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Management and technological change
TechuologylnSociety, Vol. 1,pp. 137-146 (1979) Printed in the USA. All fights reserved.
0160-791X/79/020137-10502.00/0 Copyright © 1979 Pergamon Press Ltd
Management and Technological Change Jermen 3I. Gvishiani
Scientific and Technological Progress in the USSR: Trends, Problems, Prospects
The last quarter of the 20th century will go down in history as an epoch of rapid changes in the material and spiritual life of people--the changes that have been caused by the progress of science and technology. The scientific and technological revolution increasingly enhances its effect on the development of human society and opens up new avenues for its prosperity. The scientific and technological revolution is a multifaceted process with a variety of revolutionary transformations and qualitatively new phenomena, both in the system of science and technology themselves and in their interaction with different spheres of society's development. Naturally, the essence of the scientific and technological revolution does not amount to just a number of discoveries or trends in scientific and technological progress. It consists of the restructuring of the entire technical base of technology--from the utilization of raw materials and energy to the system of machinery, forms of organization and management, and the place and role of man in the process of production. The scientific and technological revolution is a unification into a single system of the major forms of human activity: science the theoretical cognition of the laws governing nature and society; technology--a complex of material means and experiences for the transformation of nature; production--the process of the creation of material wealth; management--the means of rational integration of expedient practical actions in the achievement of production and other goals. We are witnesses to the actual transformation of science into the leading element of the productive forces. It means that the unity of theoretical cognition and production activity becomes the powerful force of production. Creation of new materials and energy sources, the appearance of new types of production activity, and radical changes in the traditional technological processes become particularly evident in the new approaches to utilization of natural resources. Changes that are revolutionary indeed are taking place in the social structure as well as in the material and technical basis of production. Due to such innovations as Jermen M. Gvishiani is Deputy Chairman of the USSR State Committee for Science and Technology and professor at the USSR Academy of Sciences. His interests include philosophical and sociologicalproblems in the theory of management and social organization, as well as systems analysis. He is the author of approximately 250 books and papers, which have been published in many languages. 137
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computer-based production and management, the invention of devices capable of performing not only mechanical, but also logical operations, man's labor functions in many cases are undergoing radical changes too. And, finally, management is becoming one of the major types of activity closely connected with the key spheres of society's life. In the most general way, one may say that the scientific and technological revolution constitutes a major qualitative transformation of the productive forces, the transformation of science into a direct productive force and, correspondingly, a revolutionary change in the material and technical basis of national production--its content and form--as well as in the character of the division of labor in society. These processes influence all the spheres of life, including education, mode of life, culture, and human psychology. While exerting a growing influence on the socioeconomic development of society, the scientific and technological revolution itself is conditioned by a certain level of this development. It became possible only due to a high degree of socialization of production. Exerting the ever-increasing influence on the further development of human society, the scientific and technological revolution engenders at the same time new and as yet unknown social problems. The Concerns Today
Never before in the history of human society has man possessed such powerful means of mass destruction as now. Never before have people expressed such deep concern about whether there are sufficient natural resources to meet the needs of the rapidly-growing population of this planet. Never before has human impact on the environment been so strong. Never before has the total relationship between man and biosphere, society and nature caused so much anxiety as now, in the last quarter of the 20th century. At present it is becoming quite obvious that the increase in the world population, the speedy growth of cities and large industrial complexes, the higher educational and cultural level of people, and other factors lead not only to greater intensity and scale of human impact on the natural environment, but also to a change in the character of man's interference in natural processes and, consequently, in the character of implications of that interference. Today the man-made technological impact on nature has achieved a level of intensity comparable to that of the natural forces themselves. There is the potential threat of the irreversible changes in the earth's ecosphere, the upsetting of the main mechanisms of life-support systems on our planet, and a danger of damaging the natural conditions of existence for the generations to come. Therefore, control and management of the earth's ecosphere have become most essential factors. In this connection, one must be fully aware that nowadays each national economy has not only its " o w n " natural environment to consider--as has been the case so far--but in some very important respects it must consider the entire ecosphere of the earth. In other words, it is actually plugged into the natural physical system of a more complex and higher structural level. Global problems are connected with the development of mankind as a whole. They
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cannot be solved by the efforts of one state or a group of states, but call for a united action on the part of governments and peoples of all countries. Of equal importance is another aspect. The transient character and the everincreasing rate of the processes of the scientific and technological revolution, as well as the irreversible nature of some implications, make these global problems even more critical and call for their reasonable solution. One has to be aware of all that to be able to take the appropriate measures in order to prevent the negative or, possibly, disastrous implications. Besides making an objective evaluation of the changes that occur in the conditions of human life and continue research into natural phenomena, it is necessary to study the interaction between man and nature, as well as the socioeconomic aspects in the development of society. It is the socioeconomic sphere that contains the most pressing problems of our times. It is an undeniable fact, as is undeniable the assertion that the essential condition for a successful solution of global development problems is dttente, in the interests of our planet's population, so that wars and conflicts among countries might be prevented. Need For A New Methodology The emergence of global problems objectively presupposes elaboration of a new, adequate methodology for their solution. The traditional mode of development of scientific knowledge proves to be inadequate for a comprehensive analysis of the ongoing societal processes and creation of mechanisms for their management. Global problems require new analytical tools. Th~ advance of science and technology that brought about these problems has, at the same time, equipped man with new instruments of their solution--in particular, a totality of methodological principles that became known as a systems approach and systems analysis. A systems approach to natural and social phenomena implies a comprehensive analysis of social implications of scientific and technological progress. The systems approach based on the methodological principles of complex system management allows not only the formation of an integral picture of the relationship between the scientific and technological progress on one hand--and the development of man and society on the other--but also serves as a practical tool of optimizing the management of the scientific and technological progress in their interests. Man represents the highest value and the focus of history. With respect to man, science and technology perform an instrumental function. This general goal encompasses sub-goals, such as: • • • •
facilitation of man's manual labor and harmonization of his physical development; minimization of elementary, routine operations in the sphere of brain work; improvement of the conditions of human life; and reduction of the working hours.
Article 20 of the USSR Constitution reads, in accordance with the Communist ideal: " T h e free development of each is the condition of the free development of all.
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The state pursues the aim of giving citizens more and more real opportunities to apply their creative energies, abilities and talents, and to develop their personalities in every way." It is quite understandable that a great role in increasing these opportunities belongs to the scientific and technological progress on the one hand and to the labor and social activities of the popular masses (improvement of the socialist democracy) on the other. Indeed, the very scale of technological change, its importance for the people's destiny, presupposes application of knowledge and experience of all the working people vitally interested in the economic success of the state. In socialist societies, scientific and technological progress serves the purpose of tackling the most urgent socioeconomic problems. The application of its accomplishments is intended for the comprehensive improvement of labor conditions; elimination of heavy jobs; reduction of the scale of low-skilled, manual work; and the continuing rise of the creative share in the activities of every worker. The combination of scientific and technological advance and the advantages of the socialist system is realized through the formation of a new-type worker whose activities combine, ever harmoniously, both physical and intellectual endeavors. This provides the basis for an uninterrupted expansion of the intellectual potential of the society, its ability to set and realize the ever more complicated tasks which secure faster rates of communist construction. The Basis of Social Progress
Proceeding from the Marxist-Leninist concept of historical development, according to which the improvement of material production forms the basis of social progress, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union resolutely and consistently stands for placing to the benefit of man the huge potential of the scientific and technological revolution, and complete realization of its humanistic ideas. Another major goal in the management of scientific and technological progress is minimization of its negative implications. Management is confronted with a new and important problem--that of eliminating the negative tendencies of scientific and technological progress that threaten the very fundamentals of human existence. The way to achievement of this goal will always be laden with serious problems. Many of its negative implications, which are caused by the implementation of scientific discoveries, do not become evident at once. Information with respect to these implications often comes through feedback channels, i.e., when the changes are already irreversible. Under these conditions there should be higher standards set for the methods of the scientific and technological progress forecasting. N. Weiner wrote that the retribution for errors in forecasting of technological change was already bad enough, but it would increase in manifold ways when automation gained more scope. This statement acquires even greater significance now since the system of management of technological change operates under uncertainty and rules out any deterministic type of control in relation to the scientific and technological progress. One of the most important management tasks is regulating the rate of technological change. It is wrong to believe that this rate should always be maximized. It
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should be correlated with the availability of natural resources, the state of the ecological system, and the feasibility of implementing the achievements of science and technology at a given stage. In other words, the rate should be optimal. The range of problems propounded by the scientific and technological revolution is characterized by width and variety. The conscious and purposeful management of this process requires a profound and comprehensive analysis of the current trends in technological change, the formulation of a scientifically-sound policy, and organizational steps providing for the most favorable conditions for implementation of scientific and technological achievements in the interests of socioeconomic progress. The progress of science and technology in the Soviet Union is closely connected with radical socioeconomic changes, which are aimed at consolidating the material and technical basis of communism, raising the people's living and cultural standards. These goals are stated in the USSR Constitution and the Programme of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Soviet Strategy
From the very first days of its existence, the Soviet state elaborated a scientific and technological strategy. This was developed under the guidance of V. I. Lenin, who attached great importance to this effort. Worthy of note is that the fundamental principles of scientific and technological progresses underlying this policy have not undergone any major changes up to the present time. The objective and expedient nature of these principles has been confirmed by practice. These principles are: •
orientation to socioeconomic goals and consideration of the related implications of technological change; • concentration of efforts on key issues of development; • the planned nature of the contemplative measures; • integrated development of science and engineering regarded as a complex interaction of the system elements of "education--research--development-application--consumption"; • evaluation of the effectiveness of scientific, technological and organizational decisions and their long-term effects in the light of the entire society's interests; • observance of a balanced structure of research and development and industrial application, correlated with the specific historical conditions, with the main accent on basic research; and • an effort toward the development of the country's own scientific and engineering potential, with due consideration of the international character of knowledge-producing activity, i.e., orientation at feasible and mutuallybeneficial cooperation. The implementation of the scientific-technical policy is impossible without a solid scientific basis, the creation of which has been the focal point of the Soviet state since the first years of its inception. At present, the network of R&D institutions in the Soviet Union is composed of 5500 establishments, including 2300 research institutions and laboratories whose
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activities embrace practically all fields of modern science and engineering. The Soviet Union has 1.3 million scientists (including teaching staffs) which account for 25 % of the total number of scientists in the world. Altogether more than four million people are involved in research and research-supporting activities. That exceeds the number of people employed by any key sector of material production. This system of science management and planning, as well as industrial implementation of R&D, results in a national economy that has been functioning successfully. At its top level is the Supreme Soviet and the USSR Council of Ministers. The Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences determines the main direction of basic research and estimates the expected results. The State Committee for Science and Technology coordinates and streamlines the applied research and development of new technology. The State Planning Committee does the planning with respect to industrial application of new technologies and marketing the new products. The administrative system also encompasses several specialized bodies, among them the State Committees of the USSR for standardization and for matters of invention and discovery, the administrative organs of sectoral and regional branches of the Academy of Sciences, scientific councils (associations) for various sciences and disciplines, ministries, and regional administrative bodies. The Goal-Oriented Approach
A tangible contribution to the acceleration of the progress of science and technology is the consistent introduction into the management of science and technology of the goal-oriented approach, i.e., application of systems principles in this sphere of activity. In general terms, this approach can be defined as program-related decision making, which implies consistent decision-making and implementation across all the stages of the general cycle of investigating a complex problem: goal-setting, elaboration of a program of action, resource and manpower allocation, assignment of personnel, and evaluation of the outcome. Goal-orientation is inherent in socialist planning, since it stems from the unity of goals and objectives of economic development based on the socialist form of ownership. Program planning is carried out at all stages of socialist construction. From the very start, long-term plans were contemplated as programs. The distinctive features of the program approach were most fully realized in GOELRO (the plan for the electrification of Russia), which was carried out under the guidance of V. I. Lenin. This plan may be rightly called a program. The elements of the program approach existed in the plans for industrialization, the technological re-equipment of the national economy to ensure the economic independence of the country. These elements could also have been observed when the development of the north and far east regions was undertaken, and in the exploration of space, the utilization of atomic energy, etc. Greater emphasis on programs has been made during the years of the ninth and tenth Five-Year Plans in the light of the decisions adopted by the Twenty-fourth and Twenty-fifth Congresses of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. It is a current practice now to develop
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integrated national economic programs aimed at the solutions to major problems in the most important spheres of the society's activities, including integrated furtherance of scientific and technological progress. Integrated programs as the means for solving major problems provide for the integration of techniques and forms of plan elaboration with the methods of managing their implementation. Programs are looked upon as organic combinations of program targets with organizational steps and management mechanisms. The management of science and engineering is one of the widest spheres of application of the goal-oriented approach. The mechanisms of formulating various level programs in this field have already been developed. In the USSR an unprecedented document has been produced, which is called" The Integrated Program of Scientific-Technical Progress and Its Socioeconomic Implications for 1976-1990," and was put together by highly-qualified Soviet experts. It contains the analysis of the most promising lines of development for science and engineering, as well as predictions of the most likely implications for the next 15 years. This analysis was made, taking into account the needs of the national economy and the available resources. The program has served as a basis for a Ten-Year Plan of national economic development and will be regularly updated. This program provides the basis for elaboration of integrated programs for the development of specialized fields, such as the all-around mechanization of labor, the minimization of manual labor in industry, space research, the development of computer techniques, the utilization of the world's ocean resources, etc. These programs also bear a predictive and analytic character.
Integrated Programs for Science and Technology In this connection it is worth pointing out that, of late, integrated programs for tackling specific problems of science and technology are being developed on a national scale. About 200 similar problems were included in the tenth Five-Year Plan. Each program is a complex of measures relating to production, R&D, and economy, harmonized with respect to resources, manpower and terms of completion. In an aggregate form, these measures provide for the achievement of set goals. These integrated programs differ basically from the coordinating plan employed earlier in that they are oriented at obtaining end practical results from introduction into the national economy of the scientific and technological achievements and the results of completed R&D projects. The program is a plan-governed directive covering all the stages of the creative process--research, development, pilot engineering and industrial implementation of the R&D results. Worthy of note is the fact that the result-orientation does not belittle the value of the underlying basic research which is duly represented in the programs. Scientific guidance of basic research in the USSR, the unified scientifictechnical policy of the Soviet state, provides for the streamlined and effective utilization of the scientific-technical potential of the country. The soundness of the R&D policy is confirmed by the results achieved by our science and our economy. Among the universally-recognized achievements are progress in solving social
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problems, space research, nuclear power plants, and other important fields of knowledge. One can refer in particular to the fact that, in the years 1955 to 1975, intensive factors of development accounted for almost half of the increase in the product output. In 1969-1976 80% of the increase in the national revenue resulted from higher labor productivity (37 % due to higher engineering levels and 43 % to better training and skills). By 1975 (compared with 1940) the volume of industrial production has increased seventeenfold. Possessing a powerful scientific, technological and economic potential, and equipped with all that is necessary for the solution of most sophisticated problems in science and technology, the Soviet Union has been steadily pursuing a policy of developing business contacts with all states which are ready for mutually-beneficial cooperation. The vast experience accumulated by the USSR confirms that the socialist-planned economy is proof against market fluctuations, and thereby permits a stable, long-term basis for external relations. It creates a solid foundation for the development of international scientific-technical cooperation. The difference in ideologies and social systems between the socialist and the capitalist countries do not constitute any obstacle to the establishment and development of business relations in this field, provided that these relationships are based on the principles of sovereignty, equality, non-interference in internal affairs, and mutual benefit. The USSR takes an active part in many international organizations, programs and events which are related to the applications of science and technology for development purposes, and constantly comes out with initiatives directed at creating favorable conditions for scientific, technological and economic cooperation among all countries. The specific nature of scientific-technical interaction between the USSR and other countries is the wide employment of governmental and interdepartmental agreements and long-term programs with clearly-defined socioeconomic goals. Cooperation is effected in almost all scientific and technological fields on the basis of more than 330 agreements covering over 4300 problems and subjects.
Cooperation for Mutual Benefit A striking example of mutually-beneficial cooperation in science and engineering is the collaboration of socialist countries within the framework of the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA). In establishing a basis for their relations, the CMEA countries acted on the assumption that integration is more effective for economies on the same level of development. It does not mean specialization of individual countries only on the production processes and activities that are in their command at the present time, but orientation in developing an identical and progressive economic structure. The Soviet Union has rendered substantial assistance to other socialist countries in the formation of their economies by effecting (mainly gratis) technology transfers and manpower training (on all levels) in keeping with the requirements of modern socialist economy. Scientific and technical cooperation between the USSR and the other CMEA
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countries is effected on a multilateral and bilateral basis. The Comprehensive Program for Socialist Economic Integration, for the years 1967 to 1980, adopted by the CMEA member states, includes 17 intersectoral comprehensive problems. The CMEA members jointly tackle over 3200 problems and subjects. An impressive illustration of the effectiveness of the scientific-technical cooperation based on socialist principles is the result of the joint CMEA program, "Interkosmos" (joint space research) which gives the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, the Polish People's Republic, the German Democratic Republic, and other member countries the opportunity to launch their scientists into space for research and engineering experiments, thereby allowing them to join the ranks of the cosmic states. New-type economic relations, based on mutual benefit, equality, respect and sovereignty, are established between the USSR and young, developing states. For the developing countries the scientific and technological progress opens up new prospects of development. It can considerably influence their status in the world economic system. There emerge new real opportunities for eliminating the gap between the levels of developed and developing countries. In order to achieve that, however, serious difficulties, connected in particular with the lack of scientific and technical potential in the developing countries, must be overcome. The developing countries account for a mere 4% of the total expenditures (on a global scale) on R&D, and 6% on personnel. In view of the above, an essential component of the cooperation between the USSR and the developing countries is assistance rendered with the aim of strengthening the scientific and technological potential. The USSR takes an active part in shaping the educational system--construction of higher-learning establishments and secondary schools, vocational training centers, institutes, and technical schools. In cooperation with the USSR, over 170 such undertakings have been and are being completed. Besides, tens of thousands of specialists from the developing countries have been trained in the Soviet Union's educational establishments. Their training programs take cognizance of the specific countries from which they come. The USSR makes tangible contributions to the economic development of these countries. Emphasis is placed on the acceleration of the ongoing process of industrialization. About 90% of the total volume of Soviet economic and technical assistance is in the area of development of the material production sphere, about 75 % of which is in industry and energy. The USSR also participates in the construction of the major industrial complexes in the key industries of these economies. Mass technology transfer, its adjustment to specific local conditions, and its application to the national economy are most important elements in the cooperation between the USSR and the developing countries. The construction of a large number of key projects, with Soviet assistance, results in a considerably higher level of employment of the population, and increases the ranks of the working class and skilled manpower in the developing countries. For the period of cooperation between the USSR and the developing countries, about 400,000 workers and technicians have been trained in the process of construction and operation of the complexes. By the present time, stable and lasting scientific-technical relations have been established within the framework of intergovernmental agreements with various
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developing countries--Algeria, Argentina, Bolivia, Guinea, India, Iran, Colombia, Morocco, Mexico, and Syria. In specialized areas of science and technology, contacts have been established with government agencies and research institutions of Brazil, Peru, Singapore, etc. Capitalist Countries and the USSR
The USSR has concluded intergovernmental agreements on mutually beneficial scientific, technological and economic collaboration with the majority of the developed capitalist countries as well. Under and outside these agreements, Soviet government agencies conclude arrangements for scientific and technical cooperation with research institutions and corporations. Naturally, the forms and methods of scientific-technical cooperation between the USSR and other countries depend to a considerable extent on the terms and conditions offered by its partners. The Soviet Union, its government agencies, and its research and public organizations are members of more than 550 international organizations, 340 of which are concerned with the investigation and solution of economic, scientific and engineering problems. The USSR takes an active part in the activities of the central and regional arms of the United Nations and its specialized agencies. Soviet scientists and specialists participate in programs of UNESCO, WMO, UNIDO, UNEP, etc., exchanging information in the course of international meetings. The Soviet Union annually plays host to about 100 international congresses, conferences, symposia and seminars related to science and technology. Being a powerful means of cognition and transformation of the world, science and technology are capable of tackling the most sophisticated problems faced by humanity. The prerequisite of solving these problems in the conditions of the contemporary scientific and technological revolution is unification of effort of all the countries on the basis of multilateral international cooperation of intergovernmental character. It corresponds with the vital interests of all the countries of the world, socialist and capitalist, developed and developing. Successful achievement of this goal requires, first of all, the political consensus of all states. Strengthening of the international scientific-technical cooperation must become an essential factor in stepping up the socioeconomic progress of the entire human society.
0160-791X/79/020137-10502.00/0 Copyright © 1979 Pergamon Press Ltd
Management and Technological Change Jermen 3I. Gvishiani
Scientific and Technological Progress in the USSR: Trends, Problems, Prospects
The last quarter of the 20th century will go down in history as an epoch of rapid changes in the material and spiritual life of people--the changes that have been caused by the progress of science and technology. The scientific and technological revolution increasingly enhances its effect on the development of human society and opens up new avenues for its prosperity. The scientific and technological revolution is a multifaceted process with a variety of revolutionary transformations and qualitatively new phenomena, both in the system of science and technology themselves and in their interaction with different spheres of society's development. Naturally, the essence of the scientific and technological revolution does not amount to just a number of discoveries or trends in scientific and technological progress. It consists of the restructuring of the entire technical base of technology--from the utilization of raw materials and energy to the system of machinery, forms of organization and management, and the place and role of man in the process of production. The scientific and technological revolution is a unification into a single system of the major forms of human activity: science the theoretical cognition of the laws governing nature and society; technology--a complex of material means and experiences for the transformation of nature; production--the process of the creation of material wealth; management--the means of rational integration of expedient practical actions in the achievement of production and other goals. We are witnesses to the actual transformation of science into the leading element of the productive forces. It means that the unity of theoretical cognition and production activity becomes the powerful force of production. Creation of new materials and energy sources, the appearance of new types of production activity, and radical changes in the traditional technological processes become particularly evident in the new approaches to utilization of natural resources. Changes that are revolutionary indeed are taking place in the social structure as well as in the material and technical basis of production. Due to such innovations as Jermen M. Gvishiani is Deputy Chairman of the USSR State Committee for Science and Technology and professor at the USSR Academy of Sciences. His interests include philosophical and sociologicalproblems in the theory of management and social organization, as well as systems analysis. He is the author of approximately 250 books and papers, which have been published in many languages. 137
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computer-based production and management, the invention of devices capable of performing not only mechanical, but also logical operations, man's labor functions in many cases are undergoing radical changes too. And, finally, management is becoming one of the major types of activity closely connected with the key spheres of society's life. In the most general way, one may say that the scientific and technological revolution constitutes a major qualitative transformation of the productive forces, the transformation of science into a direct productive force and, correspondingly, a revolutionary change in the material and technical basis of national production--its content and form--as well as in the character of the division of labor in society. These processes influence all the spheres of life, including education, mode of life, culture, and human psychology. While exerting a growing influence on the socioeconomic development of society, the scientific and technological revolution itself is conditioned by a certain level of this development. It became possible only due to a high degree of socialization of production. Exerting the ever-increasing influence on the further development of human society, the scientific and technological revolution engenders at the same time new and as yet unknown social problems. The Concerns Today
Never before in the history of human society has man possessed such powerful means of mass destruction as now. Never before have people expressed such deep concern about whether there are sufficient natural resources to meet the needs of the rapidly-growing population of this planet. Never before has human impact on the environment been so strong. Never before has the total relationship between man and biosphere, society and nature caused so much anxiety as now, in the last quarter of the 20th century. At present it is becoming quite obvious that the increase in the world population, the speedy growth of cities and large industrial complexes, the higher educational and cultural level of people, and other factors lead not only to greater intensity and scale of human impact on the natural environment, but also to a change in the character of man's interference in natural processes and, consequently, in the character of implications of that interference. Today the man-made technological impact on nature has achieved a level of intensity comparable to that of the natural forces themselves. There is the potential threat of the irreversible changes in the earth's ecosphere, the upsetting of the main mechanisms of life-support systems on our planet, and a danger of damaging the natural conditions of existence for the generations to come. Therefore, control and management of the earth's ecosphere have become most essential factors. In this connection, one must be fully aware that nowadays each national economy has not only its " o w n " natural environment to consider--as has been the case so far--but in some very important respects it must consider the entire ecosphere of the earth. In other words, it is actually plugged into the natural physical system of a more complex and higher structural level. Global problems are connected with the development of mankind as a whole. They
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cannot be solved by the efforts of one state or a group of states, but call for a united action on the part of governments and peoples of all countries. Of equal importance is another aspect. The transient character and the everincreasing rate of the processes of the scientific and technological revolution, as well as the irreversible nature of some implications, make these global problems even more critical and call for their reasonable solution. One has to be aware of all that to be able to take the appropriate measures in order to prevent the negative or, possibly, disastrous implications. Besides making an objective evaluation of the changes that occur in the conditions of human life and continue research into natural phenomena, it is necessary to study the interaction between man and nature, as well as the socioeconomic aspects in the development of society. It is the socioeconomic sphere that contains the most pressing problems of our times. It is an undeniable fact, as is undeniable the assertion that the essential condition for a successful solution of global development problems is dttente, in the interests of our planet's population, so that wars and conflicts among countries might be prevented. Need For A New Methodology The emergence of global problems objectively presupposes elaboration of a new, adequate methodology for their solution. The traditional mode of development of scientific knowledge proves to be inadequate for a comprehensive analysis of the ongoing societal processes and creation of mechanisms for their management. Global problems require new analytical tools. Th~ advance of science and technology that brought about these problems has, at the same time, equipped man with new instruments of their solution--in particular, a totality of methodological principles that became known as a systems approach and systems analysis. A systems approach to natural and social phenomena implies a comprehensive analysis of social implications of scientific and technological progress. The systems approach based on the methodological principles of complex system management allows not only the formation of an integral picture of the relationship between the scientific and technological progress on one hand--and the development of man and society on the other--but also serves as a practical tool of optimizing the management of the scientific and technological progress in their interests. Man represents the highest value and the focus of history. With respect to man, science and technology perform an instrumental function. This general goal encompasses sub-goals, such as: • • • •
facilitation of man's manual labor and harmonization of his physical development; minimization of elementary, routine operations in the sphere of brain work; improvement of the conditions of human life; and reduction of the working hours.
Article 20 of the USSR Constitution reads, in accordance with the Communist ideal: " T h e free development of each is the condition of the free development of all.
140
Jermen M. Gvishiani
The state pursues the aim of giving citizens more and more real opportunities to apply their creative energies, abilities and talents, and to develop their personalities in every way." It is quite understandable that a great role in increasing these opportunities belongs to the scientific and technological progress on the one hand and to the labor and social activities of the popular masses (improvement of the socialist democracy) on the other. Indeed, the very scale of technological change, its importance for the people's destiny, presupposes application of knowledge and experience of all the working people vitally interested in the economic success of the state. In socialist societies, scientific and technological progress serves the purpose of tackling the most urgent socioeconomic problems. The application of its accomplishments is intended for the comprehensive improvement of labor conditions; elimination of heavy jobs; reduction of the scale of low-skilled, manual work; and the continuing rise of the creative share in the activities of every worker. The combination of scientific and technological advance and the advantages of the socialist system is realized through the formation of a new-type worker whose activities combine, ever harmoniously, both physical and intellectual endeavors. This provides the basis for an uninterrupted expansion of the intellectual potential of the society, its ability to set and realize the ever more complicated tasks which secure faster rates of communist construction. The Basis of Social Progress
Proceeding from the Marxist-Leninist concept of historical development, according to which the improvement of material production forms the basis of social progress, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union resolutely and consistently stands for placing to the benefit of man the huge potential of the scientific and technological revolution, and complete realization of its humanistic ideas. Another major goal in the management of scientific and technological progress is minimization of its negative implications. Management is confronted with a new and important problem--that of eliminating the negative tendencies of scientific and technological progress that threaten the very fundamentals of human existence. The way to achievement of this goal will always be laden with serious problems. Many of its negative implications, which are caused by the implementation of scientific discoveries, do not become evident at once. Information with respect to these implications often comes through feedback channels, i.e., when the changes are already irreversible. Under these conditions there should be higher standards set for the methods of the scientific and technological progress forecasting. N. Weiner wrote that the retribution for errors in forecasting of technological change was already bad enough, but it would increase in manifold ways when automation gained more scope. This statement acquires even greater significance now since the system of management of technological change operates under uncertainty and rules out any deterministic type of control in relation to the scientific and technological progress. One of the most important management tasks is regulating the rate of technological change. It is wrong to believe that this rate should always be maximized. It
Managementand TechnologicalChange
141
should be correlated with the availability of natural resources, the state of the ecological system, and the feasibility of implementing the achievements of science and technology at a given stage. In other words, the rate should be optimal. The range of problems propounded by the scientific and technological revolution is characterized by width and variety. The conscious and purposeful management of this process requires a profound and comprehensive analysis of the current trends in technological change, the formulation of a scientifically-sound policy, and organizational steps providing for the most favorable conditions for implementation of scientific and technological achievements in the interests of socioeconomic progress. The progress of science and technology in the Soviet Union is closely connected with radical socioeconomic changes, which are aimed at consolidating the material and technical basis of communism, raising the people's living and cultural standards. These goals are stated in the USSR Constitution and the Programme of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Soviet Strategy
From the very first days of its existence, the Soviet state elaborated a scientific and technological strategy. This was developed under the guidance of V. I. Lenin, who attached great importance to this effort. Worthy of note is that the fundamental principles of scientific and technological progresses underlying this policy have not undergone any major changes up to the present time. The objective and expedient nature of these principles has been confirmed by practice. These principles are: •
orientation to socioeconomic goals and consideration of the related implications of technological change; • concentration of efforts on key issues of development; • the planned nature of the contemplative measures; • integrated development of science and engineering regarded as a complex interaction of the system elements of "education--research--development-application--consumption"; • evaluation of the effectiveness of scientific, technological and organizational decisions and their long-term effects in the light of the entire society's interests; • observance of a balanced structure of research and development and industrial application, correlated with the specific historical conditions, with the main accent on basic research; and • an effort toward the development of the country's own scientific and engineering potential, with due consideration of the international character of knowledge-producing activity, i.e., orientation at feasible and mutuallybeneficial cooperation. The implementation of the scientific-technical policy is impossible without a solid scientific basis, the creation of which has been the focal point of the Soviet state since the first years of its inception. At present, the network of R&D institutions in the Soviet Union is composed of 5500 establishments, including 2300 research institutions and laboratories whose
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activities embrace practically all fields of modern science and engineering. The Soviet Union has 1.3 million scientists (including teaching staffs) which account for 25 % of the total number of scientists in the world. Altogether more than four million people are involved in research and research-supporting activities. That exceeds the number of people employed by any key sector of material production. This system of science management and planning, as well as industrial implementation of R&D, results in a national economy that has been functioning successfully. At its top level is the Supreme Soviet and the USSR Council of Ministers. The Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences determines the main direction of basic research and estimates the expected results. The State Committee for Science and Technology coordinates and streamlines the applied research and development of new technology. The State Planning Committee does the planning with respect to industrial application of new technologies and marketing the new products. The administrative system also encompasses several specialized bodies, among them the State Committees of the USSR for standardization and for matters of invention and discovery, the administrative organs of sectoral and regional branches of the Academy of Sciences, scientific councils (associations) for various sciences and disciplines, ministries, and regional administrative bodies. The Goal-Oriented Approach
A tangible contribution to the acceleration of the progress of science and technology is the consistent introduction into the management of science and technology of the goal-oriented approach, i.e., application of systems principles in this sphere of activity. In general terms, this approach can be defined as program-related decision making, which implies consistent decision-making and implementation across all the stages of the general cycle of investigating a complex problem: goal-setting, elaboration of a program of action, resource and manpower allocation, assignment of personnel, and evaluation of the outcome. Goal-orientation is inherent in socialist planning, since it stems from the unity of goals and objectives of economic development based on the socialist form of ownership. Program planning is carried out at all stages of socialist construction. From the very start, long-term plans were contemplated as programs. The distinctive features of the program approach were most fully realized in GOELRO (the plan for the electrification of Russia), which was carried out under the guidance of V. I. Lenin. This plan may be rightly called a program. The elements of the program approach existed in the plans for industrialization, the technological re-equipment of the national economy to ensure the economic independence of the country. These elements could also have been observed when the development of the north and far east regions was undertaken, and in the exploration of space, the utilization of atomic energy, etc. Greater emphasis on programs has been made during the years of the ninth and tenth Five-Year Plans in the light of the decisions adopted by the Twenty-fourth and Twenty-fifth Congresses of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. It is a current practice now to develop
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integrated national economic programs aimed at the solutions to major problems in the most important spheres of the society's activities, including integrated furtherance of scientific and technological progress. Integrated programs as the means for solving major problems provide for the integration of techniques and forms of plan elaboration with the methods of managing their implementation. Programs are looked upon as organic combinations of program targets with organizational steps and management mechanisms. The management of science and engineering is one of the widest spheres of application of the goal-oriented approach. The mechanisms of formulating various level programs in this field have already been developed. In the USSR an unprecedented document has been produced, which is called" The Integrated Program of Scientific-Technical Progress and Its Socioeconomic Implications for 1976-1990," and was put together by highly-qualified Soviet experts. It contains the analysis of the most promising lines of development for science and engineering, as well as predictions of the most likely implications for the next 15 years. This analysis was made, taking into account the needs of the national economy and the available resources. The program has served as a basis for a Ten-Year Plan of national economic development and will be regularly updated. This program provides the basis for elaboration of integrated programs for the development of specialized fields, such as the all-around mechanization of labor, the minimization of manual labor in industry, space research, the development of computer techniques, the utilization of the world's ocean resources, etc. These programs also bear a predictive and analytic character.
Integrated Programs for Science and Technology In this connection it is worth pointing out that, of late, integrated programs for tackling specific problems of science and technology are being developed on a national scale. About 200 similar problems were included in the tenth Five-Year Plan. Each program is a complex of measures relating to production, R&D, and economy, harmonized with respect to resources, manpower and terms of completion. In an aggregate form, these measures provide for the achievement of set goals. These integrated programs differ basically from the coordinating plan employed earlier in that they are oriented at obtaining end practical results from introduction into the national economy of the scientific and technological achievements and the results of completed R&D projects. The program is a plan-governed directive covering all the stages of the creative process--research, development, pilot engineering and industrial implementation of the R&D results. Worthy of note is the fact that the result-orientation does not belittle the value of the underlying basic research which is duly represented in the programs. Scientific guidance of basic research in the USSR, the unified scientifictechnical policy of the Soviet state, provides for the streamlined and effective utilization of the scientific-technical potential of the country. The soundness of the R&D policy is confirmed by the results achieved by our science and our economy. Among the universally-recognized achievements are progress in solving social
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problems, space research, nuclear power plants, and other important fields of knowledge. One can refer in particular to the fact that, in the years 1955 to 1975, intensive factors of development accounted for almost half of the increase in the product output. In 1969-1976 80% of the increase in the national revenue resulted from higher labor productivity (37 % due to higher engineering levels and 43 % to better training and skills). By 1975 (compared with 1940) the volume of industrial production has increased seventeenfold. Possessing a powerful scientific, technological and economic potential, and equipped with all that is necessary for the solution of most sophisticated problems in science and technology, the Soviet Union has been steadily pursuing a policy of developing business contacts with all states which are ready for mutually-beneficial cooperation. The vast experience accumulated by the USSR confirms that the socialist-planned economy is proof against market fluctuations, and thereby permits a stable, long-term basis for external relations. It creates a solid foundation for the development of international scientific-technical cooperation. The difference in ideologies and social systems between the socialist and the capitalist countries do not constitute any obstacle to the establishment and development of business relations in this field, provided that these relationships are based on the principles of sovereignty, equality, non-interference in internal affairs, and mutual benefit. The USSR takes an active part in many international organizations, programs and events which are related to the applications of science and technology for development purposes, and constantly comes out with initiatives directed at creating favorable conditions for scientific, technological and economic cooperation among all countries. The specific nature of scientific-technical interaction between the USSR and other countries is the wide employment of governmental and interdepartmental agreements and long-term programs with clearly-defined socioeconomic goals. Cooperation is effected in almost all scientific and technological fields on the basis of more than 330 agreements covering over 4300 problems and subjects.
Cooperation for Mutual Benefit A striking example of mutually-beneficial cooperation in science and engineering is the collaboration of socialist countries within the framework of the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA). In establishing a basis for their relations, the CMEA countries acted on the assumption that integration is more effective for economies on the same level of development. It does not mean specialization of individual countries only on the production processes and activities that are in their command at the present time, but orientation in developing an identical and progressive economic structure. The Soviet Union has rendered substantial assistance to other socialist countries in the formation of their economies by effecting (mainly gratis) technology transfers and manpower training (on all levels) in keeping with the requirements of modern socialist economy. Scientific and technical cooperation between the USSR and the other CMEA
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countries is effected on a multilateral and bilateral basis. The Comprehensive Program for Socialist Economic Integration, for the years 1967 to 1980, adopted by the CMEA member states, includes 17 intersectoral comprehensive problems. The CMEA members jointly tackle over 3200 problems and subjects. An impressive illustration of the effectiveness of the scientific-technical cooperation based on socialist principles is the result of the joint CMEA program, "Interkosmos" (joint space research) which gives the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, the Polish People's Republic, the German Democratic Republic, and other member countries the opportunity to launch their scientists into space for research and engineering experiments, thereby allowing them to join the ranks of the cosmic states. New-type economic relations, based on mutual benefit, equality, respect and sovereignty, are established between the USSR and young, developing states. For the developing countries the scientific and technological progress opens up new prospects of development. It can considerably influence their status in the world economic system. There emerge new real opportunities for eliminating the gap between the levels of developed and developing countries. In order to achieve that, however, serious difficulties, connected in particular with the lack of scientific and technical potential in the developing countries, must be overcome. The developing countries account for a mere 4% of the total expenditures (on a global scale) on R&D, and 6% on personnel. In view of the above, an essential component of the cooperation between the USSR and the developing countries is assistance rendered with the aim of strengthening the scientific and technological potential. The USSR takes an active part in shaping the educational system--construction of higher-learning establishments and secondary schools, vocational training centers, institutes, and technical schools. In cooperation with the USSR, over 170 such undertakings have been and are being completed. Besides, tens of thousands of specialists from the developing countries have been trained in the Soviet Union's educational establishments. Their training programs take cognizance of the specific countries from which they come. The USSR makes tangible contributions to the economic development of these countries. Emphasis is placed on the acceleration of the ongoing process of industrialization. About 90% of the total volume of Soviet economic and technical assistance is in the area of development of the material production sphere, about 75 % of which is in industry and energy. The USSR also participates in the construction of the major industrial complexes in the key industries of these economies. Mass technology transfer, its adjustment to specific local conditions, and its application to the national economy are most important elements in the cooperation between the USSR and the developing countries. The construction of a large number of key projects, with Soviet assistance, results in a considerably higher level of employment of the population, and increases the ranks of the working class and skilled manpower in the developing countries. For the period of cooperation between the USSR and the developing countries, about 400,000 workers and technicians have been trained in the process of construction and operation of the complexes. By the present time, stable and lasting scientific-technical relations have been established within the framework of intergovernmental agreements with various
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developing countries--Algeria, Argentina, Bolivia, Guinea, India, Iran, Colombia, Morocco, Mexico, and Syria. In specialized areas of science and technology, contacts have been established with government agencies and research institutions of Brazil, Peru, Singapore, etc. Capitalist Countries and the USSR
The USSR has concluded intergovernmental agreements on mutually beneficial scientific, technological and economic collaboration with the majority of the developed capitalist countries as well. Under and outside these agreements, Soviet government agencies conclude arrangements for scientific and technical cooperation with research institutions and corporations. Naturally, the forms and methods of scientific-technical cooperation between the USSR and other countries depend to a considerable extent on the terms and conditions offered by its partners. The Soviet Union, its government agencies, and its research and public organizations are members of more than 550 international organizations, 340 of which are concerned with the investigation and solution of economic, scientific and engineering problems. The USSR takes an active part in the activities of the central and regional arms of the United Nations and its specialized agencies. Soviet scientists and specialists participate in programs of UNESCO, WMO, UNIDO, UNEP, etc., exchanging information in the course of international meetings. The Soviet Union annually plays host to about 100 international congresses, conferences, symposia and seminars related to science and technology. Being a powerful means of cognition and transformation of the world, science and technology are capable of tackling the most sophisticated problems faced by humanity. The prerequisite of solving these problems in the conditions of the contemporary scientific and technological revolution is unification of effort of all the countries on the basis of multilateral international cooperation of intergovernmental character. It corresponds with the vital interests of all the countries of the world, socialist and capitalist, developed and developing. Successful achievement of this goal requires, first of all, the political consensus of all states. Strengthening of the international scientific-technical cooperation must become an essential factor in stepping up the socioeconomic progress of the entire human society.