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Malay and chinese values underlying the malaysian business culture
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Pergamon
Int[ J[ Intercultural Rel[ Vol[ 12\ No[ 0\ pp[ 006Ð020\ 0888 Þ 0888 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved Printed in Great Britain 9036Ð0656:88:, ! see front matter
PII] S9036Ð0656"87#99917Ð4
MALAY AND CHINESE VALUES UNDERLYING THE MALAYSIAN BUSINESS CULTURE MONI LAI STORZ Monash mt[ Eliza Business School\ Australia ABSTRACT[ This paper is an attempt to understand the underlying belief systems that have shaped the values and behaviour of the Malays and Chinese in the Malaysian business culture[ The paper identi_es the core values of the Chinese and Malays and shows how these are derived from Confucianism and the budi complex respectively[ Confucianist beliefs are compared to those drawn from the budi complex[ In doing so\ it demonstrates how similar these two seemingly divergent philosophical systerms are in terms of certain selected values related to the self\ time and epistemology[ The main thrust of the paper is that the Malay budi complex and the Chinese Confucianist beliefs insofar as both posit a certain view of the self\ time and epistemology\ contain implicit values[ These values in turn create or construct certain types of attitudes and practices relating to business[ In making the links between values and business beliefs\ attitudes and business practices\ it is hoped that a greater understanding of the business culture of Malaysia can be achieved[ Speci_c to cross!cultural management\ this understanding is important since it is the _rst step to a fuller explication of the intercultural differences that underly management education and training in the global marketplace[ It has important bearing on the crucial question of whether or not training and education are transferable from culture to culture[ Þ 0888 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved
Although many social scientists have studied di}erent facets of Malay! sian society and culture\ business beliefs and practices in Malaysia have received relatively little attention[ The little research that has been done
The research for this paper is made possible by a small Australian Research Council grant from Monash University\ Melbourne\ Australia[ Dr Moni Lai Storz\ 00 Cole Street\ Brighton\ Victoria\ Australia 2075[ Tel[] 502 8485 0645^ fax] 502 8485 7906^ e!mail] gbs991Ýozemail[com[au It is acknowledged that the Indian!Hindu in~uence is equally important[ By the same token\ the in~uence of British colonialisation is as crucial[ However\ an inclusion of these two in~uences would lengthen this paper considerably\ and is not within the scope of the present discussion[ Conceptually\ an examination of the Indian!Hindu in~uence is totally consistent with the line of argument adopted in this paper[ An analysis of British colonial in~uence on the value base of Malaysians lends itself better to an historical!structural analysis "see e[g[ Kahn + Loh\ 0881#[
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tends to focus primarily on cross!cultural management issues "e[g[ Abdul! lah\ 0880^ Dahlan\ 0880^ Hofstede\ 0880^ Sendut et al[\ 0880^ Westwood\ 0880#[ There has been little attempt to provide an analysis of the dom! inating value systems of the di}erent ethnic communities and the impli! cations of these values for an understanding of the business culture of Malaysia[ One study that has emerged in recent years that examines the diversity of values held by Malaysian managers is pioneered by the Malaysian Institute of Management in the area of cross!cultural man! agement "0880#[ This study examines the values\ attitudes and managerial styles of Malaysians\ and has immediate practical relevance for man! agement educators[ However\ in spite of the undoubted value of this pioneering study of Malaysian managerial values\ it does not explain the basis of these values[ In short\ it describes but does not explain the sources of these values and beliefs which shape management practices[ This paper is an attempt to understand the belief systems that have shaped the values and behaviour of the Malays and Chinese in the Malay! sian business culture[ The paper begins with an examination of the value systems of the Malays and Chinese[ The Malay value system is encap! sulated in the budi complex "Tham\ 0860^ Dahlan\ 0880# and the Chinese system is embodied in what can be termed loosely as Confucianism[0 In doing so\ it will demonstrate how similar these two seemingly diver! gent philosophical systems are in terms of certain selected values for the purpose of discussion in this paper[ The main thrust of my argument is that the Malay budi complex and the Chinese Confucianist philosophies insofar as both posit a certain view of self have within them intrinsic values[ These values in turn create or construct certain types of attitudes and practices relating to business[ In developing this type of analysis\ it is acknowledged that this is only one way of trying to understand the Malay! sian business culture[1
BRIEF HISTORY Historically\ by the time of the founding of Malacca in 0391\ it was already known that the Malay archipelago had been part of the trading route spanning India\ The Arab lands and China for centuries "Andaya + Andaya\ 0871]09#[ Thus the Malays\ Chinese and Indians have been living and working in Malaysia for a long time[ Over a period of time\ population 0 This is not the place to discuss the many rami_cations of the term as used in the literature[ Su.ce to say that as used in this paper\ it refers to the core values of Confucius| teachings as documented by Confucianist scholars\ e[g[ Tu Wei Ming "0868\ 0873#[ 1 Other writers have also used a similar cultural approach[ See for example\ Niels Mulder] Mysticism and everyday life in contemporary Java "0867#\ and Redding] The spirit of Chinese capitalism "0889#[
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increases created three dominant ethnic groups] Malays\ Chinese and Indians[ According to the 0889 Malaysian census\ Malays comprise 50[6) of the population[ The Chinese make up 18[5) and Indians 7[0)[ The Malays are Muslims\ the Chinese are a mixture of Confucianists\ Taoists\ Buddhists and Christians[ The Indians can be Muslims\ Hindus\ or Chri! stians[
MALAYS AND THE BUDI COMPLEX In order to understand what constitutes a Malay culture\ it is important to understand the budi concept[ In general\ its importance lies in giving an understanding for the behaviour patterns of the Malays in Malaysia and their business behaviour in particular[ It is di.cult to de_ne what is budi because it is so total and encompassing in the Malay way of life[ According to Tham "0869#\ the ethical system of the Malays is encapsulated in the budi complex[ In his view\ it is the essence of their social relationships[ It formulates norms of individual and social behaviour[ The way an individual should feel and think about himself or herself and others is guided by the budi complex[ As Dahlan says] In its general sense\ budi embodies all the virtues ranked in the system of values of the society [ [ [ the structure of budi is composed of virtuous qualities such as murah hati "generosity#\ hormat "respect#\ ikhlas "sincerity#\ mulia "righteous! ness#\ timban`!rasa "discretion#\ malu "feelings of shame at the collective level#\ and se`an "feeling of shame at the individual level# "0880]35Ð36#[
Apart from these qualities\ the concept of budi also provides norms and expectations pertaining to reciprocity[ These qualities\ norms and expectations interact together in a symbolic way to produce a certain type of person who receives approval from others[ Such a person is typi_ed by re_nement\ politeness and consideration of others "Dahlan\ 0880#[ The polite system of the Malays is deeply rooted in the budi complex "Dahlan\ 0880#[ The polite system includes all aspect of verbal and non!verbal communication[ The way language is used\ the intonations of speech and the ways people are addressed according to a status hierarchy are part of the polite system[ It further encompasses how the body is conducted in terms of posture\ giving things and receiving things[ The budi complex is also a way of orientating to the world[ It is what Dahlan calls the social mind "0880#[ In this respect\ it is the mental set that guides one|s behaviour[ It is also related to how one knows[ In the budi complex\ the superiority of knowing through intuitive feelings "rasa# is stressed[ It is through this mode of knowing that one understands the inner realms of human experiences "Dahlan\ 0880#[ In sum\ the budi complex appears to incorporate a holistic perspective of people and their environment[ It has at least three dimensions] the
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spiritual\ which can include the religio!ethical aspects of social life^ the mental insofar as it relates to the epistemological\ that is\ how one knows^ and the emotional\ that is\ how one feels and how one manages one|s emotions in relation to other facets of one|s psychological life "Dahlan\ 0880#[ Given its complexity\ budi like the most fundamental and profound of all cultural phenomena\ is deeply embedded unconsciously in the Malay psyche\ but nevertheless its manifestation is apparent in the Malay culture[2 Side by side with the budi complex is also the Islam religion[ There is no doubt that the budi complex and Islam are interwoven in a deeply profound way insofar as one reinforces the other\ for example\ the spiritual and ethical aspect of the budi complex and the Muslim belief that one|s destiny lies ultimately with Allah[ It is imprtant to note that a treatment of Islam and its implications for business behaviour is also of value and can be legitimately undertaken based on the conceptual analysis taken in this paper[ Unfortunately\ space does not allow for this exposition[ However\ it is important to note that the budi complex forms a basic and broad cultural substratum for Islamic values[ Thus the budi complex\ instead of Islam\ is used here as a more appropriate analogy to Confucianism\ especially since the latter is taken to be a philosophical teaching rather than a religion in the sociological sense in this paper[
CHINESE BELIEF SYSTEM If it is possible to pinpoint three philosophies that had and continue to have a profound impact on the formulation of a Chinese belief system\ most would agree that it is Taoism\ Confucianism and Buddhism[ Fol! lowing the fall of the Han dynasty\ China was divided into three rival kingdoms around A[D[ 110Ð478 "Smith\ 0862#[ It was around this time that the phrase san jiao "meaning three teachings# was coined to refer to Taoism\ Confucianism and Buddhism[ The three teachings meshed and became the value base of Chinese culture "Smith\ 0863]030#[ In the present discussion\ in the case of the Chinese Malaysian who call themselves {Buddhists|\ intrinsic in their way of life are the in~uences of these three teachings[3 It is probably safe to make the observation that even in the case of the Chinese Christians\ Confucianistic values can be found in their way of life[ In this paper\ it is crucial to have an understanding of what 2 E[T[ Hall makes the most cogent argument for the unconscious aspect of a person|s culture[ See The silent lan`ua`e "0848#[ 3 An analysis of the three teachings separately is beyond the scope of this paper[ It is believed that the intermeshing of these three teachings is so deep in the Malaysian Chinese who call themselves Buddhists that any attempt to separate the distinct di}erences in them would be futile[
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are the core values of Confucianism in examining the Chinese Malaysian[ It is in the core values of Confucianism that we _nd a continuing in~uence on how the Chinese Malaysian view the human being and the social world[ In focussing on Confucianism\ this does not mean that the Chinese Malaysians can be assumed to have a monolithic Chinese culture[ There are obvious di}erences amongst them as in the dialects they speak\ as well as in other aspects of their lives\ for example\ in their cuisine[ For the purpose of the present discussion\ it is important to bear in mind that regardless of the cultural diversity amongst the dialect groups\ the Chinese in Malaysia draw their conscious and unconscious values from the same sources] Confucianism\ Buddhism and Taoism[ It is beyond the scope of this paper to examine all three belief systems[ Confucianism will su.ce to demonstrate the core values of the Chinese Malaysian for this paper[
CONFUCIANISM The salient features of Confucianism most relevant to this paper are those found in the writings of Tu Wei Ming "0868\ 0873#[4 The core values of Confucianism are derived from the concept of ren[ The concept of ren "goodness\ humanity# originally introduced by Confucius is seen by Tu "0868# to be probably the most important concept in attempting to delin! eate the core values of Confucianism[ Whilst variously translated and de_ned\ Tu sees it as the virtue of the highest order in the value system of Confucianism "0868]5#[ For Tu\ ren is a concept of personal morality in classical Confucianism "0868]5#[ As such\ ren describes the {{highest human achievement ever reached through moral self cultivation|| "0868]6#[ The social and moral process of becoming human "Tu\ 0873# can be seen as a drive towards the achievement of ren[ This process is complex and dynamic and always has the characteristic of intersubjectivity\ that is\ it is shared[ Intrinsic in the process of learning to be human is the never ending process of attaining selfhood[ As Confucius advocated\ learning is for the sake of the self "Tu\ 0873#[ In order to understand this notion of learning how to be a human being "ren#\ it is also important to grasp simultaneously Confucius| notion of the self[ For Confucius\ the self is never an isolated atom[ It does not exist as a single entity[ Its existential reality is dialectically related to others in the _ve social spheres] family\
4 Professor Tu was one of eight Confucian scholars invited by the Singaporean government to draw up the conceptual framework for the syllabus on the subject of Confucian Ethics to be taught in schools[ In this regard\ his writings re~ect an understanding of the Singapore Chinese situation which shares many similarities with that of Malaysia[ For this reason\ this paper relies heavily on Tu|s works while at the same time\ it is acknowledged that there are numerous other writers who have written on Confucianistic values[ See\ for example\ Martin Lu|s Confucianism] Its relevance to modern society "0872#[
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neighbourhood\ community\ society and the cosmos\ a world beyond which is the replica of the existing one "Tu\ 0874#[ The Confucian self is an emer`ent[ Its selfhood is not an intrinsic quality of its beingness[ It emerges out of being engaged in relationship with others[ Thus the self is the sum of its relationships "Tu\0874]4#[5 In the process of becoming human\ Confucius drew attention to _ve crucial areas in which human beings have to learn to perfect themselves[ The _rst is the domain of aesthetics\ an area to do with poetry\ art\ music and calligraphy[ The aesthetic area extends the human being by giving artistic expressions to human feelings and sentiments "Tu\ 0873#[ Con! fucius| The Book of Poetry expresses this dimension[ The second area is to be found in the Book of Rites[ It contains the concept of ritual "li#[ Rituals are to do with the human being|s ability to communicate with others and is the hallmark of appropriate social interaction within the context of a person|s social relationships[ Rit! ualisation therefore encompasses in a total way all the means of com! munication*verbal and non!verbal^ for example\ how one holds oneself through postures\ gestures\ tone and volume of one|s speech[ In essence\ it is to do with propriety in a spacio!temporal sense[ The third area in becoming human is concerned with the notion of roots and one|s sense of history[ This is a form of collective memory\ a remembering of where one comes from in terms of one|s origins[ History is to do with one|s present for in the seeds of the past lie the present soon to be past thus transforming the future to be the present and so on ad in_nitum[ In the Confucian notion of history is a view of temporality creating and recreating itself[ In this\ too\ is the dialectical creation of the self and time[ As one remembers one|s past\ one creates one|s present and therefore one|s future[ Thus one maintains one|s continuity existentially in a spatio!temporal sense[ The sense of history\ a crucial aspect of one|s humanness is found in Confucius| Sprin` and Autumn Annals[ In the process of becoming human\ one has to develop a sense of who one is in relation to the sphere of di}erential status\ authority and power[ Thus the fourth area is to do with the human being|s place in the political domain[ For Confucius\ human beings always exist in a polity[ In this political context of di}erentiation according to one|s position in a hier! archy\ one should be responsible and be a responsive participant[ In the Book of Chan`e\ "I Chin`# the _fth area of learning is to be found[ A central premise in the I Chin` is do with the ecology of self and the ecology of the larger natural environment from whence has come the primordial bond of the human and Nature[ It is to do with the dialectic 5 Tu|s interpretations of Confucius| ideas on the self re~ect interestingly the views of the social phenomenologists and the social philosopher\ George Herbert Mead[ See his Mind\ self and society "0823#[
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of self and Nature in its most basic primordial sense[ In the Confucian cosmological vision\ heaven "tian# and humanity are intricately interwoven thus the self is shaped within the interstices of these two layers of becoming[ Hence\ the divinity of the self is a potential to be realised in the process of learning to be a human being[ When human beings cease to exist in the anthropological world that they share with other social beings\ they pass on to one that is its exact replica "Tu\ 0873#[ It is because of this that the process of learning to be human does not end[ It is from this that ancestor worship has emerged\ not as a religious belief and practice\ but as an extension of what it means to be human[ In this very condensed version of Confucian thought\ the primary focus has been on some of his key ideas that are relevant to the present discussion[ It is from these that a picture of Chinese values can be obtained[ In the following paragraphs I will attempt to distil the values of both the budi complex and the views of Confucius as they pertain to the process of learning to be a human being[
CORE VALUES OF THE BUDI COMPLEX AND CONFUCIANISM The budi complex and the core values of Confucius| teaching share similarities\ and for the purpose of this paper I will devote attention to these under three major headings[ First\ the similarities can be examined through their view of self^ secondly\ the similarities emerge in an epis! temological area\ concerned with how human beings know or how they explain social reality and thirdly\ these similarities can be examined through the notion of temporality\ that is\ how time is viewed[
VIEW OF SELF The view of self in the two value systems is best described as a holistic one[ The self is not seen in terms of a dualistic split between body and mind\ the physical and the spiritual\ the intellectual and the emotional "as is common in the western way of viewing man and self#[6 Instead the self is seen as a totality encompassing the physical\ mental\ emotional and spiritual[ There are no boundaries among these[ Rather each shades into the other just as there is no absolute line of demarcation between the yin and yan`[ Each depends on the other for their beingness[ It is also clear that the Malay and Chinese views of self as derived from the budi complex
6 For a more detailed discussion of this comparison between the Chinese and western concep! tion\ see Kuang!Ming Wu] {{Chinese aesthetics|| in Robert E[ Ellinson] Understandin` the Chinese mind "0878#[
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and Confucianism is essentially one that is socially constructed by others* their de_nitions\ their approval\ their acceptance[ The self is dependent on the perceptions of others[ The Malay and Chinese view of self is an {eastern one| as described by several writers commenting on the di}erences between the {western| and the {eastern| conception of self and man "e[g[ Nobels\ 0862^ Shweder + Bourne\ 0871#[ It is collective and socially contexualised based on commonality and connectedness[ In this sense\ the Malay and the Chinese are other oriented*what the sociologist\ Talcott Parsons\ described as a collective orientation "0846#[ In such a value orientation\ reciprocity and mutuality are strong values[
Implications for Business Values which focus on reciprocity and mutuality are manifested in business attitudes and practices[ Primarily because the self is dialectically connected with others\ this does imply that business relationships tend to be more primary than secondary[ People are socially engaged more as total personalities than segmented role players[ The Malay and the Chinese would _nd it more important to focus on the social and relational aspects of the business transaction rather than simply on the {facts| of the business[ Values such as mutuality and reciprocity also point to a negotiation style which veers towards a win!win outcome "Fisher + Ury\ 0870# rather than a win!lose one\ or what is known as the zero sum negotiation style[ For the Malays and the Chinese\ the ideal business deal is one where everyone wins "Fisher + Ury\ 0870#[ Winning in this sense is not de_ned in terms of how little one has lost to the other side per se\ but how much both sides have gained in terms of human rewards\ that is\ having the assurance that the social relationships will continue and will be long term instead of short term\ that a foundation is laid for enriching and deepening the relationship\ mutual bene_ts have been reaped and that both sides have closed the deal feeling contented[ The values of reciprocity and mutuality that are found so strongly in the budi complex as well as in Confucianism imply above all\ an orientation towards consensus and co!operation[ Goton` royon` "co!operation based on communality# has been identi_ed as one of the most highly valued attributes in a manager in the study on managerial values by the Malaysian Institute of Management "0880# referred to earlier[ The `oton` royon` style of operation implies that decision making is less confrontational and aggressive on the part of managers[ In the context of decision making\ the consensual and co!operative style is a preferred mode[ Hence\ decision making is often slower in comparison to the more assertive and indi! vidualistic one adopted by white Anglo!Saxon Americans[ In relation to Malaysian managers\ the emphasis on co!operation and consensus also implies that they would have a greater tendency to avoid con~ict[ This
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~ows into other areas of management\ for example\ performance appraisals may be more indirect and feedback from managers to sub! ordinates is probably the same[
EPISTEMOLOGY How the human knows*an epistemological issue*is also similar in both the Malay and the Chinese system of values[ For the Malay\ the budi complex points to knowing not simply as cerebral and intellectual but instead\ it entails rasa "feeling#[ In other words\ knowing has to do with feeling*a sort of experiential and intuitive knowing[ For the Confucianist Chinese\ in the process of learning how to be human\ one knows through the {heart!mind|*knowledge gained not only through the head but also through the heart[7 There is no absolute dualism here\ no split between intellectual knowing "exempli_ed par excellence in Aristotelian logic# and feelings\ that is {experiential| or intuitive knowing in the Jungian sense[ This form of knowing has a closer a.nity with subjectivity rather than objectivity[ Western science places great value on objectivity[ As such\ it places emphasis on knowledge related to empirical reality "Condon\ 0863# as being more credible[ It is knowledge that can be veri_ed\ measured and it lends itself readily {to be got at| by the _ve senses[ Chinese and Malays both share a view that knowledge is to do with the {head| and the heart[ In doing so\ value is also placed on subjective knowing[
Implications for Business The epistemological issue has an important bearing on the ways business is conducted by both Chinese and Malays[ How the human {knows| the social world and other fellow beings in it has a crucial bearing on how he or she solves problems[ How one knows therefore is linked with one|s perception of problems and their solutions\ and the process of solving problems[ This implies that in Malaysian business practices\ Malays and Chinese do not simply solve problems through their intellect\ relying primarily on the logico!deductive process\ but they may also use intuit! ive:feeling or heart:mind knowledge[ This suggests that typical ways of relating to business problems and _nding solutions may be sought in other realms apart from the logico!deductive\ rational scienti_c ones[ Resorting to the intuition and {feelings| as well as the spiritual may be a very real way of solving problems in business for the Malay and the Chinese given their value systems[ In the everyday life of the Chinese Malaysian\ this is
7 For a fuller explication of heart mind knowing\ see Chad Hansen] {Language of the heart[| in Robert E[ Allinson] Understandin` the Chinese mind "0878#[
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already demonstrated in their use of fen` shui to increase their prosperity or to _nd an auspicious site for their o.ce[8 In the case of the Malays\ resorting to fate or the will of Allah is a typical practice[ These ways of solving problems are consistent with Malay! sia being ranked low on the uncertainty avoidance index in Hofstede|s classic study on managerial values of di}erent countries "0873#[ According to this ranking "35#\ Malaysia is low in anxiety in the face of uncertainty[ In other words\ Malaysian managers can tolerate a higher level of uncertainty compared to other countries "e[g[ U[S[A[\ Sweden#[ The lower anxiety level re~ects to a certain extent that problem solving need not be solely the responsibility of individuals and their rational logico!deductive prow! ess\ but they have recourse to higher authorities be it cosmic forces or other spiritual entities[ For both the Malay and the Chinese\ their cos! mological vision intrinsic in the value systems also implies a co!operative and harmonious alliance with Nature[ This reinforces a pattern of behav! iour that moves away from attempts to control nature[ Instead Malays and Chinese may have a greater tendency to work with it\ rather than against it[ This factor may also imply that problem solving is slower and the approach could be more ~uid and ~owing with the tide\ rather than against it[ This has close links with the temporality dimension[
TEMPORALITY Temporality or time is crucial in the overall scheme in which people relate to their world[ It de_nes their beingness in the world[ Thus in a very real sense\ how people relate to time\ how they view it and how they construct its reality have implications for the business relationships they form with others[ In another sense\ time and the ways human beings construct it\ has implications for business projects in terms of planning and forecasting as well as punctuality and deadlines and time management overall[ The Confucianist perspective on temporality needs to be culled from the ideas Confucius developed on the process of becoming human[ In the Confucianist sense\ the past\ present and the future are dialectically connected[ One cannot do without the other[ These three do not represent three concrete chunks easily partitioned from each other[ Instead\ in the present are elements of the past and the future[ The domain where tem! porality comes in as a Confucianist concept is seen in his ideas regarding 8 Fen` shui is practised all over the world wherever there are Chinese who are taoist and Confucianist[ For a more detailed discussion of the relationship between fen` shui practices and business\ see Evelyn Lip|s book] Fen` shui for business "0878#[ For the Chinese Malaysian use of fen` shui for siting buildings and graves\ see Hans Dieter Evers\ {The Culture of Malaysian urbanization] Malay and Chinese conceptions of space| "0866#[
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the historicity of self[ For human beings\ their future is found in the cosmological domain[ Thus who they are in the present\ is carried over from their past and in turn projected into the future[ In doing so\ they are existentially real[ At any present moment in time\ the Confucianist self stands in the intersection between the past and the future[ In this sense\ the self "and its present# is a product as much of its past and its future[09 In this conception or worldview\ time is ~uid\ a ~ow that has no _xed points that lend themselves to be measured[ It is a river ~owing forever and ever and in its eddying currents\ one|s life\ that is\ one|s time\ continues ad in_nitum[ In short\ time as past\ present and future is an intrinsic part of one|s being!in!the!world\ one|s reality[00 Within the Malay worldview as embodied in the budi complex\ how time is experienced is closely connected to how the Malay {knows| social reality as discussed earlier in terms of the epistemological issue[ Since the temporal dimension is very much a part of this reality\ then it is safe to infer that the Malay {knows| time not only through his mind\ but also through {rasa|\ his feeling[ In becoming human\ and a proper social being\ the Malay lives through the budi complex that always incorporates other social beings[ This relationship is not unilateral or uni!directional but complete and holistic\ encompassing a spatio!temporal dimension[01 Simi! larly\ for the Malays\ the experience of time is holistic requiring an involve! ment of intuitive knowledge\ that is\ experiential\ as well as knowing through the mind\ that is\ logical!deductive[ In short\ the Malay view of time is much the same as the Chinese conception[ In this sense\ time is subjective and relative\ not objective\ and its reality is not captured merely in terms of {clocktime|[
Implications for Business It is apparent that in both the Chinese and the Malay worldview\ the experience of time is subjectivistic and holistic[ The implications for business are relevant since punctuality\ deadlines\ planning and forecasting are closely linked to temporality[ Given the Malay and Chinese value
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This conception of temporality shares similarities with the social phenomenological concept of time rather than the positivists|[ For a more detailed explication of the di}erences between the subjectivist and objectivist conception of temporality\ see C[ Davis Hendricks + Jon Hendricks] Concepts of time and temporal construction among the aged\ with implications for research\ in Jaber F[ Gubrium] Time\ Roles and Self in Old A`e "0865#[ 00 This goes back to George Herbert Mead|s thesis that sociality fundamentally involves temporality "Tilman\ 0869#[ Peter Berger also shares this view of temporality^ see his Invitation to sociolo`y "0855# and The social construction of reality "0856#[ 01 For instance\ Dahlan demonstrates the implications of the budi complex in terms of the usage of space "0881#[
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systems\ time is closely bound up with the self[ Time can be used to de_ne who we are and how others have to be de_ned[ Thus time has people related functions[ It is both subjective and intersubjective in terms of maintaining and conferring meanings[ This implies that any time related concept\ for example\ punctuality and deadlines\ cannot be absolute[ They are relative concepts[ That is to say\ deadlines will vary depending on who one is and who the other is in terms of di}erential status[ It depends on who one is in the hierarchical structure of authority and status[ Thus it may be common for higher status persons to keep lower status persons waiting[ In short\ if one is a seller\ the important buyer can keep one waiting[ {Rubber time|\ a common term used by Malaysians to describe the Malaysian practice of punctuality\ is not just an amusing term\ but in reality\ it captures the notion of time as experienced by the Malay and the Chinese business person[ {Rubber time| suggests that time is changeable and stretchable[ This also implies that deadlines are moveable and not immutable[ This in turn suggests that forecasting and planning in a busi! ness context is di}erent from the {western| one and therefore may present problems for those who operate within that cultural framework which sees time as objective clocktime or calendar time[ If time is not made of concrete chunks\ and it is not measurable\ it is not a commodity to be equated with money[ Money is both measureable and quanti_able[ Time put into labour is therefore not so clearly an equivalent to money for the Chinese and Malays[ This has an important implication for the related notion of opportunity cost[ When time is viewed in this way\ then the opportunity cost of alternative time usage is not seen as crucial[ Thus a Chinese Malaysian business person may in fact work round the clock as long as money is coming in and the hours put in are ignored[ Similarly\ the Malay business person may operate a stall on the same basis[ For both\ time is not a concrete commodity[ It therefore cannot always be seen as an equivalent to money[ The notion that {time is money| is without doubt tied to the objectivistic approach to temporality[02 When time is experienced in the way that the Malay and Chinese do\ time and social relationships\ in this case\ business relationships\ are closely interwoven[
CONCLUSION In this paper I have attempted to describe and explain the beliefs which underly some selected values held by the Malays and the Chinese in
02
This phenomenon or way of working in terms of time is probably more apparent in modern and:or western rmanagement practices[
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Malaysia[03 The purpose of this was to examine the implications in some aspects of the business culture of Malaysia[ I began by exploring what I see as the predominating value systems of the Malays and the Chinese in Malaysia[ From these\ certain business attitudes\ beliefs and practices are demonstrated[ In particular\ it was shown that the budi complex which characterises the Malay way of life and for the Chinese\ the core values of Confucianism that centre on moral cultivation and learning how to be a human being\ share certain similarities[ These similarities in turn have implications for typical business attitudes and behaviours and can be argued to re~ect certain aspects of the Malaysia|s business culture[ Three main areas were discussed] self\ epistemology and temporality[ All three are shown to have implications for understanding some aspects of Malaysia|s business culture[ In making the links between values and business beliefs\ attitudes and practices\ it is hoped that a greater understanding of the business culture of Malaysia can be achieved[ Speci_c to cross!cultural management\ this understanding is important since it is the _rst step to a fuller explication of the intercultural di}erences that underly management education and training in the global market! place[ It has important bearing on the crucial question of whether or not training and education are transferable from culture to culture[ In the larger context of globalisation\ this has important bearing on future direc! tions for research[ For example\ management systems such as performance management may have to be examined in terms of its implicit western values "e[g[ individualism#[ This then has wider implications for global enterprises that seek to set up operations in Malaysia[ More research needs to be undertaken in this area since Malaysia is a growing investment area for foreign enterprises[ Acknowled`ments*I would like to acknowledge the helpful comments received from Kar!tin Lee\ Jian!guo Luo and Dr Naomi White in the writing of this paper[
REFERENCES Abdullah\ A[ "0881#[ The in~uence of ethnic values on managerial practices in Malaysia[ Malaysian Mana`ement Review\ 0\ 2]07[
03
I _nd the attempt to explain the beliefs which underly the values held by the Malays and the Chinese particularly important because of the long historical con~ict between them[ This is not the place to explore the multifaceted causes of the Malay Chinese relationship[ However\ to a certain extent\ this paper has demonstrated that in spite of the di}erent origins of their belief systems\ namely the budi complex and Confucianism\ the Malay and Chinese values are similar regarding certain basic human issues] self\ epistemology and temporality[ As a result\ it can be assumed that the Chinese and the Malay worldviews in some aspects are congruent rather than contradictory[
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Andaya\ B[ W[\ + Andaya\ L[ Y[ "0871#[ A history of Malaysia[ London] Macmil! lan[ Berger\ P[ "0855#[ Invitation to Sociolo`y[ Middlesex] Penguin[ Berger\ P[\ + Luckmann\ T[ "0856#[ The social construction of reality[ London] Allen Lane[ Condon\ J[ C[ "0863#[ The values approach to cultural patterns of communication[ In J[ C[ Condon + M[ Saito "Eds#\ Intercultural Encounters with Japan[ "pp[ 021Ð041#[ Tokyo] Simul Press[ Dahlan\ H[ M[ "0880#[ Local values in intercultural mana`ement[ Malaysian Man! a`ement Review\ 0\ 34Ð49[ Ellinson\ R[ E[ "0878#[ Evers\ H[ D[ "0870#[ The culture of Malaysian urbanization] Malay and Chinese conceptions of Space[ Urban Anthropolo`y\ 2\ 194Ð106[ Fisher\ R[\ + Ury\ W[ "0870#[ Gettin` to yes[ U[S[A[] Houghton Mi/in[ Gubrium\ J[ F[ "0865#[ Hall\ E[ T[ "0848#[ The silent lan`ua`e[ Garden City\ NY] Doublday + Co[ Hamzah\ S[ "0880#[ Managing in a multicultural society*The Malaysian experi! ence[ Malaysian Mana`ement Review\ 0\ 50Ð58[ Hansen\ C[ "0878#[ Language in the heart mind[ In R[ E[ Allinson "Ed[#\ Under! standin` the Chinese mind "pp[ 62Ð013# Hong Kong] Oxford University Press[ Hendricks C[ D + Hendricks\ J[ "0865#[ Concepts of time and temporal con! struction among the aged[ In J[F[ Gubrium\ Time\ roles and self in old a`e "pp[ 422Ð435#\ New York] Human Sciences Press[ Hofstede\ G[ "0880#[ Management in a multicultural society[ Malaysian Man! a`ement Review\ 0\ 2Ð01[ Hofstede\ G[ "0873#[ Culture|s consequences] international differences in work! related values[ Beverley Hills\ CA] Sage[ Husin Ali\ S[ "0870#[ The Malays] their problems and future[ Malaysia] Longman Malaysia[ Kahn\ J[\ + Loh\ F[ K[ W[ "Eds#[ "0881#[ Fra`mented vision] culture and politics in contemporary Malaysia[ Asian Studies Association of Australia with Allen + Unwin\ Sydney[ Lip\ E[ "0878#[ Fen` shui for business[ Singapore] Times Books International[ Lu\ M[ "0872#[ Confucianism] its relevance to modern society[ Singapore] Federal Publications[ Malaysian Institute of Management[ "0880#[ A summary report and discussion paper on a 2!year research project into managerial values\ expectations and practices as part of the Malaysian Intercultural Management Studies Project\ Kuala Lumpur\ Malaysia[ Mead\ G[ H[ "0823#[ In C[ W[ Morris "Ed[#\ Mind\ self and society[ University of Chicago Press[ Mulder\ N[ "0867#[ Mysticism and everyday life in contemporary Java[ Singapore] Singapore University Press[ Nobels\ W[ W[ "0862#[ Psychological research and the black concept] a critical review[ Journal of Social Issues\ 0\ 00Ð20[ Parsons\ T[ "0840#[ The social system[ New York] The Free Press[ Redding\ S[ G[ "0889#[ The spirit of Chinese capitalism[ Berlin] Walter de Gruyter[ Sendut et al[ "0880#[
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Shweder\ R[ A[\ + Bourne\ E[ J[ "0871#[ Does the concept of the person vary cross! culturally< In A[J[ Marsella + G[M[ White "Eds#\ Cultural conceptions of mental health and therapy[ "pp[ 86Ð026# Dordrecht\ Holland] D[ Reidel Publishing Company[ Smith\ D[ H[ "0874#[ Confucius and Confucianism[ London] Paladin\ Granada Publishing[ Tham\ S[ C[ "0860#[ Tradition\ values and society among the Malays[ Review of Southeast Asian Studies\ 3\ 09Ð19[ Tilman\ M[ K[ "0869#[ Temporality and role!taking[ Social Research\ 3[ Tu\ W[ M[ "0868#[ Humanity and Self Cultivation] essays in Confucian thou`ht[ Berkeley] Asian Humanities Press[ Tu\ W[ M[ "0876#[ Confucian ethics today] The Sin`apore challen`e[ Singapore] Federal Publications[ Westwood\ R[ I[ "0880#[ Managerial values and practices] convergent or divergent trends< Malaysian Mana`ement Review\ 0\ 02Ð25[ Wu\ K[ M[ "0878#[ Chinese aesthetics[ In R[ E[ Allinson "Ed[#\ Understandin` the Chinese mind[ Hong Kong] Oxford University Press[
Pergamon
Int[ J[ Intercultural Rel[ Vol[ 12\ No[ 0\ pp[ 006Ð020\ 0888 Þ 0888 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved Printed in Great Britain 9036Ð0656:88:, ! see front matter
PII] S9036Ð0656"87#99917Ð4
MALAY AND CHINESE VALUES UNDERLYING THE MALAYSIAN BUSINESS CULTURE MONI LAI STORZ Monash mt[ Eliza Business School\ Australia ABSTRACT[ This paper is an attempt to understand the underlying belief systems that have shaped the values and behaviour of the Malays and Chinese in the Malaysian business culture[ The paper identi_es the core values of the Chinese and Malays and shows how these are derived from Confucianism and the budi complex respectively[ Confucianist beliefs are compared to those drawn from the budi complex[ In doing so\ it demonstrates how similar these two seemingly divergent philosophical systerms are in terms of certain selected values related to the self\ time and epistemology[ The main thrust of the paper is that the Malay budi complex and the Chinese Confucianist beliefs insofar as both posit a certain view of the self\ time and epistemology\ contain implicit values[ These values in turn create or construct certain types of attitudes and practices relating to business[ In making the links between values and business beliefs\ attitudes and business practices\ it is hoped that a greater understanding of the business culture of Malaysia can be achieved[ Speci_c to cross!cultural management\ this understanding is important since it is the _rst step to a fuller explication of the intercultural differences that underly management education and training in the global marketplace[ It has important bearing on the crucial question of whether or not training and education are transferable from culture to culture[ Þ 0888 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved
Although many social scientists have studied di}erent facets of Malay! sian society and culture\ business beliefs and practices in Malaysia have received relatively little attention[ The little research that has been done
The research for this paper is made possible by a small Australian Research Council grant from Monash University\ Melbourne\ Australia[ Dr Moni Lai Storz\ 00 Cole Street\ Brighton\ Victoria\ Australia 2075[ Tel[] 502 8485 0645^ fax] 502 8485 7906^ e!mail] gbs991Ýozemail[com[au It is acknowledged that the Indian!Hindu in~uence is equally important[ By the same token\ the in~uence of British colonialisation is as crucial[ However\ an inclusion of these two in~uences would lengthen this paper considerably\ and is not within the scope of the present discussion[ Conceptually\ an examination of the Indian!Hindu in~uence is totally consistent with the line of argument adopted in this paper[ An analysis of British colonial in~uence on the value base of Malaysians lends itself better to an historical!structural analysis "see e[g[ Kahn + Loh\ 0881#[
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tends to focus primarily on cross!cultural management issues "e[g[ Abdul! lah\ 0880^ Dahlan\ 0880^ Hofstede\ 0880^ Sendut et al[\ 0880^ Westwood\ 0880#[ There has been little attempt to provide an analysis of the dom! inating value systems of the di}erent ethnic communities and the impli! cations of these values for an understanding of the business culture of Malaysia[ One study that has emerged in recent years that examines the diversity of values held by Malaysian managers is pioneered by the Malaysian Institute of Management in the area of cross!cultural man! agement "0880#[ This study examines the values\ attitudes and managerial styles of Malaysians\ and has immediate practical relevance for man! agement educators[ However\ in spite of the undoubted value of this pioneering study of Malaysian managerial values\ it does not explain the basis of these values[ In short\ it describes but does not explain the sources of these values and beliefs which shape management practices[ This paper is an attempt to understand the belief systems that have shaped the values and behaviour of the Malays and Chinese in the Malay! sian business culture[ The paper begins with an examination of the value systems of the Malays and Chinese[ The Malay value system is encap! sulated in the budi complex "Tham\ 0860^ Dahlan\ 0880# and the Chinese system is embodied in what can be termed loosely as Confucianism[0 In doing so\ it will demonstrate how similar these two seemingly diver! gent philosophical systems are in terms of certain selected values for the purpose of discussion in this paper[ The main thrust of my argument is that the Malay budi complex and the Chinese Confucianist philosophies insofar as both posit a certain view of self have within them intrinsic values[ These values in turn create or construct certain types of attitudes and practices relating to business[ In developing this type of analysis\ it is acknowledged that this is only one way of trying to understand the Malay! sian business culture[1
BRIEF HISTORY Historically\ by the time of the founding of Malacca in 0391\ it was already known that the Malay archipelago had been part of the trading route spanning India\ The Arab lands and China for centuries "Andaya + Andaya\ 0871]09#[ Thus the Malays\ Chinese and Indians have been living and working in Malaysia for a long time[ Over a period of time\ population 0 This is not the place to discuss the many rami_cations of the term as used in the literature[ Su.ce to say that as used in this paper\ it refers to the core values of Confucius| teachings as documented by Confucianist scholars\ e[g[ Tu Wei Ming "0868\ 0873#[ 1 Other writers have also used a similar cultural approach[ See for example\ Niels Mulder] Mysticism and everyday life in contemporary Java "0867#\ and Redding] The spirit of Chinese capitalism "0889#[
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increases created three dominant ethnic groups] Malays\ Chinese and Indians[ According to the 0889 Malaysian census\ Malays comprise 50[6) of the population[ The Chinese make up 18[5) and Indians 7[0)[ The Malays are Muslims\ the Chinese are a mixture of Confucianists\ Taoists\ Buddhists and Christians[ The Indians can be Muslims\ Hindus\ or Chri! stians[
MALAYS AND THE BUDI COMPLEX In order to understand what constitutes a Malay culture\ it is important to understand the budi concept[ In general\ its importance lies in giving an understanding for the behaviour patterns of the Malays in Malaysia and their business behaviour in particular[ It is di.cult to de_ne what is budi because it is so total and encompassing in the Malay way of life[ According to Tham "0869#\ the ethical system of the Malays is encapsulated in the budi complex[ In his view\ it is the essence of their social relationships[ It formulates norms of individual and social behaviour[ The way an individual should feel and think about himself or herself and others is guided by the budi complex[ As Dahlan says] In its general sense\ budi embodies all the virtues ranked in the system of values of the society [ [ [ the structure of budi is composed of virtuous qualities such as murah hati "generosity#\ hormat "respect#\ ikhlas "sincerity#\ mulia "righteous! ness#\ timban`!rasa "discretion#\ malu "feelings of shame at the collective level#\ and se`an "feeling of shame at the individual level# "0880]35Ð36#[
Apart from these qualities\ the concept of budi also provides norms and expectations pertaining to reciprocity[ These qualities\ norms and expectations interact together in a symbolic way to produce a certain type of person who receives approval from others[ Such a person is typi_ed by re_nement\ politeness and consideration of others "Dahlan\ 0880#[ The polite system of the Malays is deeply rooted in the budi complex "Dahlan\ 0880#[ The polite system includes all aspect of verbal and non!verbal communication[ The way language is used\ the intonations of speech and the ways people are addressed according to a status hierarchy are part of the polite system[ It further encompasses how the body is conducted in terms of posture\ giving things and receiving things[ The budi complex is also a way of orientating to the world[ It is what Dahlan calls the social mind "0880#[ In this respect\ it is the mental set that guides one|s behaviour[ It is also related to how one knows[ In the budi complex\ the superiority of knowing through intuitive feelings "rasa# is stressed[ It is through this mode of knowing that one understands the inner realms of human experiences "Dahlan\ 0880#[ In sum\ the budi complex appears to incorporate a holistic perspective of people and their environment[ It has at least three dimensions] the
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spiritual\ which can include the religio!ethical aspects of social life^ the mental insofar as it relates to the epistemological\ that is\ how one knows^ and the emotional\ that is\ how one feels and how one manages one|s emotions in relation to other facets of one|s psychological life "Dahlan\ 0880#[ Given its complexity\ budi like the most fundamental and profound of all cultural phenomena\ is deeply embedded unconsciously in the Malay psyche\ but nevertheless its manifestation is apparent in the Malay culture[2 Side by side with the budi complex is also the Islam religion[ There is no doubt that the budi complex and Islam are interwoven in a deeply profound way insofar as one reinforces the other\ for example\ the spiritual and ethical aspect of the budi complex and the Muslim belief that one|s destiny lies ultimately with Allah[ It is imprtant to note that a treatment of Islam and its implications for business behaviour is also of value and can be legitimately undertaken based on the conceptual analysis taken in this paper[ Unfortunately\ space does not allow for this exposition[ However\ it is important to note that the budi complex forms a basic and broad cultural substratum for Islamic values[ Thus the budi complex\ instead of Islam\ is used here as a more appropriate analogy to Confucianism\ especially since the latter is taken to be a philosophical teaching rather than a religion in the sociological sense in this paper[
CHINESE BELIEF SYSTEM If it is possible to pinpoint three philosophies that had and continue to have a profound impact on the formulation of a Chinese belief system\ most would agree that it is Taoism\ Confucianism and Buddhism[ Fol! lowing the fall of the Han dynasty\ China was divided into three rival kingdoms around A[D[ 110Ð478 "Smith\ 0862#[ It was around this time that the phrase san jiao "meaning three teachings# was coined to refer to Taoism\ Confucianism and Buddhism[ The three teachings meshed and became the value base of Chinese culture "Smith\ 0863]030#[ In the present discussion\ in the case of the Chinese Malaysian who call themselves {Buddhists|\ intrinsic in their way of life are the in~uences of these three teachings[3 It is probably safe to make the observation that even in the case of the Chinese Christians\ Confucianistic values can be found in their way of life[ In this paper\ it is crucial to have an understanding of what 2 E[T[ Hall makes the most cogent argument for the unconscious aspect of a person|s culture[ See The silent lan`ua`e "0848#[ 3 An analysis of the three teachings separately is beyond the scope of this paper[ It is believed that the intermeshing of these three teachings is so deep in the Malaysian Chinese who call themselves Buddhists that any attempt to separate the distinct di}erences in them would be futile[
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are the core values of Confucianism in examining the Chinese Malaysian[ It is in the core values of Confucianism that we _nd a continuing in~uence on how the Chinese Malaysian view the human being and the social world[ In focussing on Confucianism\ this does not mean that the Chinese Malaysians can be assumed to have a monolithic Chinese culture[ There are obvious di}erences amongst them as in the dialects they speak\ as well as in other aspects of their lives\ for example\ in their cuisine[ For the purpose of the present discussion\ it is important to bear in mind that regardless of the cultural diversity amongst the dialect groups\ the Chinese in Malaysia draw their conscious and unconscious values from the same sources] Confucianism\ Buddhism and Taoism[ It is beyond the scope of this paper to examine all three belief systems[ Confucianism will su.ce to demonstrate the core values of the Chinese Malaysian for this paper[
CONFUCIANISM The salient features of Confucianism most relevant to this paper are those found in the writings of Tu Wei Ming "0868\ 0873#[4 The core values of Confucianism are derived from the concept of ren[ The concept of ren "goodness\ humanity# originally introduced by Confucius is seen by Tu "0868# to be probably the most important concept in attempting to delin! eate the core values of Confucianism[ Whilst variously translated and de_ned\ Tu sees it as the virtue of the highest order in the value system of Confucianism "0868]5#[ For Tu\ ren is a concept of personal morality in classical Confucianism "0868]5#[ As such\ ren describes the {{highest human achievement ever reached through moral self cultivation|| "0868]6#[ The social and moral process of becoming human "Tu\ 0873# can be seen as a drive towards the achievement of ren[ This process is complex and dynamic and always has the characteristic of intersubjectivity\ that is\ it is shared[ Intrinsic in the process of learning to be human is the never ending process of attaining selfhood[ As Confucius advocated\ learning is for the sake of the self "Tu\ 0873#[ In order to understand this notion of learning how to be a human being "ren#\ it is also important to grasp simultaneously Confucius| notion of the self[ For Confucius\ the self is never an isolated atom[ It does not exist as a single entity[ Its existential reality is dialectically related to others in the _ve social spheres] family\
4 Professor Tu was one of eight Confucian scholars invited by the Singaporean government to draw up the conceptual framework for the syllabus on the subject of Confucian Ethics to be taught in schools[ In this regard\ his writings re~ect an understanding of the Singapore Chinese situation which shares many similarities with that of Malaysia[ For this reason\ this paper relies heavily on Tu|s works while at the same time\ it is acknowledged that there are numerous other writers who have written on Confucianistic values[ See\ for example\ Martin Lu|s Confucianism] Its relevance to modern society "0872#[
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neighbourhood\ community\ society and the cosmos\ a world beyond which is the replica of the existing one "Tu\ 0874#[ The Confucian self is an emer`ent[ Its selfhood is not an intrinsic quality of its beingness[ It emerges out of being engaged in relationship with others[ Thus the self is the sum of its relationships "Tu\0874]4#[5 In the process of becoming human\ Confucius drew attention to _ve crucial areas in which human beings have to learn to perfect themselves[ The _rst is the domain of aesthetics\ an area to do with poetry\ art\ music and calligraphy[ The aesthetic area extends the human being by giving artistic expressions to human feelings and sentiments "Tu\ 0873#[ Con! fucius| The Book of Poetry expresses this dimension[ The second area is to be found in the Book of Rites[ It contains the concept of ritual "li#[ Rituals are to do with the human being|s ability to communicate with others and is the hallmark of appropriate social interaction within the context of a person|s social relationships[ Rit! ualisation therefore encompasses in a total way all the means of com! munication*verbal and non!verbal^ for example\ how one holds oneself through postures\ gestures\ tone and volume of one|s speech[ In essence\ it is to do with propriety in a spacio!temporal sense[ The third area in becoming human is concerned with the notion of roots and one|s sense of history[ This is a form of collective memory\ a remembering of where one comes from in terms of one|s origins[ History is to do with one|s present for in the seeds of the past lie the present soon to be past thus transforming the future to be the present and so on ad in_nitum[ In the Confucian notion of history is a view of temporality creating and recreating itself[ In this\ too\ is the dialectical creation of the self and time[ As one remembers one|s past\ one creates one|s present and therefore one|s future[ Thus one maintains one|s continuity existentially in a spatio!temporal sense[ The sense of history\ a crucial aspect of one|s humanness is found in Confucius| Sprin` and Autumn Annals[ In the process of becoming human\ one has to develop a sense of who one is in relation to the sphere of di}erential status\ authority and power[ Thus the fourth area is to do with the human being|s place in the political domain[ For Confucius\ human beings always exist in a polity[ In this political context of di}erentiation according to one|s position in a hier! archy\ one should be responsible and be a responsive participant[ In the Book of Chan`e\ "I Chin`# the _fth area of learning is to be found[ A central premise in the I Chin` is do with the ecology of self and the ecology of the larger natural environment from whence has come the primordial bond of the human and Nature[ It is to do with the dialectic 5 Tu|s interpretations of Confucius| ideas on the self re~ect interestingly the views of the social phenomenologists and the social philosopher\ George Herbert Mead[ See his Mind\ self and society "0823#[
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of self and Nature in its most basic primordial sense[ In the Confucian cosmological vision\ heaven "tian# and humanity are intricately interwoven thus the self is shaped within the interstices of these two layers of becoming[ Hence\ the divinity of the self is a potential to be realised in the process of learning to be a human being[ When human beings cease to exist in the anthropological world that they share with other social beings\ they pass on to one that is its exact replica "Tu\ 0873#[ It is because of this that the process of learning to be human does not end[ It is from this that ancestor worship has emerged\ not as a religious belief and practice\ but as an extension of what it means to be human[ In this very condensed version of Confucian thought\ the primary focus has been on some of his key ideas that are relevant to the present discussion[ It is from these that a picture of Chinese values can be obtained[ In the following paragraphs I will attempt to distil the values of both the budi complex and the views of Confucius as they pertain to the process of learning to be a human being[
CORE VALUES OF THE BUDI COMPLEX AND CONFUCIANISM The budi complex and the core values of Confucius| teaching share similarities\ and for the purpose of this paper I will devote attention to these under three major headings[ First\ the similarities can be examined through their view of self^ secondly\ the similarities emerge in an epis! temological area\ concerned with how human beings know or how they explain social reality and thirdly\ these similarities can be examined through the notion of temporality\ that is\ how time is viewed[
VIEW OF SELF The view of self in the two value systems is best described as a holistic one[ The self is not seen in terms of a dualistic split between body and mind\ the physical and the spiritual\ the intellectual and the emotional "as is common in the western way of viewing man and self#[6 Instead the self is seen as a totality encompassing the physical\ mental\ emotional and spiritual[ There are no boundaries among these[ Rather each shades into the other just as there is no absolute line of demarcation between the yin and yan`[ Each depends on the other for their beingness[ It is also clear that the Malay and Chinese views of self as derived from the budi complex
6 For a more detailed discussion of this comparison between the Chinese and western concep! tion\ see Kuang!Ming Wu] {{Chinese aesthetics|| in Robert E[ Ellinson] Understandin` the Chinese mind "0878#[
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and Confucianism is essentially one that is socially constructed by others* their de_nitions\ their approval\ their acceptance[ The self is dependent on the perceptions of others[ The Malay and Chinese view of self is an {eastern one| as described by several writers commenting on the di}erences between the {western| and the {eastern| conception of self and man "e[g[ Nobels\ 0862^ Shweder + Bourne\ 0871#[ It is collective and socially contexualised based on commonality and connectedness[ In this sense\ the Malay and the Chinese are other oriented*what the sociologist\ Talcott Parsons\ described as a collective orientation "0846#[ In such a value orientation\ reciprocity and mutuality are strong values[
Implications for Business Values which focus on reciprocity and mutuality are manifested in business attitudes and practices[ Primarily because the self is dialectically connected with others\ this does imply that business relationships tend to be more primary than secondary[ People are socially engaged more as total personalities than segmented role players[ The Malay and the Chinese would _nd it more important to focus on the social and relational aspects of the business transaction rather than simply on the {facts| of the business[ Values such as mutuality and reciprocity also point to a negotiation style which veers towards a win!win outcome "Fisher + Ury\ 0870# rather than a win!lose one\ or what is known as the zero sum negotiation style[ For the Malays and the Chinese\ the ideal business deal is one where everyone wins "Fisher + Ury\ 0870#[ Winning in this sense is not de_ned in terms of how little one has lost to the other side per se\ but how much both sides have gained in terms of human rewards\ that is\ having the assurance that the social relationships will continue and will be long term instead of short term\ that a foundation is laid for enriching and deepening the relationship\ mutual bene_ts have been reaped and that both sides have closed the deal feeling contented[ The values of reciprocity and mutuality that are found so strongly in the budi complex as well as in Confucianism imply above all\ an orientation towards consensus and co!operation[ Goton` royon` "co!operation based on communality# has been identi_ed as one of the most highly valued attributes in a manager in the study on managerial values by the Malaysian Institute of Management "0880# referred to earlier[ The `oton` royon` style of operation implies that decision making is less confrontational and aggressive on the part of managers[ In the context of decision making\ the consensual and co!operative style is a preferred mode[ Hence\ decision making is often slower in comparison to the more assertive and indi! vidualistic one adopted by white Anglo!Saxon Americans[ In relation to Malaysian managers\ the emphasis on co!operation and consensus also implies that they would have a greater tendency to avoid con~ict[ This
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~ows into other areas of management\ for example\ performance appraisals may be more indirect and feedback from managers to sub! ordinates is probably the same[
EPISTEMOLOGY How the human knows*an epistemological issue*is also similar in both the Malay and the Chinese system of values[ For the Malay\ the budi complex points to knowing not simply as cerebral and intellectual but instead\ it entails rasa "feeling#[ In other words\ knowing has to do with feeling*a sort of experiential and intuitive knowing[ For the Confucianist Chinese\ in the process of learning how to be human\ one knows through the {heart!mind|*knowledge gained not only through the head but also through the heart[7 There is no absolute dualism here\ no split between intellectual knowing "exempli_ed par excellence in Aristotelian logic# and feelings\ that is {experiential| or intuitive knowing in the Jungian sense[ This form of knowing has a closer a.nity with subjectivity rather than objectivity[ Western science places great value on objectivity[ As such\ it places emphasis on knowledge related to empirical reality "Condon\ 0863# as being more credible[ It is knowledge that can be veri_ed\ measured and it lends itself readily {to be got at| by the _ve senses[ Chinese and Malays both share a view that knowledge is to do with the {head| and the heart[ In doing so\ value is also placed on subjective knowing[
Implications for Business The epistemological issue has an important bearing on the ways business is conducted by both Chinese and Malays[ How the human {knows| the social world and other fellow beings in it has a crucial bearing on how he or she solves problems[ How one knows therefore is linked with one|s perception of problems and their solutions\ and the process of solving problems[ This implies that in Malaysian business practices\ Malays and Chinese do not simply solve problems through their intellect\ relying primarily on the logico!deductive process\ but they may also use intuit! ive:feeling or heart:mind knowledge[ This suggests that typical ways of relating to business problems and _nding solutions may be sought in other realms apart from the logico!deductive\ rational scienti_c ones[ Resorting to the intuition and {feelings| as well as the spiritual may be a very real way of solving problems in business for the Malay and the Chinese given their value systems[ In the everyday life of the Chinese Malaysian\ this is
7 For a fuller explication of heart mind knowing\ see Chad Hansen] {Language of the heart[| in Robert E[ Allinson] Understandin` the Chinese mind "0878#[
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already demonstrated in their use of fen` shui to increase their prosperity or to _nd an auspicious site for their o.ce[8 In the case of the Malays\ resorting to fate or the will of Allah is a typical practice[ These ways of solving problems are consistent with Malay! sia being ranked low on the uncertainty avoidance index in Hofstede|s classic study on managerial values of di}erent countries "0873#[ According to this ranking "35#\ Malaysia is low in anxiety in the face of uncertainty[ In other words\ Malaysian managers can tolerate a higher level of uncertainty compared to other countries "e[g[ U[S[A[\ Sweden#[ The lower anxiety level re~ects to a certain extent that problem solving need not be solely the responsibility of individuals and their rational logico!deductive prow! ess\ but they have recourse to higher authorities be it cosmic forces or other spiritual entities[ For both the Malay and the Chinese\ their cos! mological vision intrinsic in the value systems also implies a co!operative and harmonious alliance with Nature[ This reinforces a pattern of behav! iour that moves away from attempts to control nature[ Instead Malays and Chinese may have a greater tendency to work with it\ rather than against it[ This factor may also imply that problem solving is slower and the approach could be more ~uid and ~owing with the tide\ rather than against it[ This has close links with the temporality dimension[
TEMPORALITY Temporality or time is crucial in the overall scheme in which people relate to their world[ It de_nes their beingness in the world[ Thus in a very real sense\ how people relate to time\ how they view it and how they construct its reality have implications for the business relationships they form with others[ In another sense\ time and the ways human beings construct it\ has implications for business projects in terms of planning and forecasting as well as punctuality and deadlines and time management overall[ The Confucianist perspective on temporality needs to be culled from the ideas Confucius developed on the process of becoming human[ In the Confucianist sense\ the past\ present and the future are dialectically connected[ One cannot do without the other[ These three do not represent three concrete chunks easily partitioned from each other[ Instead\ in the present are elements of the past and the future[ The domain where tem! porality comes in as a Confucianist concept is seen in his ideas regarding 8 Fen` shui is practised all over the world wherever there are Chinese who are taoist and Confucianist[ For a more detailed discussion of the relationship between fen` shui practices and business\ see Evelyn Lip|s book] Fen` shui for business "0878#[ For the Chinese Malaysian use of fen` shui for siting buildings and graves\ see Hans Dieter Evers\ {The Culture of Malaysian urbanization] Malay and Chinese conceptions of space| "0866#[
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the historicity of self[ For human beings\ their future is found in the cosmological domain[ Thus who they are in the present\ is carried over from their past and in turn projected into the future[ In doing so\ they are existentially real[ At any present moment in time\ the Confucianist self stands in the intersection between the past and the future[ In this sense\ the self "and its present# is a product as much of its past and its future[09 In this conception or worldview\ time is ~uid\ a ~ow that has no _xed points that lend themselves to be measured[ It is a river ~owing forever and ever and in its eddying currents\ one|s life\ that is\ one|s time\ continues ad in_nitum[ In short\ time as past\ present and future is an intrinsic part of one|s being!in!the!world\ one|s reality[00 Within the Malay worldview as embodied in the budi complex\ how time is experienced is closely connected to how the Malay {knows| social reality as discussed earlier in terms of the epistemological issue[ Since the temporal dimension is very much a part of this reality\ then it is safe to infer that the Malay {knows| time not only through his mind\ but also through {rasa|\ his feeling[ In becoming human\ and a proper social being\ the Malay lives through the budi complex that always incorporates other social beings[ This relationship is not unilateral or uni!directional but complete and holistic\ encompassing a spatio!temporal dimension[01 Simi! larly\ for the Malays\ the experience of time is holistic requiring an involve! ment of intuitive knowledge\ that is\ experiential\ as well as knowing through the mind\ that is\ logical!deductive[ In short\ the Malay view of time is much the same as the Chinese conception[ In this sense\ time is subjective and relative\ not objective\ and its reality is not captured merely in terms of {clocktime|[
Implications for Business It is apparent that in both the Chinese and the Malay worldview\ the experience of time is subjectivistic and holistic[ The implications for business are relevant since punctuality\ deadlines\ planning and forecasting are closely linked to temporality[ Given the Malay and Chinese value
09
This conception of temporality shares similarities with the social phenomenological concept of time rather than the positivists|[ For a more detailed explication of the di}erences between the subjectivist and objectivist conception of temporality\ see C[ Davis Hendricks + Jon Hendricks] Concepts of time and temporal construction among the aged\ with implications for research\ in Jaber F[ Gubrium] Time\ Roles and Self in Old A`e "0865#[ 00 This goes back to George Herbert Mead|s thesis that sociality fundamentally involves temporality "Tilman\ 0869#[ Peter Berger also shares this view of temporality^ see his Invitation to sociolo`y "0855# and The social construction of reality "0856#[ 01 For instance\ Dahlan demonstrates the implications of the budi complex in terms of the usage of space "0881#[
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systems\ time is closely bound up with the self[ Time can be used to de_ne who we are and how others have to be de_ned[ Thus time has people related functions[ It is both subjective and intersubjective in terms of maintaining and conferring meanings[ This implies that any time related concept\ for example\ punctuality and deadlines\ cannot be absolute[ They are relative concepts[ That is to say\ deadlines will vary depending on who one is and who the other is in terms of di}erential status[ It depends on who one is in the hierarchical structure of authority and status[ Thus it may be common for higher status persons to keep lower status persons waiting[ In short\ if one is a seller\ the important buyer can keep one waiting[ {Rubber time|\ a common term used by Malaysians to describe the Malaysian practice of punctuality\ is not just an amusing term\ but in reality\ it captures the notion of time as experienced by the Malay and the Chinese business person[ {Rubber time| suggests that time is changeable and stretchable[ This also implies that deadlines are moveable and not immutable[ This in turn suggests that forecasting and planning in a busi! ness context is di}erent from the {western| one and therefore may present problems for those who operate within that cultural framework which sees time as objective clocktime or calendar time[ If time is not made of concrete chunks\ and it is not measurable\ it is not a commodity to be equated with money[ Money is both measureable and quanti_able[ Time put into labour is therefore not so clearly an equivalent to money for the Chinese and Malays[ This has an important implication for the related notion of opportunity cost[ When time is viewed in this way\ then the opportunity cost of alternative time usage is not seen as crucial[ Thus a Chinese Malaysian business person may in fact work round the clock as long as money is coming in and the hours put in are ignored[ Similarly\ the Malay business person may operate a stall on the same basis[ For both\ time is not a concrete commodity[ It therefore cannot always be seen as an equivalent to money[ The notion that {time is money| is without doubt tied to the objectivistic approach to temporality[02 When time is experienced in the way that the Malay and Chinese do\ time and social relationships\ in this case\ business relationships\ are closely interwoven[
CONCLUSION In this paper I have attempted to describe and explain the beliefs which underly some selected values held by the Malays and the Chinese in
02
This phenomenon or way of working in terms of time is probably more apparent in modern and:or western rmanagement practices[
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Malaysia[03 The purpose of this was to examine the implications in some aspects of the business culture of Malaysia[ I began by exploring what I see as the predominating value systems of the Malays and the Chinese in Malaysia[ From these\ certain business attitudes\ beliefs and practices are demonstrated[ In particular\ it was shown that the budi complex which characterises the Malay way of life and for the Chinese\ the core values of Confucianism that centre on moral cultivation and learning how to be a human being\ share certain similarities[ These similarities in turn have implications for typical business attitudes and behaviours and can be argued to re~ect certain aspects of the Malaysia|s business culture[ Three main areas were discussed] self\ epistemology and temporality[ All three are shown to have implications for understanding some aspects of Malaysia|s business culture[ In making the links between values and business beliefs\ attitudes and practices\ it is hoped that a greater understanding of the business culture of Malaysia can be achieved[ Speci_c to cross!cultural management\ this understanding is important since it is the _rst step to a fuller explication of the intercultural di}erences that underly management education and training in the global market! place[ It has important bearing on the crucial question of whether or not training and education are transferable from culture to culture[ In the larger context of globalisation\ this has important bearing on future direc! tions for research[ For example\ management systems such as performance management may have to be examined in terms of its implicit western values "e[g[ individualism#[ This then has wider implications for global enterprises that seek to set up operations in Malaysia[ More research needs to be undertaken in this area since Malaysia is a growing investment area for foreign enterprises[ Acknowled`ments*I would like to acknowledge the helpful comments received from Kar!tin Lee\ Jian!guo Luo and Dr Naomi White in the writing of this paper[
REFERENCES Abdullah\ A[ "0881#[ The in~uence of ethnic values on managerial practices in Malaysia[ Malaysian Mana`ement Review\ 0\ 2]07[
03
I _nd the attempt to explain the beliefs which underly the values held by the Malays and the Chinese particularly important because of the long historical con~ict between them[ This is not the place to explore the multifaceted causes of the Malay Chinese relationship[ However\ to a certain extent\ this paper has demonstrated that in spite of the di}erent origins of their belief systems\ namely the budi complex and Confucianism\ the Malay and Chinese values are similar regarding certain basic human issues] self\ epistemology and temporality[ As a result\ it can be assumed that the Chinese and the Malay worldviews in some aspects are congruent rather than contradictory[
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