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Mango
C H A P T E R
37 Mango Farooq Khalid1, Haq Nawaz1, Muhammad Asif Hanif1, Rafia Rehman1, Abdullah Mohammed Al-Sadi2 1 2
Department of Chemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan; Department of Crop Sciences, College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman
O U T L I N E 1. Botany 1.1 Introduction 1.2 History of Mangifera indica 1.3 Demography/Location of Mangifera indica 1.4 Botany, Morphology, Ecology
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2. Chemistry
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3. Postharvest Technology
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4. Processing
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5. Value Addition
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6. Uses
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7. Pharmacological Uses 7.1 Antioxidant Activity 7.2 In Vitro Antioxidant Activity 7.3 Antiinflammatory Effects 7.4 Antimicrobial Effects 7.5 In Vitro and In Vivo Antiinflammatory Activity
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Medicinal Plants of South Asia https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102659-5.00037-9
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Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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7.6 Immunomodulatory Activity 7.7 Anticarcinogenic Activity
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8. Side Effects and Toxicity
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References
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Further Reading
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1. BOTANY 1.1 Introduction Mango (Mangifera indica) (Fig. 37.1), a commonly known evergreen tree, belongs to the Anacardiaceae family (Bally, 2006). A great variety exists in family Anacardiaceae, as it contains 70 genera with 600 species. In different regions, it is designated by different names, such as in Sanskrit, it is called madhuula, madhulualaka, and ambrah; in English,
FIGURE 37.1 Mango tree and fruits.
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mango; French, mangot; Urdu: aam; Punjabi, amb; and in Portuguese, manga and mangueir. The name used for mango around the world reflects the language and the culture of the people who grow it (Shah et al., 2010). Mango is the national fruit of the Philippines, Pakistan, and India. Mango is also known as the national tree of Bangladesh (Soujanya et al., 2017). Mangos (metric tons) are widely produced in India (13,557,100), China (4,140,290), Thailand (2,469,810), Indonesia (2,150,000), Pakistan (1,728,000), Mexico (1,509,270), Brazil (1,197,690), Nigeria (831,489), Bangladesh (828,168), and the Philippines (771,441) (Saave, 2011). Mango is one of the most consumed fresh fruits in the world, with worldwide production exceeding 45 million metric tons in 2014 (FAO, 2017). To obtain an exact figure for the total dried mango production worldwide is a hard nut to crack. A large amount of dried mango is imported by the countries possessing full processing equipment. However, statistics may reveal that the United States is the major importer of fresh and dried mango followed by China, Netherland, Germany, and the United Kingdom. The world import of mango was 1,206,768 t/year. Among the largest dried mango importing countries are the United States (332,108 t/year), the Netherlands (142,035 t/year), China (115,140 t/year), Germany (48,451 t/year), the United Kingdom (47,578 t/year), Canada (46,648 t/year), France (32,130 t/year), Japan (10,543 t/year), and Spain (32,233 t/year) (Saave, 2011). Mango is called the “King of Fruits,” and Chaunsa is known as “King of Mangoes.” Chaunsa mango has a golden yellow color. It is soft, almost fibreless, and has an aromatic, pleasant, sweet flavor (Rajwana et al., 2011). The world most famous aromatic and delicious taste Chaunsa only grows well in Pakistan in the region of South Punjab.
1.2 History of Mangifera indica Many researchers consider that Mangifera indica originated mainly from India, owing to the wide cluster of varieties native to this country. Taxonomical and molecular analyses have also ascertained an evolution of M. indica within a region that includes northeastern India, Bangladesh, and Myanmar (Shamili et al., 2012). Trading routes have been the source for M. indica’s spread from its origin. Arabs are considered responsible for Mangifera’s spread in east Africa. In this way, M. indica’s cultivation spread widely not only in tropical but also in subtropical regions (Dillon et al., 2013). The origin of the English word mango is a Malayalam word “manna,” also known as manga in Portuguese. It was first used in 1498 in Kerala during the spice trade (Mandavilli, 2016; Shah et al., 2010). Mango has been widely cultivated in Southeast Asia since the 15th century. Mango name comes from Malayalam. In 1658, Mangifera was
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given as a name for the first time by botanists. Mangifera arbor was referred by Linnaeus in 1747. Later on, in 1753, it finally got its name as M. indica (Yadav and Singh, 2017). Around 100,000 mango trees were reported to be planted by former Mughal King Akbar (1556e1605) in Darbhanga, a city in eastern India (Chandra and Jain, 2017). The traders from Spain and Portugal are considered responsible for mango’s spread in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. At the start of the 20th century, various cultivars of mango from Asia and India were brought to a mango development center in Florida, where many cultivars were chosen and distributed widely. Selection criteria of these cultivars was based on aroma, milder taste, colorful skin, and larger fruit size (Kuhn et al., 2017).
1.3 Demography/Location of Mangifera indica Mangifera indica prefers a warm, wild, frost-free climate with suitable winter and a dry season. Reduction in fruit yields have been observed in M. indica owing to rain plus high humidity during growth of fruit and flowering. Tree of M. indica normally flowers from middle to late winter, and fruits mature from early to mid-summer months (Bally, 2006). Mango grows in wide environmental conditions. Generally, mango is cultivated in very hot, arid and humid to cool environments. Mango tree grows well in areas with temperature of 45 C. However, the optimum range of temperature for proper growth and production is 27e36 C. Mango plant prefers sunny conditions. Although mangoes are drought tolerant, they do not grow properly in case of deficiency of water. Mango requires fertile soil along with essential nutrients. Excellent growth of mango tree has been observed when pH of soil ranges from 6 to 7.2. Mature mango tree requires 11,000 cubic meters per hectare per year (De Villiers, 1998).
1.4 Botany, Morphology, Ecology M. indica is considered a long-lived evergreen herbal tree having a height of 15e30 m. Most of the cultivated trees are between 3 and 10 m height when they are fully mature. Moreover, height depends on the amount and variety of pruning. Noncultivated and seedling trees have often reached a height of 15 m. Besides, under favorable conditions in forest conditions, they can reach up to 30 m height (Bally, 2006). M. indica has a dome shape with dense foliage, and it carries more branches coming from a stout trunk. Leaves of M. indica appear reddish in color and produce a sweet odor on crushing. When ripe, fruit of M. indica has a single seed with yellowish pulp and thick yellowish to reddish or green skin (Shah et al., 2010). M. indica has a long tap root that branches just below the ground level and has two or four major anchoring taproots that can
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reach down 6 m to the water table. The finer roots are present from the surface, down to 1 m. Distribution of finer root changes seasonally according to moisture distribution in soil (Latha et al., 2012). The flowering season of M. indica comes in the last months of every year. Four to six weeks are required for the flowering period, with a night temperature that can vary from 8 to 15 C and day temperature up to 20 C. During December to April, flowering has been observed to occur in some parts of world (Bally, 2006).
2. CHEMISTRY Mango is a fascinating aromatic plant cultivated mainly for its juicy taste and edible fruit. Many mango cultivars are differentiated due to their characteristic flavor, which depends upon the ratio of palmitic to palmitoleic acid as fruit ripens. A ratio less than 1 of palmitic to palmitoleic acid attributes to the strong flavor and characteristic fragrance or aroma of a mango cultivar (Maro´stica and Pastore, 2007). It has been found experimentally that the difference in the concentration among classes of four compounds, which include esters, sesquiterpenes, lactones, and monoterpenes, decide the characteristic flavor of a mango cultivar. A large number of volatile compounds were found in Indian mango cultivars. Mango cultivars from Sri Lanka possess different aroma along with flavor due to high concentration of sesquiterpenes and terpenes hydrocarbons (Maro´stica and Pastore, 2007). Mango contains a minimal amount of fat. It has been investigated that 100 g of fresh mango provides 60 kcal. Mango is also a healthy source of vitamin A, vitamin C, and other nutrients. Vitamins A, B, and C along with other nutrients are the existing constituents of mango (Sultana et al., 2012). Due to the presence of phenols and flavonoids, mango leaves show considerable antioxidant activities (Ferna´ndez-Ponce et al., 2012). 100 g of mango leaves contain 1490 I.U. of vitamin A, 72 mg of phosphorous, 29 mg of calcium, 1.6% of fiber, 16.5% of carbohydrates, 0.4% of fat, and 3.0% of protein, along with some other nutrients. Mango seed is also a rich source of protein, fat, and carbohydrates (Nagarajan, 2012). Essential oil from leaves and peels of mango can be extracted by hydro distillation method. The volatile oil was found to contain monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, oxygenated sesquiterpenes, and oxygenated monoterpenes (D zamic et al., 2010). Processing of mango yields peel and kernel as by-products. Oil from mango seed kernel contains 44%e48% of saturated fatty acids and 52%e56% of unsaturated fatty acids. Structures of some bioactive compounds present in mango are shown in Fig. 37.2.
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(i) Mangiferin
(ii) gallic acid OH
O OH HO
HO HO
OH
O
O OH
OH
HO
OH
OH
O
OH
(iv) neoxanthin
(iii) ascorbic acid
OH
OH
HO H O
HO
C
O H O
HO
HO
OH
FIGURE 37.2
Structures of some bioactive compounds present in mango.
3. POSTHARVEST TECHNOLOGY M. indica’s fruits are best harvested by employing clippers. Large trees and fruits have also been harvested using picking poles. But the method involves some limitations as it is not favorable for time beyond the completion of harvesting. A color change has been considered another indication for mango maturity. Owing to the variety of mangoes, mature green mango can be stored at room temperature for 4e10 days. By employing chemical treatment, precooling, and low temperature, shelf life of fruit can be extended. Low temperature can aid for only 3e4 weeks. Fruit is harvested early in the season for mainly capturing the market. For the preparation of unripe fruit, mango must be dipped in ether solution at 52 C for 5 minutes.
4. PROCESSING Almost all parts of mango fruit are consumed in numerous ways. Mostly, it is consumed as fresh, ripe, and unprocessed fruit. Mango also finds its applications in various forms such as slices, flakes, pickles, puree, and juice. However, mango processing is largely related with industrial environments and favorable technology development (Saave, 2011). M. indica has been processed into chutneys, pulp, and jams (Ganeshan
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et al., 2016). The final quality of mango depends not only on the physiologic processes occurring during ripening, but also on processes during fruit development and maturation. Commercially, the drying process of mango involves washing of mango slices with 15 ppm of chlorine solution to remove any microbial activity. Then, a temperature of 75 C is provided to the internal parts of fruit followed by 10 minutes boiling with water to inactivate enzymes. Mango pieces placed in plastic containers are further processed in a pulp machine. Mango pieces are then passed through a mesh to achieve a desirable size of 0.5 mm with continuous stirring, and temperature of 95 C is provided for 10 minutes to prevent any sort of microbial spoilage. Furthermore, additives are added to increase the shelf life of pulp and to reduce microbial growth, followed by packing. Finally, cooling of hot pulp is performed with fresh water at lower temperature. Essential oil from leaves and peels of mango can be extracted by hydro distillation method. In a previous study, fresh mango leaves and peels yielded 0.02% and 0.05%, respectively, of essential oil by hydro distillation method (Baloch et al., 2017).
5. VALUE ADDITION Aqueous extract of M. indica’s leaves have been marketed as an antioxidant under brand name VIMANG (Garrido et al., 2004). Mango kernel oil finds its applications as an adequate and rational constituent of various cosmetics, mainly to get rid of dry skin and frost bite, rashes, blemishes and wrinkles, itching skin, for a sun screen, wounds and cracks, dermatitis, stretch marks during pregnancy, muscle fatigue, aches, and tension. Mango kernel oil is regarded as an alternative to cocoa butter, an essential part of confectionaries and chocolates. Currently, mango kernel oil is being utilized for the production of vanaspati, milk powder, health boosters, cookies, baking tray coating, nutraceutical products, dairy whitener, cakes, muffins, cake molds, frozen desserts, cream products, milk shakes, and ice creams. Mango has potential applications in the cosmetic industry as sunscreen, base, and shaving cream. Due to the presence of natural minerals and antioxidants, mango is extensively preferred over other lipids. Copper, zinc, and selenium are the existing minerals within mango. Mango kernel oil is effectively efficient for the storage of oil and fat due to its longer induction period and higher total phenolic contents compared to other vegetable oils. Functional properties involving mango kernel oil can be improved commercially by using methods such as interesterification, transesterification, and fractionation. Mango and various value-added products relevant to mango such as pickles, chutneys, slices, and nectar have acquired worldwide popularity (Nadeem et al., 2016).
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6. USES Historically, the Jain goddess Ambika was shown sitting beneath a mango tree (Chandra and Jain, 2017). In India, Lord Ganesha has been found holding a fully ripe mango fruit, paying respect to the devotees for their potential perfection. Mango flowers are also used to worship Saraswati, a goddess. There is no concept of celebrating new year’s day in Telugu, known as Ugadpasses, without eating a delicious dish Ugadi pachadi made with mango pieces (Chandra and Jain, 2017). Seeds and skin of dried mango have been utilized in ancient Ayurvedic medicine (Parvez, 2016). For decorating doors and during wedding celebrations, mango leaves are used as an ornament as Ganesh Chaturthi (Yadav and Singh, 2017). Many embroidery styles in India such as Kanchipuram silk sarees and Kashmiri shawls contain mango paisleys along with motifs (Gopalakrishnan, 2013). Due to its pre-Islamic Zoroastrian background, paisleys are very common in Iranian art (Chandra and Jain, 2017). As a sign of fortune, doors are decorated with mango leaves in India during festivals (Yadav and Singh, 2017). With respect to flavor and juicy taste, mango is regarded as one of the three royal fruits in Tamil Nadu along with banana and jackfruit (Subrahmanian et al., 1997, 2010). The expression in the West Indies “to go mango walk” means to steal someone’s mango fruit. Praises of mango were sung by Kalidasa, a Sanskrit poet. In China, mango became popular during the cultural revolution and was considered a symbol of love for the people from Mao Zedong (Zedong, 2011). Mangifera indica contains high concentrations of vitamins, minerals, polyphenolic flavonoids, and prebiotic dietary fiber as antioxidant compounds (Ara et al., 2014). The latest research revealed that M. indica plays a very valuable role in protection against breast and colon cancer, owing to existence of polyphenolic antioxidants in M. indica (Abbasi et al., 2015). The fruit of M. indica is a vital source of vitamin A and flavonoids. Carotene-rich fruits are employed for protection against oral cavity plus lungs cancers (Shah et al., 2010). A large quantity of potassium is extracted from fresh mangoes. Potassium has been considered a most valuable constituent of cells that aids in controlling blood pressure and heart rate (Yatnatti et al., 2014). M. indica is also an active source of vitamin B6 that aids in mainly brain production (Fowomola, 2010). Homocysteine level has been found to be controlled by M. indica in blood; otherwise, it may cause strokes and coronary artery diseases. M. indica also possesses a minor quantity of copper, which mainly is regarded as a cofactor in many valuable enzymes. To produce erythrocytes, copper has been utilized (Fowomola, 2010). M. indica is also highly rich in phytonutrients as pigments and antioxidants. Mango products, particularly leaves and bark,
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possess high quantities of phenolic antioxidant compounds, mainly phenolic acids, flavonoids, benzophenones, xanthones, and gallotannins. Mango polyphenols have shown several types of valuable activities like antioxidant, antifungal, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, antipyretic, immunomodulatory, antiinflammatory, and analgesic activities (Ferna´ndezPonce et al., 2015). Along with fruit the M. indica leaves are also healthy. Its leaves are used for the cure of patients suffering from diabetes by regulating insulin level (Shah et al., 2010). Due to being rich in vitamin A, it helps to aggrandize eye sight and prevents night blindness. M. indica has also been suggested by beauty experts to be used for body scrubs to make skin smoother and softer. Several activities have been attributed to various parts of M. indica (Nadeem et al., 2016). For instance, bark of M. indica is considered a cure for diarrhea, fully ripe fruit of M. indica is used for treatment of consistent constipation, seeds have been utilized as an astringent to bowls, and piles are also treated by Mangifera to enhance the quality of a patient’s life (Shah et al., 2010). A lot of medicinal applications have been associated with M. indica including antidiabetic, antioxidant, antielipid per oxidant, glucosyl xanthone, wound healing, and cardiotonic activities. M. indica is the most famous among other tropical fruits. Several parts of M. indica have been exercised as antiseptic, dentifrice, vermifuge, astringent, stomachic, diaphoretic, laxative, tonic, asthma, cough, hypertension, as diuretic, also for the treatment involving dysentery, piles, diarrhea, and anemia. Smoke of burning Mangifera leaves is used for the treatment of throat infections (Shah et al., 2010; Wauthoz et al., 2007).
7. PHARMACOLOGICAL USES 7.1 Antioxidant Activity Seeds and peels of M. indica have been found to possess flavanol, gallotannins, benzophenone derivatives, ascorbic acid, phenolic compounds, and xanthone glycosides.
7.2 In Vitro Antioxidant Activity M. indica’s leaf extract was subjected to in vitro antioxidant analysis by employing a suitable testing method. The desired study exhibited a very strong activity of hydroxyl radicals, hypochlorous acid, and proved that M. indica is an iron chelator. An obvious inhibitory action on rat brain was observed due to peroxidation. Moreover, copper-phenanthroline system
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was responsible for damage of phospholipids and DNA (Martınez et al., 2000).
7.3 Antiinflammatory Effects M. indica’s aqueous extract has been utilized to combat stress to improve people’s standard of living. Owing to the results of performed analysis, M. indica’s seed kernel has shown considerable antiinflammatory activity (Kabuki et al., 2000). Uba mango juice has shown considerable potential effects against metabolic risk of obesity caused by adiposity and inflammation. Mango juices have reversed drastic effects of high-fat diets (Natal et al., 2016).
7.4 Antimicrobial Effects Owing to investigations performed, antimicrobial activity has also been attributed to M. indica’s ethanolic extract (El-Gied et al., 2012).
7.5 In Vitro and In Vivo Antiinflammatory Activity The aqueous extract of M. indica’s leaf has been marketed as an antioxidant under the brand name VIMANG (Garrido et al., 2004).
7.6 Immunomodulatory Activity M. indica alcoholic extract has shown considerable effects on hormonal and cell-mediated components of immune systems in mice (Makare et al., 2001).
7.7 Anticarcinogenic Activity Anticarcinogenic potential has been attributed to the existence of phenolic and flavonoid constituents within M. indica. Owing to anticancer activities, M. indica has been the center of gravity for research in recent years. Researchers mainly focus on mangiferin (xanthonoid), a major component in M. indica. Mangiferin has been found to block the inflammatory NF-KB pathway. Hence, growth and formation of cancer is retarded. Mangiferin also inhibits the NF-KB pathway to counter skin cancer. Mangiferin originates from the bark extract of M. indica tree. Another compound that exhibits anticancer activities is gallic acid. Gallic acid has also been recovered from mango tree. A sufficient quantity of mangiferin also exists in leaves of M. indica. Mangiferin also finds its applications as a cure for heart diseases and shows considerable effects against breast cancer (Gold-Smith et al., 2016).
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Carcinogenesis can be prevented by using chemoprevention. Cancer creative effects have been observed in various bioactive compounds. ATPases along with glycoprotein play an important role in carcinogenesis. The effect of mangiferin on glycoprotein and ATPases was seen in controls and cancer-bearing mice. Mangiferin has been found to revert the higher concentration of glycoprotein and ATPases to a normal level. Hence, mangiferin does possess anticancer effects (Rajendran et al., 2008). Selective cytotoxic activity in triple negative breast cancer cells and regulation of some cancer drug target genes by chloromangiferamide indicate that it can be used to develop a potential chemotherapeutic agent for triple negative breast cancer cells (Ediriweera et al., 2016).
8. SIDE EFFECTS AND TOXICITY Mangoes can raise blood sugar levels. Overeating mangoes causes weight gain and diarrhea. Ripening agents like calcium carbide, banned in many countries, can cause allergic reaction.
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Ferna´ndez-Ponce, M.T., Casas, L., Mantell, C., de la Ossa, E.M., 2015. Use of high pressure techniques to produce Mangifera indica L. leaf extracts enriched in potent antioxidant phenolic compounds. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 29, 94e106. Ferna´ndez-Ponce, M.T., Casas, L., Mantell, C., Rodrı´guez, M., de la Ossa, E.M., 2012. Extraction of antioxidant compounds from different varieties of Mangifera indica leaves using green technologies. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids 72, 168e175. Fowomola, M., 2010. Some nutrients and antinutrients contents of mango (Magnifera indica) seed. African Journal of Food Science 4, 472e476. Ganeshan, G., Shadangi, K.P., Mohanty, K., 2016. Thermo-chemical conversion of mango seed kernel and shell to value added products. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 121, 403e408. Garrido, G., Gonza´lez, D., Lemus, Y., Garcıa, D., Lodeiro, L., Quintero, G., Delporte, C., Nu´n˜ez-Selle´s, A.J., Delgado, R., 2004. In vivo and in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of Mangifera indica L. extract (VIMANGÒ). Pharmacological Research 50, 143e149. Gold-Smith, F., Fernandez, A., Bishop, K., 2016. Mangiferin and cancer: mechanisms of action. Nutrients 8, 396. Gopalakrishnan, S., 2013. Marketing system of mangoes in India. World Applied Sciences Journal 21, 1000e1007. Kabuki, T., Nakajima, H., Arai, M., Ueda, S., Kuwabara, Y., Dosako, S.i., 2000. Characterization of novel antimicrobial compounds from mango (Mangifera indica L.) kernel seeds. Food Chemistry 71, 61e66. Kuhn, D.N., Bally, I.S., Dillon, N.L., Innes, D., Groh, A.M., Rahaman, J., Ophir, R., Cohen, Y., Sherman, A., 2017. Genetic map of mango: a tool for mango breeding. Frontiers of Plant Science 8. Latha, K., Latha, M., Vagdevi, H., 2012. Comparative studies on anthelmintic activity of Mangifera indica L. var. thotapuri and Mangifera indica L. var. neelam root crude extracts. International Journal of Phytopharmacy 2, 21e24. Makare, N., Bodhankar, S., Rangari, V., 2001. Immunomodulatory activity of alcoholic extract of Mangifera indica L. in mice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 78, 133e137. Mandavilli, S.R., 2016. On the origin and spread of languages: propositioning Twenty-first century axioms on the evolution and spread of languages with concomitant views on language dynamics. ELK Asia Pacific Journal of Social Science 3. Maro´stica Jr., M.R., Pastore, G.M., 2007. Tropical fruit flavour. In: Berger, R.G. (Ed.), Flavours and Fragrances Chemistry, Bioprocessing and Sustainability. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 189e200. Martınez, G., Delgado, R., Pe´rez, G., Garrido, G., Nu´n˜ez-Selle´s, A., Leo´n, O.S., 2000. Evaluation of the in vitro antioxidant activity of Mangifera indica L. extract (Vimang). Phytotherapy Research 14, 424e427. Nadeem, M., Imran, M., Khalique, A., 2016. Promising features of mango (Mangifera indica L.) kernel oil: a review. Journal of Food Science and Technology 53, 2185e2195. Nagarajan, G., 2012. A Study on Production and Marketing of Mango in Dindigul District. Natal, D.I.G., de Castro Moreira, M.E., Milia˜o, M.S., dos Anjos Benjamin, L., de Souza Dantas, M.I., Ribeiro, S.M.R., Martino, H.S.D., 2016. Uba´ mango juices intake decreases adiposity and inflammation in high-fat diet-induced obese Wistar rats. Nutrition 32, 1011e1018. Parvez, G.M., 2016. Pharmacological activities of Mango (Mangifera indica): a review. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 5, 1. Production of mangoes, mangosteens, and guavas in 2017, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists). UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2017. Retrieved 16 April 2019. Rajendran, P., Ekambaram, G., Magesh, V., Sakthisekaran, D., 2008. Chemopreventive efficacy of mangiferin against benzo (a) pyrene induced lung carcinogenesis in experimental animals. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology 26, 278e282.
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Rajwana, I.A., Khan, I.A., Malik, A.U., Saleem, B.A., Khan, A.S., Ziaf, K., Anwar, R., Amin, M., 2011. Morphological and biochemical markers for varietal characterization and quality assessment of potential indigenous mango (Mangifera indica) germplasm. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology 13. Saave, N., 2011. Report. In: Marty, O., Conte, K., Vonnahme, C. (Eds.), Export Factsheet Ecowas: Mangoes, vol. 34. International Trade Center, Switzerland. Shah, K., Patel, M., Patel, R., Parmar, P., 2010. Mangifera indica (mango). Pharmacognosy Reviews 4, 42. Shamili, M., Fatahi, R., Hormaza, J., 2012. Characterization and evaluation of genetic diversity of Iranian mango (Mangifera indica L., Anacardiaceae) genotypes using microsatellites. Scientia Horticulturae 148, 230e234. Soujanya, B., Kumar, A.K., Sreedhar, M., Aparna, K., Reddy, K.R., 2017. Quantification of lupeol in selected commercial coloured cultivars of mango (Mangifera indica L.) cultivated in Telangana region. International Journal of Pure & Applied Bioscience 5, 2141e2146. Subrahmanian, N., Hikosaka, S., Samuel, G.J., Thiagarajan, P., 1997. Tamil Social History. Institute of Asian Studies. Subrahmanian, N., Hikosaka, S., Samuel, G.J., 2010. Mango. Scribd. Sultana, B., Hussain, Z., Asif, M., Munir, A., 2012. Investigation on the antioxidant activity of leaves, peels, stems bark, and kernel of mango (Mangifera indica L.). Journal of Food Science 77, C849eC852. Wauthoz, N., Balde, A., Balde, E.S., Van Damme, M., Duez, P., 2007. Ethnopharmacology of Mangifera indica L. bark and pharmacological studies of its main C-glucosylxanthone, mangiferin. International Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 1, 112e119. Yadav, D., Singh, S., 2017. Mango: history origin and distribution. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 6, 1257e1262. Yatnatti, S., Vijayalakshmi, D., Chandru, R., 2014. Processing and nutritive value of mango seed kernel flour. Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science Journal 2, 170e175. Zedong, M., 2011. Mao Zedong.
Further Reading Bal, D.D., 2013. Mango. SCRIBD. DaMatta, F.M., 2007. Ecophysiology of tropical tree crops: an introduction. Brazilian Journal of Plant Physiology 19, 239e244. Deliya, M., Thakor, C., Parmar, B., 2012. A study on “differentiator in marketing of fresh fruits and vegetables from supply chain management perspective”. Abhinav: National Monthly Referred Journal of Research in Commerce and Management 1, 40e57. Flowerree, D., 2010. Commercial Processing of Mangoes, Nutrition/Health. https://www. themangofactory.com/nutrition/commercial-processing-of-mangoes/. Archived on 10/ 01/2019. Garrido, G., Gonza´lez, D., Delporte, C., Backhouse, N., Quintero, G., Nu´nez-Selle´s, A.J., Morales, M.A., 2001. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of Mangifera indica L. extract (Vimang). Phytotherapy Research 15, 18e21. Jain, S., Singh, H., 2014. (4) India’s notable presence in Linnaeus’ Botanical Classification. Lizada, C., 1993. Mango, Biochemistry of Fruit Ripening. Springer, pp. 255e271. Marcos-Filho, J., 2014. Physiology of Recalcitrant Seeds. Revolvy. Medina, J., Garcı´a, H., 2002. In: Mejia, D., Lewis, B. (Eds.), MANGO: Post-Harvest Operations. Mishra, H.K., 2006. Goddesses and the Centres of Goddess Worship in Early Rajasthan (7th to 15th Century). Moore, M., 2015. Mango. Revolvy. Morgan, C., 2013. Mango. Scribd.
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National Agricultural Library, U., 2016. Mangoes. Revolvy. Nelson, S.C., 2008. Mango Powdery Mildew. Noratto, G.D., Bertoldi, M.C., Krenek, K., Talcott, S.T., Stringheta, P.C., Mertens-Talcott, S.U., 2010. Anticarcinogenic effects of polyphenolics from mango (Mangifera indica) varieties. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 58, 4104. Prasad, R., Shivay, Y., Nene, Y., 2016. Asia’s contribution to the evolution of agriculture: creativity, history, and mythology. Asian Agri-History 20. Radhakrishnan, M., 2017. Benefits and Uses of Mango Leaves. StyleCraze. Saiarvind, 2014. Benefits and Superstitues of Mango. Scribd.
37 Mango Farooq Khalid1, Haq Nawaz1, Muhammad Asif Hanif1, Rafia Rehman1, Abdullah Mohammed Al-Sadi2 1 2
Department of Chemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan; Department of Crop Sciences, College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman
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1. BOTANY 1.1 Introduction Mango (Mangifera indica) (Fig. 37.1), a commonly known evergreen tree, belongs to the Anacardiaceae family (Bally, 2006). A great variety exists in family Anacardiaceae, as it contains 70 genera with 600 species. In different regions, it is designated by different names, such as in Sanskrit, it is called madhuula, madhulualaka, and ambrah; in English,
FIGURE 37.1 Mango tree and fruits.
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mango; French, mangot; Urdu: aam; Punjabi, amb; and in Portuguese, manga and mangueir. The name used for mango around the world reflects the language and the culture of the people who grow it (Shah et al., 2010). Mango is the national fruit of the Philippines, Pakistan, and India. Mango is also known as the national tree of Bangladesh (Soujanya et al., 2017). Mangos (metric tons) are widely produced in India (13,557,100), China (4,140,290), Thailand (2,469,810), Indonesia (2,150,000), Pakistan (1,728,000), Mexico (1,509,270), Brazil (1,197,690), Nigeria (831,489), Bangladesh (828,168), and the Philippines (771,441) (Saave, 2011). Mango is one of the most consumed fresh fruits in the world, with worldwide production exceeding 45 million metric tons in 2014 (FAO, 2017). To obtain an exact figure for the total dried mango production worldwide is a hard nut to crack. A large amount of dried mango is imported by the countries possessing full processing equipment. However, statistics may reveal that the United States is the major importer of fresh and dried mango followed by China, Netherland, Germany, and the United Kingdom. The world import of mango was 1,206,768 t/year. Among the largest dried mango importing countries are the United States (332,108 t/year), the Netherlands (142,035 t/year), China (115,140 t/year), Germany (48,451 t/year), the United Kingdom (47,578 t/year), Canada (46,648 t/year), France (32,130 t/year), Japan (10,543 t/year), and Spain (32,233 t/year) (Saave, 2011). Mango is called the “King of Fruits,” and Chaunsa is known as “King of Mangoes.” Chaunsa mango has a golden yellow color. It is soft, almost fibreless, and has an aromatic, pleasant, sweet flavor (Rajwana et al., 2011). The world most famous aromatic and delicious taste Chaunsa only grows well in Pakistan in the region of South Punjab.
1.2 History of Mangifera indica Many researchers consider that Mangifera indica originated mainly from India, owing to the wide cluster of varieties native to this country. Taxonomical and molecular analyses have also ascertained an evolution of M. indica within a region that includes northeastern India, Bangladesh, and Myanmar (Shamili et al., 2012). Trading routes have been the source for M. indica’s spread from its origin. Arabs are considered responsible for Mangifera’s spread in east Africa. In this way, M. indica’s cultivation spread widely not only in tropical but also in subtropical regions (Dillon et al., 2013). The origin of the English word mango is a Malayalam word “manna,” also known as manga in Portuguese. It was first used in 1498 in Kerala during the spice trade (Mandavilli, 2016; Shah et al., 2010). Mango has been widely cultivated in Southeast Asia since the 15th century. Mango name comes from Malayalam. In 1658, Mangifera was
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given as a name for the first time by botanists. Mangifera arbor was referred by Linnaeus in 1747. Later on, in 1753, it finally got its name as M. indica (Yadav and Singh, 2017). Around 100,000 mango trees were reported to be planted by former Mughal King Akbar (1556e1605) in Darbhanga, a city in eastern India (Chandra and Jain, 2017). The traders from Spain and Portugal are considered responsible for mango’s spread in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. At the start of the 20th century, various cultivars of mango from Asia and India were brought to a mango development center in Florida, where many cultivars were chosen and distributed widely. Selection criteria of these cultivars was based on aroma, milder taste, colorful skin, and larger fruit size (Kuhn et al., 2017).
1.3 Demography/Location of Mangifera indica Mangifera indica prefers a warm, wild, frost-free climate with suitable winter and a dry season. Reduction in fruit yields have been observed in M. indica owing to rain plus high humidity during growth of fruit and flowering. Tree of M. indica normally flowers from middle to late winter, and fruits mature from early to mid-summer months (Bally, 2006). Mango grows in wide environmental conditions. Generally, mango is cultivated in very hot, arid and humid to cool environments. Mango tree grows well in areas with temperature of 45 C. However, the optimum range of temperature for proper growth and production is 27e36 C. Mango plant prefers sunny conditions. Although mangoes are drought tolerant, they do not grow properly in case of deficiency of water. Mango requires fertile soil along with essential nutrients. Excellent growth of mango tree has been observed when pH of soil ranges from 6 to 7.2. Mature mango tree requires 11,000 cubic meters per hectare per year (De Villiers, 1998).
1.4 Botany, Morphology, Ecology M. indica is considered a long-lived evergreen herbal tree having a height of 15e30 m. Most of the cultivated trees are between 3 and 10 m height when they are fully mature. Moreover, height depends on the amount and variety of pruning. Noncultivated and seedling trees have often reached a height of 15 m. Besides, under favorable conditions in forest conditions, they can reach up to 30 m height (Bally, 2006). M. indica has a dome shape with dense foliage, and it carries more branches coming from a stout trunk. Leaves of M. indica appear reddish in color and produce a sweet odor on crushing. When ripe, fruit of M. indica has a single seed with yellowish pulp and thick yellowish to reddish or green skin (Shah et al., 2010). M. indica has a long tap root that branches just below the ground level and has two or four major anchoring taproots that can
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reach down 6 m to the water table. The finer roots are present from the surface, down to 1 m. Distribution of finer root changes seasonally according to moisture distribution in soil (Latha et al., 2012). The flowering season of M. indica comes in the last months of every year. Four to six weeks are required for the flowering period, with a night temperature that can vary from 8 to 15 C and day temperature up to 20 C. During December to April, flowering has been observed to occur in some parts of world (Bally, 2006).
2. CHEMISTRY Mango is a fascinating aromatic plant cultivated mainly for its juicy taste and edible fruit. Many mango cultivars are differentiated due to their characteristic flavor, which depends upon the ratio of palmitic to palmitoleic acid as fruit ripens. A ratio less than 1 of palmitic to palmitoleic acid attributes to the strong flavor and characteristic fragrance or aroma of a mango cultivar (Maro´stica and Pastore, 2007). It has been found experimentally that the difference in the concentration among classes of four compounds, which include esters, sesquiterpenes, lactones, and monoterpenes, decide the characteristic flavor of a mango cultivar. A large number of volatile compounds were found in Indian mango cultivars. Mango cultivars from Sri Lanka possess different aroma along with flavor due to high concentration of sesquiterpenes and terpenes hydrocarbons (Maro´stica and Pastore, 2007). Mango contains a minimal amount of fat. It has been investigated that 100 g of fresh mango provides 60 kcal. Mango is also a healthy source of vitamin A, vitamin C, and other nutrients. Vitamins A, B, and C along with other nutrients are the existing constituents of mango (Sultana et al., 2012). Due to the presence of phenols and flavonoids, mango leaves show considerable antioxidant activities (Ferna´ndez-Ponce et al., 2012). 100 g of mango leaves contain 1490 I.U. of vitamin A, 72 mg of phosphorous, 29 mg of calcium, 1.6% of fiber, 16.5% of carbohydrates, 0.4% of fat, and 3.0% of protein, along with some other nutrients. Mango seed is also a rich source of protein, fat, and carbohydrates (Nagarajan, 2012). Essential oil from leaves and peels of mango can be extracted by hydro distillation method. The volatile oil was found to contain monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, oxygenated sesquiterpenes, and oxygenated monoterpenes (D zamic et al., 2010). Processing of mango yields peel and kernel as by-products. Oil from mango seed kernel contains 44%e48% of saturated fatty acids and 52%e56% of unsaturated fatty acids. Structures of some bioactive compounds present in mango are shown in Fig. 37.2.
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(i) Mangiferin
(ii) gallic acid OH
O OH HO
HO HO
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(iv) neoxanthin
(iii) ascorbic acid
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FIGURE 37.2
Structures of some bioactive compounds present in mango.
3. POSTHARVEST TECHNOLOGY M. indica’s fruits are best harvested by employing clippers. Large trees and fruits have also been harvested using picking poles. But the method involves some limitations as it is not favorable for time beyond the completion of harvesting. A color change has been considered another indication for mango maturity. Owing to the variety of mangoes, mature green mango can be stored at room temperature for 4e10 days. By employing chemical treatment, precooling, and low temperature, shelf life of fruit can be extended. Low temperature can aid for only 3e4 weeks. Fruit is harvested early in the season for mainly capturing the market. For the preparation of unripe fruit, mango must be dipped in ether solution at 52 C for 5 minutes.
4. PROCESSING Almost all parts of mango fruit are consumed in numerous ways. Mostly, it is consumed as fresh, ripe, and unprocessed fruit. Mango also finds its applications in various forms such as slices, flakes, pickles, puree, and juice. However, mango processing is largely related with industrial environments and favorable technology development (Saave, 2011). M. indica has been processed into chutneys, pulp, and jams (Ganeshan
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et al., 2016). The final quality of mango depends not only on the physiologic processes occurring during ripening, but also on processes during fruit development and maturation. Commercially, the drying process of mango involves washing of mango slices with 15 ppm of chlorine solution to remove any microbial activity. Then, a temperature of 75 C is provided to the internal parts of fruit followed by 10 minutes boiling with water to inactivate enzymes. Mango pieces placed in plastic containers are further processed in a pulp machine. Mango pieces are then passed through a mesh to achieve a desirable size of 0.5 mm with continuous stirring, and temperature of 95 C is provided for 10 minutes to prevent any sort of microbial spoilage. Furthermore, additives are added to increase the shelf life of pulp and to reduce microbial growth, followed by packing. Finally, cooling of hot pulp is performed with fresh water at lower temperature. Essential oil from leaves and peels of mango can be extracted by hydro distillation method. In a previous study, fresh mango leaves and peels yielded 0.02% and 0.05%, respectively, of essential oil by hydro distillation method (Baloch et al., 2017).
5. VALUE ADDITION Aqueous extract of M. indica’s leaves have been marketed as an antioxidant under brand name VIMANG (Garrido et al., 2004). Mango kernel oil finds its applications as an adequate and rational constituent of various cosmetics, mainly to get rid of dry skin and frost bite, rashes, blemishes and wrinkles, itching skin, for a sun screen, wounds and cracks, dermatitis, stretch marks during pregnancy, muscle fatigue, aches, and tension. Mango kernel oil is regarded as an alternative to cocoa butter, an essential part of confectionaries and chocolates. Currently, mango kernel oil is being utilized for the production of vanaspati, milk powder, health boosters, cookies, baking tray coating, nutraceutical products, dairy whitener, cakes, muffins, cake molds, frozen desserts, cream products, milk shakes, and ice creams. Mango has potential applications in the cosmetic industry as sunscreen, base, and shaving cream. Due to the presence of natural minerals and antioxidants, mango is extensively preferred over other lipids. Copper, zinc, and selenium are the existing minerals within mango. Mango kernel oil is effectively efficient for the storage of oil and fat due to its longer induction period and higher total phenolic contents compared to other vegetable oils. Functional properties involving mango kernel oil can be improved commercially by using methods such as interesterification, transesterification, and fractionation. Mango and various value-added products relevant to mango such as pickles, chutneys, slices, and nectar have acquired worldwide popularity (Nadeem et al., 2016).
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6. USES Historically, the Jain goddess Ambika was shown sitting beneath a mango tree (Chandra and Jain, 2017). In India, Lord Ganesha has been found holding a fully ripe mango fruit, paying respect to the devotees for their potential perfection. Mango flowers are also used to worship Saraswati, a goddess. There is no concept of celebrating new year’s day in Telugu, known as Ugadpasses, without eating a delicious dish Ugadi pachadi made with mango pieces (Chandra and Jain, 2017). Seeds and skin of dried mango have been utilized in ancient Ayurvedic medicine (Parvez, 2016). For decorating doors and during wedding celebrations, mango leaves are used as an ornament as Ganesh Chaturthi (Yadav and Singh, 2017). Many embroidery styles in India such as Kanchipuram silk sarees and Kashmiri shawls contain mango paisleys along with motifs (Gopalakrishnan, 2013). Due to its pre-Islamic Zoroastrian background, paisleys are very common in Iranian art (Chandra and Jain, 2017). As a sign of fortune, doors are decorated with mango leaves in India during festivals (Yadav and Singh, 2017). With respect to flavor and juicy taste, mango is regarded as one of the three royal fruits in Tamil Nadu along with banana and jackfruit (Subrahmanian et al., 1997, 2010). The expression in the West Indies “to go mango walk” means to steal someone’s mango fruit. Praises of mango were sung by Kalidasa, a Sanskrit poet. In China, mango became popular during the cultural revolution and was considered a symbol of love for the people from Mao Zedong (Zedong, 2011). Mangifera indica contains high concentrations of vitamins, minerals, polyphenolic flavonoids, and prebiotic dietary fiber as antioxidant compounds (Ara et al., 2014). The latest research revealed that M. indica plays a very valuable role in protection against breast and colon cancer, owing to existence of polyphenolic antioxidants in M. indica (Abbasi et al., 2015). The fruit of M. indica is a vital source of vitamin A and flavonoids. Carotene-rich fruits are employed for protection against oral cavity plus lungs cancers (Shah et al., 2010). A large quantity of potassium is extracted from fresh mangoes. Potassium has been considered a most valuable constituent of cells that aids in controlling blood pressure and heart rate (Yatnatti et al., 2014). M. indica is also an active source of vitamin B6 that aids in mainly brain production (Fowomola, 2010). Homocysteine level has been found to be controlled by M. indica in blood; otherwise, it may cause strokes and coronary artery diseases. M. indica also possesses a minor quantity of copper, which mainly is regarded as a cofactor in many valuable enzymes. To produce erythrocytes, copper has been utilized (Fowomola, 2010). M. indica is also highly rich in phytonutrients as pigments and antioxidants. Mango products, particularly leaves and bark,
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possess high quantities of phenolic antioxidant compounds, mainly phenolic acids, flavonoids, benzophenones, xanthones, and gallotannins. Mango polyphenols have shown several types of valuable activities like antioxidant, antifungal, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, antipyretic, immunomodulatory, antiinflammatory, and analgesic activities (Ferna´ndezPonce et al., 2015). Along with fruit the M. indica leaves are also healthy. Its leaves are used for the cure of patients suffering from diabetes by regulating insulin level (Shah et al., 2010). Due to being rich in vitamin A, it helps to aggrandize eye sight and prevents night blindness. M. indica has also been suggested by beauty experts to be used for body scrubs to make skin smoother and softer. Several activities have been attributed to various parts of M. indica (Nadeem et al., 2016). For instance, bark of M. indica is considered a cure for diarrhea, fully ripe fruit of M. indica is used for treatment of consistent constipation, seeds have been utilized as an astringent to bowls, and piles are also treated by Mangifera to enhance the quality of a patient’s life (Shah et al., 2010). A lot of medicinal applications have been associated with M. indica including antidiabetic, antioxidant, antielipid per oxidant, glucosyl xanthone, wound healing, and cardiotonic activities. M. indica is the most famous among other tropical fruits. Several parts of M. indica have been exercised as antiseptic, dentifrice, vermifuge, astringent, stomachic, diaphoretic, laxative, tonic, asthma, cough, hypertension, as diuretic, also for the treatment involving dysentery, piles, diarrhea, and anemia. Smoke of burning Mangifera leaves is used for the treatment of throat infections (Shah et al., 2010; Wauthoz et al., 2007).
7. PHARMACOLOGICAL USES 7.1 Antioxidant Activity Seeds and peels of M. indica have been found to possess flavanol, gallotannins, benzophenone derivatives, ascorbic acid, phenolic compounds, and xanthone glycosides.
7.2 In Vitro Antioxidant Activity M. indica’s leaf extract was subjected to in vitro antioxidant analysis by employing a suitable testing method. The desired study exhibited a very strong activity of hydroxyl radicals, hypochlorous acid, and proved that M. indica is an iron chelator. An obvious inhibitory action on rat brain was observed due to peroxidation. Moreover, copper-phenanthroline system
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was responsible for damage of phospholipids and DNA (Martınez et al., 2000).
7.3 Antiinflammatory Effects M. indica’s aqueous extract has been utilized to combat stress to improve people’s standard of living. Owing to the results of performed analysis, M. indica’s seed kernel has shown considerable antiinflammatory activity (Kabuki et al., 2000). Uba mango juice has shown considerable potential effects against metabolic risk of obesity caused by adiposity and inflammation. Mango juices have reversed drastic effects of high-fat diets (Natal et al., 2016).
7.4 Antimicrobial Effects Owing to investigations performed, antimicrobial activity has also been attributed to M. indica’s ethanolic extract (El-Gied et al., 2012).
7.5 In Vitro and In Vivo Antiinflammatory Activity The aqueous extract of M. indica’s leaf has been marketed as an antioxidant under the brand name VIMANG (Garrido et al., 2004).
7.6 Immunomodulatory Activity M. indica alcoholic extract has shown considerable effects on hormonal and cell-mediated components of immune systems in mice (Makare et al., 2001).
7.7 Anticarcinogenic Activity Anticarcinogenic potential has been attributed to the existence of phenolic and flavonoid constituents within M. indica. Owing to anticancer activities, M. indica has been the center of gravity for research in recent years. Researchers mainly focus on mangiferin (xanthonoid), a major component in M. indica. Mangiferin has been found to block the inflammatory NF-KB pathway. Hence, growth and formation of cancer is retarded. Mangiferin also inhibits the NF-KB pathway to counter skin cancer. Mangiferin originates from the bark extract of M. indica tree. Another compound that exhibits anticancer activities is gallic acid. Gallic acid has also been recovered from mango tree. A sufficient quantity of mangiferin also exists in leaves of M. indica. Mangiferin also finds its applications as a cure for heart diseases and shows considerable effects against breast cancer (Gold-Smith et al., 2016).
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Carcinogenesis can be prevented by using chemoprevention. Cancer creative effects have been observed in various bioactive compounds. ATPases along with glycoprotein play an important role in carcinogenesis. The effect of mangiferin on glycoprotein and ATPases was seen in controls and cancer-bearing mice. Mangiferin has been found to revert the higher concentration of glycoprotein and ATPases to a normal level. Hence, mangiferin does possess anticancer effects (Rajendran et al., 2008). Selective cytotoxic activity in triple negative breast cancer cells and regulation of some cancer drug target genes by chloromangiferamide indicate that it can be used to develop a potential chemotherapeutic agent for triple negative breast cancer cells (Ediriweera et al., 2016).
8. SIDE EFFECTS AND TOXICITY Mangoes can raise blood sugar levels. Overeating mangoes causes weight gain and diarrhea. Ripening agents like calcium carbide, banned in many countries, can cause allergic reaction.
References Abbasi, A.M., Guo, X., Fu, X., Zhou, L., Chen, Y., Zhu, Y., Yan, H., Liu, R.H., 2015. Comparative assessment of phenolic content and in vitro antioxidant capacity in the pulp and peel of mango cultivars. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 16, 13507e13527. Ara, R., Motalab, M., Uddin, M., Fakhruddin, A., Saha, B., 2014. Nutritional evaluation of different mango varieties available in Bangladesh. International Food Research Journal 21. Bally, I.S., 2006. Mangifera Indica (Mango): Traditional Trees of Pacific Islands. Their Culture, Environment, and Use, pp. 441e464. Baloch, F.S., Tahir, S.S., Sherazi, S.T.H., Jilani, N.S., Khokhar, A.L., Rajput, M.T., 2017. Evaluation of essential oil components from the fruit peelings of sindhri and langra varieties of mango (Mangifera indica L.). Pakistan Journal of Botany 49, 1479e1484. Chandra, S., Jain, A., 2017. Foundations of Ethnobotany (21st Century Perspective). Scientific Publishers. D zamic, A.M., Marin, P.D., Gbolade, A.A., Ristic, M.S., 2010. Chemical composition of Mangifera indica essential oil from Nigeria. Journal of Essential Oil Research 22, 123e125. De Villiers, E., 1998. The Cultivation of Mangoes. ARC. Dillon, N.L., Bally, I.S., Wright, C.L., Hucks, L., Innes, D.J., Dietzgen, R.G., 2013. Genetic diversity of the Australian national mango genebank. Scientia Horticulturae 150, 213e226. Ediriweera, M.K., Tennekoon, K.H., Adhikari, A., Samarakoon, S.R., Thabrew, I., De Silva, E.D., 2016. New halogenated constituents from Mangifera zeylanica Hook. f. and their potential anti-cancer effects in breast and ovarian cancer cells. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 189, 165e174. El-Gied, A.A.A., Joseph, M.R., Mahmoud, I.M., Abdelkareem, A.M., Al Hakami, A.M., Hamid, M.E., 2012. Antimicrobial activities of seed extracts of mango (Mangifera indica L.). Advances in Microbiology 2, 571e576.
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Ferna´ndez-Ponce, M.T., Casas, L., Mantell, C., de la Ossa, E.M., 2015. Use of high pressure techniques to produce Mangifera indica L. leaf extracts enriched in potent antioxidant phenolic compounds. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 29, 94e106. Ferna´ndez-Ponce, M.T., Casas, L., Mantell, C., Rodrı´guez, M., de la Ossa, E.M., 2012. Extraction of antioxidant compounds from different varieties of Mangifera indica leaves using green technologies. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids 72, 168e175. Fowomola, M., 2010. Some nutrients and antinutrients contents of mango (Magnifera indica) seed. African Journal of Food Science 4, 472e476. Ganeshan, G., Shadangi, K.P., Mohanty, K., 2016. Thermo-chemical conversion of mango seed kernel and shell to value added products. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 121, 403e408. Garrido, G., Gonza´lez, D., Lemus, Y., Garcıa, D., Lodeiro, L., Quintero, G., Delporte, C., Nu´n˜ez-Selle´s, A.J., Delgado, R., 2004. In vivo and in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of Mangifera indica L. extract (VIMANGÒ). Pharmacological Research 50, 143e149. Gold-Smith, F., Fernandez, A., Bishop, K., 2016. Mangiferin and cancer: mechanisms of action. Nutrients 8, 396. Gopalakrishnan, S., 2013. Marketing system of mangoes in India. World Applied Sciences Journal 21, 1000e1007. Kabuki, T., Nakajima, H., Arai, M., Ueda, S., Kuwabara, Y., Dosako, S.i., 2000. Characterization of novel antimicrobial compounds from mango (Mangifera indica L.) kernel seeds. Food Chemistry 71, 61e66. Kuhn, D.N., Bally, I.S., Dillon, N.L., Innes, D., Groh, A.M., Rahaman, J., Ophir, R., Cohen, Y., Sherman, A., 2017. Genetic map of mango: a tool for mango breeding. Frontiers of Plant Science 8. Latha, K., Latha, M., Vagdevi, H., 2012. Comparative studies on anthelmintic activity of Mangifera indica L. var. thotapuri and Mangifera indica L. var. neelam root crude extracts. International Journal of Phytopharmacy 2, 21e24. Makare, N., Bodhankar, S., Rangari, V., 2001. Immunomodulatory activity of alcoholic extract of Mangifera indica L. in mice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 78, 133e137. Mandavilli, S.R., 2016. On the origin and spread of languages: propositioning Twenty-first century axioms on the evolution and spread of languages with concomitant views on language dynamics. ELK Asia Pacific Journal of Social Science 3. Maro´stica Jr., M.R., Pastore, G.M., 2007. Tropical fruit flavour. In: Berger, R.G. (Ed.), Flavours and Fragrances Chemistry, Bioprocessing and Sustainability. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 189e200. Martınez, G., Delgado, R., Pe´rez, G., Garrido, G., Nu´n˜ez-Selle´s, A., Leo´n, O.S., 2000. Evaluation of the in vitro antioxidant activity of Mangifera indica L. extract (Vimang). Phytotherapy Research 14, 424e427. Nadeem, M., Imran, M., Khalique, A., 2016. Promising features of mango (Mangifera indica L.) kernel oil: a review. Journal of Food Science and Technology 53, 2185e2195. Nagarajan, G., 2012. A Study on Production and Marketing of Mango in Dindigul District. Natal, D.I.G., de Castro Moreira, M.E., Milia˜o, M.S., dos Anjos Benjamin, L., de Souza Dantas, M.I., Ribeiro, S.M.R., Martino, H.S.D., 2016. Uba´ mango juices intake decreases adiposity and inflammation in high-fat diet-induced obese Wistar rats. Nutrition 32, 1011e1018. Parvez, G.M., 2016. Pharmacological activities of Mango (Mangifera indica): a review. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 5, 1. Production of mangoes, mangosteens, and guavas in 2017, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists). UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2017. Retrieved 16 April 2019. Rajendran, P., Ekambaram, G., Magesh, V., Sakthisekaran, D., 2008. Chemopreventive efficacy of mangiferin against benzo (a) pyrene induced lung carcinogenesis in experimental animals. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology 26, 278e282.
FURTHER READING
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Rajwana, I.A., Khan, I.A., Malik, A.U., Saleem, B.A., Khan, A.S., Ziaf, K., Anwar, R., Amin, M., 2011. Morphological and biochemical markers for varietal characterization and quality assessment of potential indigenous mango (Mangifera indica) germplasm. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology 13. Saave, N., 2011. Report. In: Marty, O., Conte, K., Vonnahme, C. (Eds.), Export Factsheet Ecowas: Mangoes, vol. 34. International Trade Center, Switzerland. Shah, K., Patel, M., Patel, R., Parmar, P., 2010. Mangifera indica (mango). Pharmacognosy Reviews 4, 42. Shamili, M., Fatahi, R., Hormaza, J., 2012. Characterization and evaluation of genetic diversity of Iranian mango (Mangifera indica L., Anacardiaceae) genotypes using microsatellites. Scientia Horticulturae 148, 230e234. Soujanya, B., Kumar, A.K., Sreedhar, M., Aparna, K., Reddy, K.R., 2017. Quantification of lupeol in selected commercial coloured cultivars of mango (Mangifera indica L.) cultivated in Telangana region. International Journal of Pure & Applied Bioscience 5, 2141e2146. Subrahmanian, N., Hikosaka, S., Samuel, G.J., Thiagarajan, P., 1997. Tamil Social History. Institute of Asian Studies. Subrahmanian, N., Hikosaka, S., Samuel, G.J., 2010. Mango. Scribd. Sultana, B., Hussain, Z., Asif, M., Munir, A., 2012. Investigation on the antioxidant activity of leaves, peels, stems bark, and kernel of mango (Mangifera indica L.). Journal of Food Science 77, C849eC852. Wauthoz, N., Balde, A., Balde, E.S., Van Damme, M., Duez, P., 2007. Ethnopharmacology of Mangifera indica L. bark and pharmacological studies of its main C-glucosylxanthone, mangiferin. International Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 1, 112e119. Yadav, D., Singh, S., 2017. Mango: history origin and distribution. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 6, 1257e1262. Yatnatti, S., Vijayalakshmi, D., Chandru, R., 2014. Processing and nutritive value of mango seed kernel flour. Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science Journal 2, 170e175. Zedong, M., 2011. Mao Zedong.
Further Reading Bal, D.D., 2013. Mango. SCRIBD. DaMatta, F.M., 2007. Ecophysiology of tropical tree crops: an introduction. Brazilian Journal of Plant Physiology 19, 239e244. Deliya, M., Thakor, C., Parmar, B., 2012. A study on “differentiator in marketing of fresh fruits and vegetables from supply chain management perspective”. Abhinav: National Monthly Referred Journal of Research in Commerce and Management 1, 40e57. Flowerree, D., 2010. Commercial Processing of Mangoes, Nutrition/Health. https://www. themangofactory.com/nutrition/commercial-processing-of-mangoes/. Archived on 10/ 01/2019. Garrido, G., Gonza´lez, D., Delporte, C., Backhouse, N., Quintero, G., Nu´nez-Selle´s, A.J., Morales, M.A., 2001. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of Mangifera indica L. extract (Vimang). Phytotherapy Research 15, 18e21. Jain, S., Singh, H., 2014. (4) India’s notable presence in Linnaeus’ Botanical Classification. Lizada, C., 1993. Mango, Biochemistry of Fruit Ripening. Springer, pp. 255e271. Marcos-Filho, J., 2014. Physiology of Recalcitrant Seeds. Revolvy. Medina, J., Garcı´a, H., 2002. In: Mejia, D., Lewis, B. (Eds.), MANGO: Post-Harvest Operations. Mishra, H.K., 2006. Goddesses and the Centres of Goddess Worship in Early Rajasthan (7th to 15th Century). Moore, M., 2015. Mango. Revolvy. Morgan, C., 2013. Mango. Scribd.
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National Agricultural Library, U., 2016. Mangoes. Revolvy. Nelson, S.C., 2008. Mango Powdery Mildew. Noratto, G.D., Bertoldi, M.C., Krenek, K., Talcott, S.T., Stringheta, P.C., Mertens-Talcott, S.U., 2010. Anticarcinogenic effects of polyphenolics from mango (Mangifera indica) varieties. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 58, 4104. Prasad, R., Shivay, Y., Nene, Y., 2016. Asia’s contribution to the evolution of agriculture: creativity, history, and mythology. Asian Agri-History 20. Radhakrishnan, M., 2017. Benefits and Uses of Mango Leaves. StyleCraze. Saiarvind, 2014. Benefits and Superstitues of Mango. Scribd.