.01) during the experimental period that followed. This was due to the significantly greater egg production of the group fed ration 9. During the 20-week study the controls averaged 48.3 percent hen-day production, while the groups fed experimental diets 9,10, and 11 averaged 5'8.4,46.4, and 48.3 percent, respectively. Since the least significant difference was 6.37 percent, there was no real difference in rate of lay between the groups fed rations 2, 10, and 11. Because there was a range of 3.0 grams in the average egg weights of the four
groups during the pretest period, the analysis of variance was based on the average weekly egg weight increase of each group from its own average pretest egg weight. In this manner, a highly significant difference in egg weight increase was observed among the four groups (P < 0.01). When measured by the least significant difference, no real difference existed between the groups fed rations 2 and 9, while the egg weight of the group fed ration 10 was significantly larger, and that of the group fed ration 11 was significantly smaller than the control. No significant effect of treatment on hatchability was found, although all of the groups fed low-grade sugar did not hatch as well as the control. The average percentage hatch of fertile eggs for the
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Alfalfa meal Salt Defluorinated phosphate Manganese sulfate, gm. Copper sulfate, gm. Ferrous sulfate, gm. Aurofac, gm. (A) Choline chloride, gm. Delsterol, gm. (B) Fortafeed, gm. (C) Niacin, gm. Pantothenic acid, mg. Pyridoxine-hydrochloride, mg. Riboflavin, mg. Thiamine, mg.
— —
72
M. M. ROSENBERG
No mortality occurred in the pens fed rations 2, 9, and 11. However, in the pen fed ration 10 (i.e., 45.5 percent low-grade sugar), 20 percent mortality was recorded during this 25-week study. Portions of the above-mentioned data are summarized in Table 2. Trial 2. Following 20 weeks of observation, it was found that the controls averaged 68.9 percent hen-day egg production while the groups fed rations 14, 16, and 18 averaged 68.1, 58.9, and 61.0 percent, respectively. The weekly hen-day production of these groups is shown in Figure 1. It was calculated that the variation in production, both between and within these groups, was highly significant (P<0.01). Although rations 16 and 18 supported an excellent rate of lay, the groups fed rations 2 and 14 laid significantly better. When rations 15, 17, and 19 were compared with the control, the F values for differences in egg production were also highly significant (P<0.01) both between and within groups. All three sugar Nations supported significantly lower
TABLE 2.—Performance of experimental groups in trial 1 Characteristic Percentage hen-day egg production x increase in egg weight, gm. Percentage hatchability Feed-egg conversion* Increase in body weight. lb. Percentage mortality
Rations fed experimental groups 2
9
10
11
48.3
58.4
46.4
48.3
6.8 83.5 6.1
6.4 77.9 5.4
7.8 72.5 7.0
4.6 74.4 7.1
0.8 0.0
0.9 0.0
1.5 25.0
1.7 0.0
* Feed-egg conversion: pounds of feed to produce one dozen eggs.
egg yields. As may be seen in Table 3, the groups fed rations 15,17, and 19 averaged 61.0, 55.7, and 54.6 percent hen-day egg production for 20 weeks. The weekly henday production of these groups is shown in Figure 2. Despite these, statistical comparisons, it is nevertheless noteworthy to emphasize the excellent egg production of the groups fed rations 18 and 19. The pullets fed these diets averaged 61.0 and 54.6 percent production on rations containing a concentration of 52.3 percent low-grade sugar plus 5.2 percent bagasse pith and no cereal grains! The variation in egg weight-was highly significant, both between and within groups. The pullets fed rations 14 and 18 produced significantly smaller eggs ( P < 0.05) than did the controls, whereas the egg size for the pullets fed ration 16 was not depressed. When rations 2,15,17, and 19 were compared, the groups receiving 32.3 and 44.5 percent low-grade sugar showed a larger egg-weight increase than did the controls, while the groups fed ration 19 produced significantly smaller eggs. It would appear that concentrations of low-grade sugar ranging from 52.3 to 56.0 percent of total ration tend to depress egg size while lesser concentrations ranging from 32.25 to 45.5 percent do not have any consistent effect on egg size, either positively or negatively. The data on hatchability are shown in
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groups fed rations 2, 9, 10, and 11 was, respectively, 83.5, 77.9, 72.5, and 74.4 percent. When the total feed consumption of each group was divided by the total dozens of eggs produced, it was found that the birds fed the control ration required 6.10 pounds of feed to produce a dozen eggs, while the groups fed rations 9, 10, and 11 required 5.41, 7.05, and 7.12 pounds, respectively. Concomitantly, the controls gained 0.79 pound during the 25-week study, whereas the groups fed rations 9, 10, and 11 gained, respectively, 0.91, 1.52, and 1.69 pounds. It is possible that the lower efficiency of feed conversion into eggs of the groups fed rations 10 and 11 was confounded by the great increase in body weight of the pullets fed these rations.
73
Low-GRADE SUGAR IN LAYING RATIONS
TABLE 3.—Performance of experimental groups in trial 2 Rations fed experimental groups Characteristics Percentage hen-day egg production ^increase in egg weight, gm. Percentage hatchability Feed-egg conversion* Increase in body weight, lb. Percentage mortality
2
14
16
18
15
17
19
68.9 7.6 92.2 4.6 0.7 0.0
68.1 6.0 90.0 5.1 0.8 12.5
58.9 7.6 85.3 5.8 0.8 6.2
61.0 6.1 83.5 5.5 0.4 0.0
61.0 8.1 89.8 5.4 0.7 0.0
55.7 7.8 85.5 6.0 0.9 6.2
54.6 6.3 86.0 5.9 0.5 6.2
* Feed-egg conversion: pounds of feed to produce one dozen eggs.
100 Z
o
90
I-
80
o o
70
u
60 Q t
Z Ui X
50 40
UJ
o
30
ztil
1
1
20
l-
1 3
1
bl
10
1Ul
1 DC UI
1 . 1-
< I-
o
co DC 0.
T.
i r
.
U
i H
.
. •—. • li WEEKS
13 ON
15
17
19
21
EXPERIMENT
FIG. 1. Weekly hen-day egg production of pullets fed graded concentrations of lowgrade sugar and bagasse pith.
23
25
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There was no marked increase in body weight in this trial as the concentration of low-grade sugar was increased. As may be seen in Table 3, the gains made by the groups fed rations 14 through 17 were similar to that of the controls. When 52.3
Table 3. While no significant difference was observed between the groups fed either ration 14 or 15 and the controls, the hatchabilities obtained from the groups fed rations 16 through 19 were significantly lower.
74
M. M. ROSENBERG
percent of low-grade sugar plus 5.2 percent bagasse pith was fed, as in rations 18 and 19, the rate of increase in body weight was decreased almost by half. In trial 2 the controls required 4.56 pounds of feed to produce a dozen eggs
protein while rations 15, 17, and 19 contained sesame meal and Hawaiian tuna meal also, the remainder of the rations being comparable, it was possible to compare the two types of rations. The derived t values for hen-day production and RATIONS _ Z
100
-t
90 3
a o cc a. $ ztua
80 70 60 50
X
UJ
o iS z UJ o K UJ
a.
40 30 20
10
I
kl
III
Ul
I-
w w
9 WEEKS
II
13 ON
15
17
19
21
23
25
EXPERIMENT
FIG. 2. Weekly hen-day production of groups fed sugar rations in which sesame and tuna meals were also fed.
and the groups fed rations 14, 16, and 18J" 'efficiency of feed utilization in terms of required 5.08, 5.77, and 5.54 pounds, re-1 egg production were significantly in favor spectively, while those fed rations 15, 17, of the groups fed soybean meal alone as and 19 required 5.45, 6.04, and 5.88 the principal source of amino acids. Real pounds of feed. Although none of the ex- differences were not observed between the perimental-sugar groups utilized their two sets of contrasting rations for egg feed as efficiently as did the controls, the size and body weight. efficiency of feed conversion among the No deaths occurred among the groups six sugar groups was still good. fed rations 2, 15, and 18. The mortalities Since rations 14, 16, and 18 contained that occurred in the other groups are soybean meal as the principal source of listed in Table 3. As in trial 1, livability
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19
I-
o
IS
-e IT
LOW-GRADE SUGAR IN LAYING RATIONS
was not significantly affected among the lots fed the highest concentrations of sugar. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
Great difficulty was encountered in manually mixing this intermediate sugar product. Due to its adhesiveness, balls of sugar of various sizes were obtained thinly coated by the rest of the ration, and chickens demonstrated a great liking for this confectionary. In a pilot test (unpublished data), egg production dropped markedly and within a short time when low-grade sugar was fed in this manner. Thus, every ball had to be crushed and mixed, again and again, until the sugar was dispersed. It was found that bagasse pith readily adsorbed and absorbed lowgrade sugar, so that the preliminary admixing of this sugar product with bagasse pith in the ratio of 10 to 1 by weight simplified the final mixing of the ration. When this new feedstuff was biologically assayed in an all-vegetable layer ration, it was found that egg production and hatchability were not depressed when it was fed at 35.5 percent of total ration. At the two higher concentrations, 49.0 and 57.5 percent of total ration, egg production and hatchability were significantly depressed. Essentially, the same results
were obtained from other rations containing similar concentrations of low-grade sugar and bagasse pith to which sesame meal and Hawaiian tuna meal had been added. The group fed ration 18 containing 57.5 percent low-grade sugar and bagasse pith was able to maintain a rate of lay of 61.0 percent and hatched 83.5 percent of all fertile eggs during an experimental period lasting 20 weeks. Similarly, those fed the same concentration of sugar products, ration 19, averaged 54.6 percent production and 86.0 percent hatchability .Despite the fact that chickens did not utilize the sugar mix as efficiently as corn meal at the two higher levels, this condition may be offset by a compensatory reduction in price, particularly in grain-deficient areas where sugar cane is grown. Egg weight was significantly reduced when all the grain was eliminated from the experimental diets. However, no clearcut effect of low-grade sugar on egg size was determined when it was fed at concentrations ranging from 32.3 to 44.5 percent of total ration. Under these conditions, the variation in egg size, both larger and smaller than the respective controls, suggests that chance effects due to randomization were more influential than the level of sugar fed to the various groups in effecting these differences. Johansson and Sarles (1949) have prepared a complete survey of the literature on the effect of various carbohydrates on the intestinal flora of both rats and chickens. Pertinent among these were papers by Couch et al. (1948) and Johansson et al. (1948). Couch et al. reported that hens fed a synthetic diet containing dextrin synthesized adequate amounts of biotin in their intestinal tracts that ensured high hatchability, while sucrose failed to support microbial synthesis of this vitamin. Johansson et al., in a con-
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These trials have shown that low-grade sugar, containing sucrose primarily, may be fed to laying chickens as a substitute for corn, wheat, oats, etc. When fed in trial 1 at 32.25 percent of total ration no depression in egg production, egg size, and hatchability was observed, and the economy of feed utilization was superior to that of the controls. At higher levels, 45.5 and 56.0 percent of total ration, an enormous increase in body weight was obtained resulting in lower feed efficiency, even though egg production was not depressed.
75
76
M. M. ROSENBERG
Throughout this experiment, all groups fed low-grade sugar tended to produce loose droppings. While the laxation due to low-grade sugar proved to be of no consequence in this study since the layers were maintained on 1"X2" wire-fabric floors and the droppings passed through cleanly, this phenomenon has practical connotations to the poultry man who maintains his chickens on litter. Until other studies bind these loose ends together, this condition may detract from the use of low-grade sugar wherever chickens are maintained on litter. This investigation supports the conclusion that low-grade sugar mixed with bagasse pith is a potential carbohydrate
feedstuff for poultry. In areas of the world where cereal grains are sometimes not available, as in Hawaii during prolonged shipping strikes, low-grade sugar can serve as an emergency source of carbohydrates with satisfactory results. Whether it will be fed in exchange for cereal grains at other times, in partial substitution or total, will depend on the comparative prices charged for each in any given locality. SUMMARY
Low-grade sugar was fed in graded concentrations for 20 weeks to laying pullets in two consecutive trials. In the first trial it was fed at 32.25, 45.5, and 56.0 percent of total ration in partial and complete substitution for the cereal grains. The group fed 32.25 percent low-grade sugar laid significantly more eggs and at a greater economy of feed conversion than did the controls. Egg weight, body weight, and hatchability were not adversely affected at this concentration. At 45.5 percent of total ration, egg production was 1.9 percent lower than the controls, egg weight was significantly larger, body weight was markedly increased, hatchability was depressed, and economy of feed conversion was much poorer. At 56.0 percent of total ration, egg production was equal to the control, and body weight was much greater; but egg size, hatchability, and economy of feed utilization were inferior. The reduction in feed efficiency in this trial may have been due, in part, to the tremendous increase in body weight in the lots fed low-grade sugar at 45.5 and 56.0 percent of total ration. Because low-grade sugar is highly adherent and difficult to mix with conventional ingredients, it was combined with bagasse pith in the ratio of 10 to 1 by weight and fed in this manner in trial 2.
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current study, found that the substitution of sucrose for dextrin greatly reduced the coliform flora in fecal droppings. Because the samples of low-grade sugar employed in this study contained 87.2 percent sucrose, the experimental diets were adequately fortified with certain water-soluble vitamins. This was done to avoid, insofar as possible, the confounding effects that lowered vitamin synthesis may induce due to the substitution of lowgrade sugar for corn meal. Biotin, however, was not included. Despite this omission, three rations lacking any corn meal or other grains supported, during a period of 20 weeks, 74.4, 86.0, and 83.5 percent hatchability of all fertile eggs. Were the biotin stores inadequate—and the calculated content of the experimental rations led to that conclusion-—hatchability, in accordance with Couch's findings, should have fallen to a low level. As a consequence of these observations, other studies have been undertaken to elucidate the effects of low-grade sugar and yellow corn meal on carbohydrate metabolism and on the distribution of the intestinal microflora.
LOW-GRADE SUGAR IN LAYING RATIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Funds for expanding this study were made available by the Industrial Research Advisory Council. The sugar products were provided through the courtesy of
the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association. The author wishes to acknowledge the generous assistance of Dr. John F. Payne and Mr. William Kenda of the H.S.P.A. in providing the analytical data of the raw-sugar ingredients: of Mr. Saburo Yoneda, foreman at the poultry farm, and Mr. Robert E. Strohman, Department of Agricultural Engineering, for their assistance in building a machine to combine sugar products with bagasse pith. REFERENCES Bice, C. M., 1932. Poultry feed supplements. Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 4. Couch, J. R., W. W. Cravens, C. A. Elvehjem and J. G. Halpin, 1948. Relation of carbohydrate to intestinal synthesis of biotin and hatchability in mature fowl. J. Nutrition 35: 57-72. Gericke, A. H., 1940. The feeding of molasses to poultry. Rhodesia Agr. J. 37: 324-325. Ingram, G. R., W. W. Cravens, C. A. Elvehjem and J. G. Halpin, 1950. Relation of tryptophan and lysine to egg production, hatchability and composition of the protein of hens' eggs. Poultry Sci. 29: 793-803. Johansson, K. R., and W. B. Sarles, 1949. Some considerations of the biological importance of intestinal microorganisms. Bact. Rev. 13: 25-45. Johansson, K. R., W. B. Sarles and S. K. Shapiro, 1948. The intestinal microflora of hens as influenced by various carbohydrates in a biotindeficient diet. J. Bact. 56: 619-634. Maw, A. J., 1933. Feeding cane molasses to growing chicks and laying hens. Sci. Agr. 13: 734-745. McMillan, A. M., and F. J. Dudley, 1940. Steamed potatoes in table poultry rations. Harper Adams Utility Poultry J. 25: 251-252; Exp. Sta. Record 84: 233, 1941. Ott, W. H., R. V. Boucher and H: C. Knandel, 1942. Feeding cane molasses as a constituent of poultry rations. Poultry Sci. 21: 536-539. Tillman, A. D., and H. C. Davis, 1943. Studies on the use of dehydrated sweet potato meal in chick rations. Louisiana Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 358. Upp, C. W., 1937. Cane molasses in poultry rations. Louisiana Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 289. Winter, A. R., 1929, Cane molasses for poultry. Poultry Sci. 8:369-373.
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Following 20 weeks on the experimental rations, the controls averaged 68.9 percent hen-day egg production while the groups fed 3.5.5 percent sugar mix averaged 68.1 and 61.0 percent. Those fed 49.0 and 57.5 percent sugar mix laid at a significantly lower rate. Nevertheless, the two groups fed the highest concentrations of sugar averaged 61.0 and 54.6 percent production in the complete absence of corn, wheat, oats, etc. This level of sugar mix, namely 57.5 percent of total ration, caused a reduction in egg size, hatchability, and economy of feed conversion. It was found—in three rations containing graded concentrations of low-grade sugar plus bagasse pith—-that all-vegetable rations containing soybean meal as the primary source of protein were significantly superior to similar rations containing also sesame meal and Hawaiian tuna meal for hen-day egg production and efficiency of feed utilization. Although low-grade sugar increases the looseness of hens' droppings, no adverse effects were noted other than as reported above. During strikes or crop failures when grains are expensive and/or are difficult to procure, low-grade sugar mixed with bagasse pith can completely replace them for periods up to 20 weeks and possibly longer. The percentage of this sugar mix that may be employed in layer rations under normal circumstances will be dependent on its comparative advantage.
77