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Malay herbal medicine in Gemencheh, Negri Sembilan, Malaysia
Fitoterapia 70 Ž1999. 10]14
Malay herbal medicine in Gemencheh, Negri Sembilan, Malaysia H.C. OngU , J. Norzalina Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Uni¨ ersity of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Received 27 June 1998; accepted 27 July 1998
Abstract A survey of the Malay herbal medicine in the Gemencheh settlement, Negri Sembilan state, Malaysia, identified 54 species used by the villagers to treat various ailments. Q 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Herbal medicine; Malaysia
1. Introduction Gemencheh is a settlement in Tampin district in the state of Negri Sembilan which is situated in the mid-western part of Peninsular Malaysia. Gemencheh town which serves this settlement area, including 14 villages, is situated at latitude 28 309 N and longitude 1028 E w1x.
2. Methodology Field work was carried out from June to October 1997. Information was obtained through interviews with traditional healers and other villagers in the study U
Corresponding author.
0367-326Xr99r$ - see front matter Q 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 3 6 7 - 3 2 6 X Ž 9 8 . 0 0 0 2 3 - 9
H.C. Ong, J. Norzalina r Fitoterapia 70 (1999) 10]14
11
area. The plants were identified by the authors with the help of related literature w2]8x. Voucher specimens are deposited in the Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya.
3. Results The plants are listed in alphabetical order of the botanical name, followed by family, vernacular Žlocal Malay. name and brief notes on methods of preparation and administration. Aloe ¨ era L. ŽLiliaceae ., Lidah buaya. Cut pieces of the leaf are rubbed onto the scalp to cure dandruff and other skin complaints. Alpinia galanga ŽL.. Willd. ŽZingiberaceae., Lengkuas. Cut piece of the rhizome is dipped into kerosene and then rubbed onto skin infected with fungus as a cure. Amaranthus spinosus L. ŽAmaranthaceae ., Bayam berduri. Leaves bruised together with chalk are rubbed onto the abdomen as a cure for stomachache. Andrographis paniculata Nees ŽAcanthaceae ., Hempedu ular. Decoction of the whole plant is taken internally to treat high blood pressure. Annona muricata L. ŽAnnonaceae., Durian Belanda. Leaves of this plant are crushed together with leaves of Annona squamosa L. and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. and the juice is applied on the head as a remedy for fainting. Annona squamosa L. ŽAnnonaceae., Nona. Leaves of this plant are crushed together with leaves of A. muricata and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, and the juice is applied on the head as a remedy for fainting. Archidendron jiringa ŽJack. Nielsen ŽMimosaceae., Jering. The seeds Žcotyledons. are eaten raw at mealtimes to purify the blood. Areca catechu L. ŽArecaceae., Pinang. The seeds are eaten as a remedy for incontinence. Pounded seeds crushed together with leaves of Piper betle L. is rubbed on the body to treat fever. Callicarpa arborea Roxb. ŽVerbenaceae ., Tambang besi. Decoction of the stem and roots is taken internally as a remedy for flatulence and gastric complaints. Carica papaya L. ŽCaricaceae ., Betik. The young leaves are boiled and eaten as vegetable to cure high blood pressure and diabetes. Centella asiatica ŽL.. Urban ŽApiaceae., Pegaga. Leaves and roots are pounded and the juice is drunk as a remedy for high blood pressure. Citrus aurantifolia ŽChristm.. Swingle ŽRutaceae., Limau nipis. Leaves are pounded together with fermented rice flour and applied on the face as skincare. Juice extracted from the fruits is drunk to reduce fatty tissues. The fruit is cut into two parts and rubbed on the scalp as a remedy for dandruff and headaches. Cocos nucifera L. ŽArecaceae., Kelapa. Coconut water is drunk to reduce fever or heatiness, to accelerate recovery from measles and as a remedy for diarrhea. Coleus scutellarioides ŽL.. Benth. ŽLabiatae ., Ati-ati. Decoction of the leaves and flowers is drunk as remedy for high blood pressure. Colocasia esculenta ŽL.. Schott ŽArecaceae., Keladi. The plant sap is applied onto the skin stung by catfish as a remedy.
12
H.C. Ong, J. Norzalina r Fitoterapia 70 (1999) 10]14
Corchorus capsularis L. ŽTiliaceae., Kancing baju. Decoction of the leaves is drunk to treat jaundice. The seeds are eaten to treat high blood pressure and diabetes. Cosmos caudatus Kunth ŽAsteraceae ., Ulam Raja. Cosmos sulfphureus Cav. ŽAsteraceae ., Ulam Raja. The leaves and young stems are eaten raw as vegetable to treat high blood pressure. Curcuma domestica Valeton ŽZingiberaceae., Kunyit. Juice obtained from the rhizomes is taken as post-partum medicine to get rid of flatulence and accelerate recovery of health and strength. The juice is rubbed on the skin to cure pain in the joints and bones. The rhizome is cut, dipped into chalk and rubbed onto skin infected with ringworms. Diospyros discolor Willd. ŽEbenaceae ., Bodilalat. A decoction of the roots is taken internally as a general tonic. Elephantopus scaber L. ŽAsteraceae., Tutup bumi. A decoction of the roots is drunk by women after childbirth to accelerate contraction of the abdominal area. Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume ŽElaeocarpaceae ., Medang teju. Decoction of the roots is taken to reduce aches and pains. Eupatorium odoratum L. ŽAsteraceae ., Kapalterbang. Juice extracted from crushed leaves is applied onto wounds to accelerate healing. Ficus obpyramidata King ŽMoraceae., Kelepong. Juice obtained by cutting the stem is drunk as a remedy for measles and fever. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. ŽMalvaceae., Bunga raya. Leaves of this plant are crushed together with leaves of Annona muricata and A. squamosa and the juice is applied on the head as a remedy for fainting. Homalocladium platycladum Bailey ŽPolygonaceae., Jarilipan. Pounded leaves are applied onto centipede bitten skin. Hyptis sua¨ eolens Poit. ŽLabiatae ., Kemangi. Leaves are rubbed together with chalk and the juice extracted is applied externally to treat breast cancer and swollen glands. Lawsonia inermis L. ŽLythraceae ., Inai. Pounded leaves are applied to hair to treat dandruff and split ends. Pounded leaves are applied onto fingers as a remedy for split nails. Decoction of the roots is drunk for birth control. Leucaena leucocephala ŽLamk.. de Wit ŽMimosaceae., Petai belalang. Decocation of the fruits and seeds is drunk to treat diabetes. Leucas zeylanica R. Br. ŽLabiatae ., Ketumbit. Decoction of the leaves is drunk after childbirth for general healthcare, to purify the blood and to expel worms. Melastoma malabathricum L. ŽMelastomataceae ., Senduduk. Pounded leaves are applied onto wounds to accelerate healing. Mimosa pudica L. ŽMimosaceae., Semalu. Decoction of the roots is taken as birth control. Morinda citrifolia L. ŽRubiaceae., Mengkudu. The fruits are eaten raw to purify the blood. Morinda elliptica Ridl. ŽRubiaceae., Mengkudu. Decoction of the roots is taken to treat jaundice and gastric complaints. Heated leaves are placed on the abdomen
H.C. Ong, J. Norzalina r Fitoterapia 70 (1999) 10]14
13
to treat flatulence and fever. Crushed leaves are placed into the nose to stop nose bleeding. Nephelium mutabile Blume ŽSapindaceae., Pulasan. Crushed leaves with a little water added are applied on the head to treat fever. Orthosiphon grandiflorus ŽBl.. Miq. ŽLabiatae ., Misai kucing. Crushed leaves with a little water added are applied on the head to treat fever. Oxalis corniculata L. ŽOxalidaceae., Tampok lintah. Decoction of the plants is drunk to treat itch in the female genitalia. Parkia speciosa Hassk. ŽMimosaceae., Petai. The seeds are eaten as a vegetable to treat diabetes. Pericampylus glaucus ŽLamk.. Merr. ŽMenispermaceae., Akar limponang jantan. Decoction of the plant is drunk to treat stomachaches, constipation and piles. Phyllanthus niruri L. ŽEuphorbiaceae., Dukung anak. Decoction of the roots is drunk after childbirth as a general tonic. Piper betle L. ŽPiperaceae., Sirih Melayu. Folded leaves are placed into the nose to stop nose bleeding. Leaves coated with coconut oil are applied on both temples to treat headaches. Leaves pounded with seeds of Areca catechu are rubbed on the body to treat fever. Piper sarmentosum Roxb. ŽPiperaceae., Kadok. Crushed leaves are mixed into the water used for bathing to treat kidney stones and difficulty in urination. Polyalthia bullata King ŽAnnonaceae., Tongkat Ali. Decotion of the roots is drunk as a tonic, especially for men. Psychotria montana Blume ŽRubiaceae., Selada. Decoction of the roots is taken to treat constipation. Psidium guaja¨ a L. ŽMyrtaceae., Jambu batu. Decoction of the young leaves is drunk to treat stomachache. The young leaves are chewed and eaten to treat diarrhea. Punica granatum L. ŽPunicaceae ., Delima. The young leaves are burnt and the ash is mixed with water and drunk to treat stomachache. Sauropus androgynus ŽL.. Merrill ŽEuphorbiaceae., Cekur manis. Crushed leaves are applied externally to treat headaches. Senna alata ŽL.. Roxb. ŽCaesalpiniaceae ., Gelenggang. Leaves are pounded together with sulfur and then applied to skin infected with ringworms or sores. Sida rhombifolia L. ŽMalvaceae., Seburi. Decoction of the roots is taken after childbirth to accelerate contraction of abdomen and uterus. Strobilanthes crispa ŽL.. Bl. ŽAcanthaceae ., Serusa. Heated leaves are placed on the hips to treat kidney stones. Tetracera scandens ŽL.. Merr. ŽDilleniaceae ., Palas. Decoction of the plant is taken as a remedy for fatigue and general weakness. Vernonia arborea Buch.-Ham. ŽVernoniaceae., Sidomok. Decoction of the roots is drunk to treat body swellings. Zingiber officinale Rosc. ŽZingiberaceae., Halia. Decoction of the rhizome is drunk to treat stomachache, fever and flatulence. Decoction of the rhizome of the red variety is taken to treat high blood pressure, jaundice and diabetes. Zingiber zerumbet Smith ŽZingiberaceae., Lempuyang. Decoction of the rhizome or juice extracted from the fresh rhizome are taken to treat jaundice.
14
H.C. Ong, J. Norzalina r Fitoterapia 70 (1999) 10]14
3. Discussion The villagers at the study area use the diversity of plant species in the forests, gardens, farms and abandoned lands as herbal medicine to treat various ailments. Some of these species have other primary uses, such as fruits Ž Annona muricata, A. squamosa, Carica papaya, Psidium guaja¨ a., flavouring food Ž Curcuma domestica, Zingiber officinale. or vegetables Ž Centella asiatica, Sauropus androgynus.. Various weeds Ž Eupatorium odoratum, Hyptis sua¨ eolens, Mimosa pudica, Oxalis corniculata, Phyllanthus niruri . are also used. This study shows that knowledge and usage of herbal medicine for the treatment of various ailments among Gemencheh villagers is still a major part of their life and culture.
Acknowledgements The authors are very grateful to the Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Malaya, for providing research fund for this project and the people of Gemencheh for sharing their knowledge on herbal medicine.
References w1x Jabatan P. Atlas progresif Fajar Bakti. Penerbit Fajar Bakti. Mapping Department. Progressive atlas of Fajar Bakti. Petaling Jaya, Malaysia: Fajar Bakti Publishers, 1986. w2x Henderson MR. Malayan wild flowers. Dicotyledons. The Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: The Malayan Nature Society, 1974. w3x Henderson MR. Malayan wild flowers. Monocotyledons. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: The Malayan Nature Society, 1974. w4x Holttum RE. The garden’s bulletin, XIII. 1950:1]249. w5x Hou D, Larseng K, Larsen SS. Flora Malesiana ser. I, 1996;12:409. w6x Ng FSP, editor. Tree flora of Malaya. A manual for foresters, vol. 3. Malaysia: Longman, 1978. w7x Ng FSP, editor. Tree flora of Malaya. A manual for foresters, vol. 4. Malaysia: Longman 1989. w8x Whitmore TC, editor. Tree flora of Malaya. A manual for foresters, vol 1. Malaysia: Longman, 1972.
Malay herbal medicine in Gemencheh, Negri Sembilan, Malaysia H.C. OngU , J. Norzalina Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Uni¨ ersity of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Received 27 June 1998; accepted 27 July 1998
Abstract A survey of the Malay herbal medicine in the Gemencheh settlement, Negri Sembilan state, Malaysia, identified 54 species used by the villagers to treat various ailments. Q 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Herbal medicine; Malaysia
1. Introduction Gemencheh is a settlement in Tampin district in the state of Negri Sembilan which is situated in the mid-western part of Peninsular Malaysia. Gemencheh town which serves this settlement area, including 14 villages, is situated at latitude 28 309 N and longitude 1028 E w1x.
2. Methodology Field work was carried out from June to October 1997. Information was obtained through interviews with traditional healers and other villagers in the study U
Corresponding author.
0367-326Xr99r$ - see front matter Q 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 3 6 7 - 3 2 6 X Ž 9 8 . 0 0 0 2 3 - 9
H.C. Ong, J. Norzalina r Fitoterapia 70 (1999) 10]14
11
area. The plants were identified by the authors with the help of related literature w2]8x. Voucher specimens are deposited in the Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya.
3. Results The plants are listed in alphabetical order of the botanical name, followed by family, vernacular Žlocal Malay. name and brief notes on methods of preparation and administration. Aloe ¨ era L. ŽLiliaceae ., Lidah buaya. Cut pieces of the leaf are rubbed onto the scalp to cure dandruff and other skin complaints. Alpinia galanga ŽL.. Willd. ŽZingiberaceae., Lengkuas. Cut piece of the rhizome is dipped into kerosene and then rubbed onto skin infected with fungus as a cure. Amaranthus spinosus L. ŽAmaranthaceae ., Bayam berduri. Leaves bruised together with chalk are rubbed onto the abdomen as a cure for stomachache. Andrographis paniculata Nees ŽAcanthaceae ., Hempedu ular. Decoction of the whole plant is taken internally to treat high blood pressure. Annona muricata L. ŽAnnonaceae., Durian Belanda. Leaves of this plant are crushed together with leaves of Annona squamosa L. and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. and the juice is applied on the head as a remedy for fainting. Annona squamosa L. ŽAnnonaceae., Nona. Leaves of this plant are crushed together with leaves of A. muricata and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, and the juice is applied on the head as a remedy for fainting. Archidendron jiringa ŽJack. Nielsen ŽMimosaceae., Jering. The seeds Žcotyledons. are eaten raw at mealtimes to purify the blood. Areca catechu L. ŽArecaceae., Pinang. The seeds are eaten as a remedy for incontinence. Pounded seeds crushed together with leaves of Piper betle L. is rubbed on the body to treat fever. Callicarpa arborea Roxb. ŽVerbenaceae ., Tambang besi. Decoction of the stem and roots is taken internally as a remedy for flatulence and gastric complaints. Carica papaya L. ŽCaricaceae ., Betik. The young leaves are boiled and eaten as vegetable to cure high blood pressure and diabetes. Centella asiatica ŽL.. Urban ŽApiaceae., Pegaga. Leaves and roots are pounded and the juice is drunk as a remedy for high blood pressure. Citrus aurantifolia ŽChristm.. Swingle ŽRutaceae., Limau nipis. Leaves are pounded together with fermented rice flour and applied on the face as skincare. Juice extracted from the fruits is drunk to reduce fatty tissues. The fruit is cut into two parts and rubbed on the scalp as a remedy for dandruff and headaches. Cocos nucifera L. ŽArecaceae., Kelapa. Coconut water is drunk to reduce fever or heatiness, to accelerate recovery from measles and as a remedy for diarrhea. Coleus scutellarioides ŽL.. Benth. ŽLabiatae ., Ati-ati. Decoction of the leaves and flowers is drunk as remedy for high blood pressure. Colocasia esculenta ŽL.. Schott ŽArecaceae., Keladi. The plant sap is applied onto the skin stung by catfish as a remedy.
12
H.C. Ong, J. Norzalina r Fitoterapia 70 (1999) 10]14
Corchorus capsularis L. ŽTiliaceae., Kancing baju. Decoction of the leaves is drunk to treat jaundice. The seeds are eaten to treat high blood pressure and diabetes. Cosmos caudatus Kunth ŽAsteraceae ., Ulam Raja. Cosmos sulfphureus Cav. ŽAsteraceae ., Ulam Raja. The leaves and young stems are eaten raw as vegetable to treat high blood pressure. Curcuma domestica Valeton ŽZingiberaceae., Kunyit. Juice obtained from the rhizomes is taken as post-partum medicine to get rid of flatulence and accelerate recovery of health and strength. The juice is rubbed on the skin to cure pain in the joints and bones. The rhizome is cut, dipped into chalk and rubbed onto skin infected with ringworms. Diospyros discolor Willd. ŽEbenaceae ., Bodilalat. A decoction of the roots is taken internally as a general tonic. Elephantopus scaber L. ŽAsteraceae., Tutup bumi. A decoction of the roots is drunk by women after childbirth to accelerate contraction of the abdominal area. Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume ŽElaeocarpaceae ., Medang teju. Decoction of the roots is taken to reduce aches and pains. Eupatorium odoratum L. ŽAsteraceae ., Kapalterbang. Juice extracted from crushed leaves is applied onto wounds to accelerate healing. Ficus obpyramidata King ŽMoraceae., Kelepong. Juice obtained by cutting the stem is drunk as a remedy for measles and fever. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. ŽMalvaceae., Bunga raya. Leaves of this plant are crushed together with leaves of Annona muricata and A. squamosa and the juice is applied on the head as a remedy for fainting. Homalocladium platycladum Bailey ŽPolygonaceae., Jarilipan. Pounded leaves are applied onto centipede bitten skin. Hyptis sua¨ eolens Poit. ŽLabiatae ., Kemangi. Leaves are rubbed together with chalk and the juice extracted is applied externally to treat breast cancer and swollen glands. Lawsonia inermis L. ŽLythraceae ., Inai. Pounded leaves are applied to hair to treat dandruff and split ends. Pounded leaves are applied onto fingers as a remedy for split nails. Decoction of the roots is drunk for birth control. Leucaena leucocephala ŽLamk.. de Wit ŽMimosaceae., Petai belalang. Decocation of the fruits and seeds is drunk to treat diabetes. Leucas zeylanica R. Br. ŽLabiatae ., Ketumbit. Decoction of the leaves is drunk after childbirth for general healthcare, to purify the blood and to expel worms. Melastoma malabathricum L. ŽMelastomataceae ., Senduduk. Pounded leaves are applied onto wounds to accelerate healing. Mimosa pudica L. ŽMimosaceae., Semalu. Decoction of the roots is taken as birth control. Morinda citrifolia L. ŽRubiaceae., Mengkudu. The fruits are eaten raw to purify the blood. Morinda elliptica Ridl. ŽRubiaceae., Mengkudu. Decoction of the roots is taken to treat jaundice and gastric complaints. Heated leaves are placed on the abdomen
H.C. Ong, J. Norzalina r Fitoterapia 70 (1999) 10]14
13
to treat flatulence and fever. Crushed leaves are placed into the nose to stop nose bleeding. Nephelium mutabile Blume ŽSapindaceae., Pulasan. Crushed leaves with a little water added are applied on the head to treat fever. Orthosiphon grandiflorus ŽBl.. Miq. ŽLabiatae ., Misai kucing. Crushed leaves with a little water added are applied on the head to treat fever. Oxalis corniculata L. ŽOxalidaceae., Tampok lintah. Decoction of the plants is drunk to treat itch in the female genitalia. Parkia speciosa Hassk. ŽMimosaceae., Petai. The seeds are eaten as a vegetable to treat diabetes. Pericampylus glaucus ŽLamk.. Merr. ŽMenispermaceae., Akar limponang jantan. Decoction of the plant is drunk to treat stomachaches, constipation and piles. Phyllanthus niruri L. ŽEuphorbiaceae., Dukung anak. Decoction of the roots is drunk after childbirth as a general tonic. Piper betle L. ŽPiperaceae., Sirih Melayu. Folded leaves are placed into the nose to stop nose bleeding. Leaves coated with coconut oil are applied on both temples to treat headaches. Leaves pounded with seeds of Areca catechu are rubbed on the body to treat fever. Piper sarmentosum Roxb. ŽPiperaceae., Kadok. Crushed leaves are mixed into the water used for bathing to treat kidney stones and difficulty in urination. Polyalthia bullata King ŽAnnonaceae., Tongkat Ali. Decotion of the roots is drunk as a tonic, especially for men. Psychotria montana Blume ŽRubiaceae., Selada. Decoction of the roots is taken to treat constipation. Psidium guaja¨ a L. ŽMyrtaceae., Jambu batu. Decoction of the young leaves is drunk to treat stomachache. The young leaves are chewed and eaten to treat diarrhea. Punica granatum L. ŽPunicaceae ., Delima. The young leaves are burnt and the ash is mixed with water and drunk to treat stomachache. Sauropus androgynus ŽL.. Merrill ŽEuphorbiaceae., Cekur manis. Crushed leaves are applied externally to treat headaches. Senna alata ŽL.. Roxb. ŽCaesalpiniaceae ., Gelenggang. Leaves are pounded together with sulfur and then applied to skin infected with ringworms or sores. Sida rhombifolia L. ŽMalvaceae., Seburi. Decoction of the roots is taken after childbirth to accelerate contraction of abdomen and uterus. Strobilanthes crispa ŽL.. Bl. ŽAcanthaceae ., Serusa. Heated leaves are placed on the hips to treat kidney stones. Tetracera scandens ŽL.. Merr. ŽDilleniaceae ., Palas. Decoction of the plant is taken as a remedy for fatigue and general weakness. Vernonia arborea Buch.-Ham. ŽVernoniaceae., Sidomok. Decoction of the roots is drunk to treat body swellings. Zingiber officinale Rosc. ŽZingiberaceae., Halia. Decoction of the rhizome is drunk to treat stomachache, fever and flatulence. Decoction of the rhizome of the red variety is taken to treat high blood pressure, jaundice and diabetes. Zingiber zerumbet Smith ŽZingiberaceae., Lempuyang. Decoction of the rhizome or juice extracted from the fresh rhizome are taken to treat jaundice.
14
H.C. Ong, J. Norzalina r Fitoterapia 70 (1999) 10]14
3. Discussion The villagers at the study area use the diversity of plant species in the forests, gardens, farms and abandoned lands as herbal medicine to treat various ailments. Some of these species have other primary uses, such as fruits Ž Annona muricata, A. squamosa, Carica papaya, Psidium guaja¨ a., flavouring food Ž Curcuma domestica, Zingiber officinale. or vegetables Ž Centella asiatica, Sauropus androgynus.. Various weeds Ž Eupatorium odoratum, Hyptis sua¨ eolens, Mimosa pudica, Oxalis corniculata, Phyllanthus niruri . are also used. This study shows that knowledge and usage of herbal medicine for the treatment of various ailments among Gemencheh villagers is still a major part of their life and culture.
Acknowledgements The authors are very grateful to the Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Malaya, for providing research fund for this project and the people of Gemencheh for sharing their knowledge on herbal medicine.
References w1x Jabatan P. Atlas progresif Fajar Bakti. Penerbit Fajar Bakti. Mapping Department. Progressive atlas of Fajar Bakti. Petaling Jaya, Malaysia: Fajar Bakti Publishers, 1986. w2x Henderson MR. Malayan wild flowers. Dicotyledons. The Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: The Malayan Nature Society, 1974. w3x Henderson MR. Malayan wild flowers. Monocotyledons. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: The Malayan Nature Society, 1974. w4x Holttum RE. The garden’s bulletin, XIII. 1950:1]249. w5x Hou D, Larseng K, Larsen SS. Flora Malesiana ser. I, 1996;12:409. w6x Ng FSP, editor. Tree flora of Malaya. A manual for foresters, vol. 3. Malaysia: Longman, 1978. w7x Ng FSP, editor. Tree flora of Malaya. A manual for foresters, vol. 4. Malaysia: Longman 1989. w8x Whitmore TC, editor. Tree flora of Malaya. A manual for foresters, vol 1. Malaysia: Longman, 1972.