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Many a little makes a mickle: Cumulative land cover changes and traditional land use in the Kyrö reindeer herding district, northern Finland
Applied Geography 63 (2015) 204e211
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Many a little makes a mickle: Cumulative land cover changes and € reindeer herding district, northern traditional land use in the Kyro Finland Sonja Kivinen a, b, * a b
Department of Geography and Geology, University of Turku, FI-20014, Finland Department of Geography, University of Oulu, P.O. Box 3000, FI-90014, Finland
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 10 April 2015 Received in revised form 26 June 2015 Accepted 26 June 2015 Available online xxx
Traditional land use systems are threatened by land use intensification and resulting land cover transitions in northern areas. This article examines cumulative land cover changes and their impacts on € reindeer herding district in northern Finland. Land cover transitions reindeer grazing grounds in the Kyro were studied using Landsat TM and OLI images and topographic maps. The results showed that the herding district has experienced notable land cover changes during the past decades, and most of these changes were directly related to forestry. The proportion of continuous coniferous forests of the total forest cover declined from 92% to 78% between 1987 and 2013. Approximately one third of the forests outside current conservation areas were disturbed by forest management by 2013, and remaining forests were notably more fragmented than forests within conservation areas. The extent of the road and path networks expanded considerably between 1960s and 2010 as a result of increasing logging and tourism. Accumulation of disturbances gradually results in loss of key resources and declined quality of the landscape mosaic from the reindeer herding perspective, which can pose a serious threat to long-term sustainability of the livelihood. Rapid land cover changes in non-protected areas highlight an increasingly important role of conservation areas in maintaining resources for reindeer husbandry in the face of intensifying land use. Sustainable management of resources outside conservation areas requires careful participatory planning and efficient cumulative impact assessment of different land use activities. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Cumulative impacts Forestry Grazing grounds Land cover Landsat Multiple-use landscape Reindeer herding Traditional land use
1. Introduction Land use intensification in northern regions has resulted in significant land surface alterations during the past decades. Forestry, mining, tourism and energy production have various short- and long-term impacts on landscape structure and functions (Chapin III et al., 2004; Watson, Luck, Spooner, & Watson, 2014). Land cover transformations and competition on land resources have given rise to an increasing number of conflicts especially be€ m et al., tween modern land use and traditional land use (Sandstro 2003; Horstkotte, 2013). High-intensity disturbances over wide geographical areas can strongly alter abiotic and biotic environments and threaten the viability of traditional land use adapted to
* Corresponding author. Present address: Department of Geography and Geology, University of Turku, FI-20014, Finland. E-mail address: sonja.kivinen@utu.fi. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2015.06.013 0143-6228/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
€ m, regional conditions over a long time period (Horstkotte, Sandstro € ffler, 2012). & Moen, 2014; Moen & Keskitalo, 2010; Pape & Lo Reindeer herding is one of the oldest land uses in northern Finland (Forbes & Kumpula, 2009). Reindeer, reindeer herders, and natural and social environment represent a strongly interlinked and constantly co-evolving social-ecological system (Tyler et al., 2007). If the patterns or scales of human actions change, then the natural environment change, and the structure and dynamics of a social-ecological system can change accordingly. Disturbances exceeding a critical threshold may permanently alter a socialecological system and its functioning (Carpenter, Walker, Anderies, & Abel, 2001; Cumming et al., 2005; Zurlini et al., 2006). Land cover disturbances are among the biggest challenges faced by reindeer husbandry in circumpolar areas (Jernsletten & Klokov, 2002; Kitti, Gunslay, & Forbes, 2006). Land cover/use changes occur at different spatial-temporal scales and their interactions can have greater impact on a system than each disturbance itself (Zurlini et al., 2006; Schoon & Cox, 2011).
S. Kivinen / Applied Geography 63 (2015) 204e211
Commercial forestry is the major driver of landscape transitions in northern boreal forests with significant impacts on the quantity and quality of reindeer grazing grounds (Horstkotte, 2013; Kivinen, € Berg, Moen, Ostlund, & Olofsson, 2012). Semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) graze freely for the main part of the year on natural pastures in forests, mires and fell regions. Reindeer feed on a wide variety of vascular plants in the summer, whereas their winter diet consists mainly of ground-growing lichens (mainly Cladonia spp.) and arboreal lichens (mainly Bryoria spp. and Alectoria spp.) (Heggberget, Gaare, & Ball, 2002). Modern forest management measures have mainly negative impacts on lichen resources as well as practical reindeer herding (Esseen, Renhom, & Pettersson, 1996; Kivinen, Moen, Berg, & Eriksson, 2010). For example, forestry has resulted in a scarcity of oldgrowth forests that are usually good winter pastures and impor€ tant habitats for arboreal lichens (Berg, Ostlund, Moen, & Olofsson, 2008; Kumpula, Colpaert, & Anttonen, 2007). Conservation areas in Fennoscandia are important for protecting forest biodiversity and landscape values, and they also provide essential resources for reindeer husbandry (Lindqvist & Posio, 2005; Nagendra, 2008; Nieminen, 2010). Road networks and other infrastructure have increased in northern areas as a result of commercial utilization of natural resources and tourism (Koivula, 2005; Riitters & Wickham, 2003). Roads, population centres and tourist resorts have various ecological impacts on their immediate surroundings, and importantly, their additive effect can be substantial at a landscape level, as they increase landscape fragmentation and the amount of various disturbances in the reindeer herding area (Chen & Roberts, 2008; Heilman, Strittholt, Slosser, & Dellasala, 2002; Reindeer Herders' Association, 2014). Reindeer have been reported to avoid infrastructure and sites of human activity up to several kilometers distance, and the area of avoidance may shift between seasons and years (Anttonen, Kumpula, & Colpaert, 2011; Skarin & Åhman, 2014). Reindeer herders are particularly concerned about loss of large, continuous grazing grounds that provide various resources in € nen, Saarikoski, Kumpula, Hyppo €nen, & different seasons (Rytko Hallikainen, 2013). Knowledge on spatial-temporal distribution of resources is important for both practical and decision-making purposes (Gilichinsky et al., 2011; Miranda, Altamirano, Cayuela, €m et al., 2003). This requires a Pincheira, & Lara, 2015; Sandstro comprehensive view on cumulative land cover changes and their impacts that result from for the most part individually minor but collectively significant human activities taking place over a period €ffler, 2012). This study focuses on cumulative of time (see Pape & Lo € reindeer herding district in northland cover changes in the Kyro western Finland. Land cover changes were studied over the past 25e50 years in order to examine accumulation of various pressures on reindeer grazing grounds. The aims of this study were to 1) quantify changes in continuous forest cover and the extent of a road network, 2) compare land cover disturbances within and outside existing conservation areas, and 3) estimate impacts of cumulative land cover changes on seasonal resources for the reindeer herding system. 2. Study area The reindeer herding area covers circa 36% of Finland and has been divided into 54 herding districts of varying sizes (Fig. 1). The € reindeer herding district (A ¼ 1706 km2) study area covers the Kyro located in northwestern Finland. The mean annual temperature is 1.3 C and the mean annual precipitation 547 mm. The region is situated in the northern boreal vegetation zone. It is characterized by coniferous forests (Pinus sylvestris L. and Picea abies (L.) Karst.),
205
large mires and to a lesser extent deciduous forests (mainly Betula spp.). Alpine vegetation is found in northern and western part of the study region (maximum elevation 809 m). A large proportion of the land is state-owned and managed by the state enterprise €hallitus. The largest village Raattama has 160 inhabitants. A Metsa €stunturi national hotel and ski resort is located in the Pallas-Ylla park. € herding district is situated in the area specially The Kyro intended for reindeer husbandry, where land may not be used in a manner that may significantly hinder reindeer herding (The Reindeer Husbandry Act) (Fig. 1). In 2013, the maximum permitted number of reindeer was 3500 and there were 92 reindeer owners in € the herding district. Reindeer husbandry practiced in the Kyro reindeer herding district strongly relies on natural pastures. Winter pastures and summer pastures are separated by a fence (41% and 59% of the total area of the district, respectively) in order to guarantee the availability of resources in different seasons (Ruotsala, 2002). Winter pastures situated in the northern part of the district consists mainly of coniferous forests and mires. Summer pastures include fells, mires and forests in the southern part of the district. Calving areas are mainly located in the western part of the region (Autto, 1975; Helle & Vasama, 1996; Ruotsala, 2002). Conservation areas covered 44% of the total area of the herding district in 2013 (Fig. 1). The oldest protected region, the PallasOunastunturi National Park was established in 1938. In 2005, the national park was extended southwards to cover the Yll€ as-Aakenus €stunturi National protected region and was renamed the Pallas-Ylla Park. The Pulju Wilderness Area was established in 1991 and Lep€vuoma-Murtovaara and Raakevuoma-Vuossija €nk€ pa a Protected Mires in 1988. The national park, the wilderness area and protected mires belong to the Natura 2000 -conservation network. In addition, some old forests in the region were excluded from forestry by €hallitus in 2009. Metsa 3. Material and methods 3.1. Remote sensing data and image classification Forest cover changes were studied using Landsat TM and Landsat OLI data in 30 m spatial resolution. Landsat TM data was obtained in 10 August 1987 and Landsat OLI data in 25 July 2013 (USGS, 2014). No cloudless images were available before 1987 from the study region. Unsupervised maximum likelihood classification was performed using bands 1e5 and 7 of the TM image and bands 2e7 of the OLI image. Open mires and biotopes above the treeline (shrubland, meadows, sparse forest and rocks) were derived from the CORINE Land Cover 2006 database and masked from the forest classification. Forests were classified into two classes: (1) continuous forest cover and (2) disturbed forest cover. Continuous forests included relatively undisturbed, spatiotemporally continuous mature coniferous and mixed forests. Disturbed forests include mainly clear-cuts and young forests as well as forest land converted to infrastructure. The decline of continuous forest cover and accumulation of disturbances, i.e. changes in disturbed forest cover was studied for the time period of 1987e2013. Analyses were carried out using ArcGIS 10.1 software (EsriInc.). The accuracy of forest cover classification was assessed for the year 2013 using aerial photographs acquired in 2010 and 2013 (National Land Survey of Finland). A total of 200 random points of which 100 points classified as continuous forest cover and 100 points classified as disturbed forest cover were selected for a classified image. The overall classification accuracy, the error of commission (false inclusion) and omission (false exclusion) and the kappa coefficient were calculated for continuous forest and disturbed forest cover. The overall accuracy of the classification of
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€ reindeer herding district (A ¼ 1706 km2) located in northwestern Finland. Fig. 1. Land cover types, seasonal grazing areas and conservation areas in the Kyro
forest cover in 2013 was 89.5%. The error of commission was 13.0% for continuous forest and 8.0% for disturbed forest, respectively. The error of omission was 8.4% for continuous forest and 12.4% for disturbed forest, respectively. The kappa coefficient was 0.79 indicating very good reliability. 3.2. GIS data The development of a road network was examined in the 1960s, 1980s and 2010 in order to study expansion of human activities in the region. Road data for the 1960s and 1980s were digitized from a €rvi, Pallastunturi, Pulju and total of eight topographic maps (Jerisja Sirkka) with spatial scale of 1:50 000 and topographic mapping carried out in 1963e1964 and in 1982e1984 (National Land Survey of Finland). Road data for 2010 were derived from a topographic database of Finland (National Land Survey of Finland). Borders of conservation areas existing in 2013 (national park, wilderness area, protected mire) were derived from a database provided by the Finnish Environment Institute. Areas excluded from forestry use €hallitus. Conserwere digitized from the maps provided by Metsa vation areas and areas excluded from forestry use are all referred as conservation areas in this study. 3.3. Spatial analyses Forest cover and the road network was analyzed 1) at the herding district level, 2) within and outside conservation areas (borders from 2013) and 3) in winter grazing and summer grazing areas (Fig. 1). The proportions of continuous forest cover and disturbed forest cover were calculated for 1987 and 2013. Fragmentation of forest cover was analyzed with Fragstats 4.2 software (McGarigal & Marks, 1995) by calculating the mean patch size (MPS), the largest patch index (LPS), and a splitting index (SI) for continuous forests. The largest patch index quantifies the percentage of the total landscape area comprised by the largest patch of continuous forest. The value of splitting index is 1 when the landscape consists of single patch. The splitting index increases as the landscape is increasingly subdivided into smaller patches and achieves its maximum value when the landscape is maximally subdivided, i.e. when every cell is a separate patch. The road network was classified into 1) main roads, 2) vehicle and cart tracks, 3) winter roads and 4) paths. The total length (km)
was calculated for each road class. In order to study the spatial coverage and configuration of different road types, an Euclidean distance to the nearest 1) main road, 2) main road, vehicle/cart track and winter road, and 3) all roads, tracks and paths was calculated in 25 m resolution. A roadless volume (RV) introduced by Watts et al. (2007) was calculated for the same three road classes. RV is calculated as the total sum of grid values of distance to the nearest road multiplied by grid area (625 m). Roads of equal length produce different RV depending on their spatial alignments with respect to other roads. RV is reduced substantially by roads that penetrate remote otherwise roadless areas, whereas roads located close to other roads reduce RV only moderately. Reindeer have been reported to avoid areas located less than 1e1.5 km from the main roads (Anttonen et al., 2011; Lundqvist, 2007). A 1.5 km buffer zone was calculated around the major roads to estimate the proportion of the reindeer herding district covered by this disturbance zone. 4. Results 4.1. Changes in continuous forest cover between 1987 and 2013 Continuous forests covered 54% and disturbed forests 5% of the € reindeer herding district in 1987. In 2013, total land area in the Kyro the proportion of continuous forest cover had declined to 46% and disturbed forest cover increased to 13% of the total area (Fig. 2). Circa 50% of the remaining continuous forests were located within conservation areas covering 44% of the total area of the herding district in 2013. The proportion of continuous forests of the total forest land declined from 92% to 78% during the study period. Outside conservation areas, the proportion of continuous forests of the total forest land declined from 88% to 69% (Table 1a). The cover of continuous forests declined more in the summer grazing area than in the winter grazing area. In 2013, 72% of continuous forests in the winter grazing area and 35% of continuous forests in the summer grazing area were found within conservation areas. Conservation areas covered 65% and 30% of the total land area in the winter grazing area and the summer grazing area, respectively. The mean patch size of continuous forest declined from 34 to 11 ha and the largest patch index from 29 to 14% in the herding district (Table 1b). The mean patch size and the largest patch index declined notably more outside conservation areas than within
S. Kivinen / Applied Geography 63 (2015) 204e211
conservation areas. The splitting index increased 4.7-fold within the reindeer herding district, 2.1-fold within conservation areas and 17.8-fold outside conservation areas during the study period. The mean patch size and the largest patch index declined and the splitting index increased both in winter and summer grazing areas.
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Table 1 a) The proportion of continuous and disturbed forest of the total forest area. Statistics for 1987 and 2013 are calculated for existing conservation areas in 2013. b) Fragmentation statistics for continuous forests. MPS ¼ mean patch size, LPI ¼ largest patch index, SI ¼ splitting index. % Of forest area
4.2. Expansion of the road network between the 1960s and 2010 The total length of main roads increased by 74 km in the herding district between the 1960s and 2010 (Fig. 3, Table 2). The total length of vehicle/cart tracks and winter roads increased by 578 km and 444 km, respectively. The total length of paths increased by 78 km between the 1960s and 1980s, and slightly declined by 2010. A majority of main roads, vehicle/cart tracks and winter roads were located outside conservation areas, whereas nearly a half of paths were located within conservation areas. A 1.5 km buffer zone calculated around main roads covered 26% and 34% of the total area of the reindeer herding district in the1960s and 2010, respectively (Fig. 4). The distance to the nearest road, track or path declined by 0.7e1.8 km in the reindeer herding district between the 1960s and 2010. The distances to the nearest road, track or path were 2e4-fold longer within conservation areas compared to the distances outside conservation areas. Roadless volume (RV) calculated for different road types declined by 14e57% between the 1960s and 2010. Roadless volume within conservation areas was clearly greater compared to the RV outside conservation areas. The total length of main roads and cart/vehicle tracks increased more in the summer grazing area than in the winter grazing area (Table 3). The total length of paths increased only in the summer €stunturi National Park. A grazing area, particularly in the Pallas-Ylla 1.5 km buffer zone calculated around main roads covered 8% and 14% of the winter grazing area in the 1960s and 2010, respectively. In the summer grazing area, the proportion covered by the buffer zone was 21% in the 1960s and 47% in 2010. 5. Discussion 5.1. Land cover changes and their impacts on reindeer grazing grounds Fig. 4 and Table 3 summarizes land cover changes and their € herding reported impacts on reindeer grazing grounds in the Kyro district. The results showed that the herding district has
(a) € herding district Kyro Within conservation area Outside conservation area Winter grazing area Summer grazing area Continuous forest
(b) € herding district Kyro Within conservation area Outside conservation area Winter grazing area Summer grazing area
Continuous forest
Disturbed forest
1987
2013
1987
2013
91.8 97.3 87.7 93.6 90.7
78.1 90.9 68.6 83.7 74.9
8.2 2.7 12.3 6.4 9.3
21.9 9.1 31.4 16.3 25.1
MPS (ha)
LPI (%)
1987
2013
1987
2013
SI 1987
2013
34.3 38.5 23.8 25.2 42.3
11.2 16.0 7.7 9.2 13.0
28.5 15.8 33.2 24.5 48.2
13.7 10.6 7.0 6.3 23.2
9.9 20.8 8.6 15.0 4.3
46.3 43.7 153.4 85.3 18.1
experienced notable land cover changes during the past decades, and most of these changes were directly related to forestry. Declining continuous forest cover in the region corresponds with similar findings in other parts of northern Fennoscandia (Berg et al., 2008; Kivinen et al., 2012; Kivinen & Kumpula, 2014). The results also showed that land use changes in the herding district have resulted in a nearly 2.5-fold increase in the total length of a road network during the past 50 years. The main reason for expansion of the road network was intensifying forestry and associated increases in vehicle/cart tracks and winter roads (29-fold and 2.7-fold increase, respectively). Clear-cuts and roads create a fragmented forest landscape that has several adverse effects on resources for reindeer husbandry. The decline of old-growth forests and related loss of arboreal lichens has been reported by reindeer herders as a major negative € reindeer herding district (Ruotsala, land cover change in the Kyro 2002) and in the closely located Sattasniemi reindeer herding district (Melamies, 2011). A notable proportion of good winter pastures in the region are located at relatively high elevations where the renewal of forest is slow (Ruotsala, 2002). Clear-cutting in these environments together with shortened rotation cycles can strongly decrease the availability of arboreal lichens (Esseen et al.,
Fig. 2. Continuous and disturbed forest cover in 1987 and 2013.
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€ reindeer herding district between 1960's and 2010. Fig. 3. The development of the road network in the Kyro
Table 2 € herding district in 1960s, 1980s, and 2010. Characteristics of the road network in the Kyro Length (km)
Main road Vehicle/cart track Winter road Path Distance to the nearest (km) Main road Roads and tracks Roads, tracks and paths Roadless volume (km3) Main road Roads and tracks All roads, tracks and paths
€ herding district Kyro
Within CA
Outside CA
1960s
1980s
2010
2010
2010
166 157 16 245
204 279 90 323
240 421 460 300
3 27 63 140
236 394 397 160
4.1 3.2 2.2 7028 5432 3704
3.6 2.1 1.7 6216 3605 2822
3.5 1.4 1.1 6053 2333 1848
5.1 2.4 1.9 3838 1792 1402
2.3 0.6 0.5 2213 541 446
CA ¼ Conservation area.
1996). Furthermore, fragmentation of old forests hinder dispersal of arboreal lichens to new areas (Dettki, 1998), and can result in significant long-term loss of biomass of arboreal lichens in the land€mås, & Helle, 2011; Kivinen et al., 2012). scape (Horstkotte, Moen, La
€ reindeer herding district. See Fig. 4. A summary of land cover/use changes in the Kyro Table 3 for reported impacts of forestry (1, 4), nature conservation (2, 5), and infrastructure and tourism (3, 6).
Maintaining the long-term availability of arboreal lichen resources would require more detailed landscape-level planning of clearcuttings e.g. by including efficient dispersal distances into logging plans. €nen et al. (2013) addressed an important knowledge gap Rytko in understanding the significance of different factors affecting lichen resources in the long-term as well as the long-term effects of € soil preparation on the condition of lichen pastures. In the Kyro herding district, reindeer herders have reported logging residues left on the ground to suppress the growth of ground lichens as well as to hinder reindeer access to lichens (Ruotsala, 2002; see also Melamies, 2011). Also other forest management practices, such as soil scarification carried out after clear-cutting reduces the biomass of ground lichens (Roturier & Bergsten, 2006). In addition, changes in forest structure can have impacts on reindeer grazing through altered snow conditions. Snow cover is often deeper and more hard-packed in clear-cuts than in forests and can hinder reindeer digging through the snow to reach ground lichens (Roturier & Roue, 2009; Melamies, 2011). Declining area of undisturbed winter grazing grounds increases the need for supplementary feeding and, € consequently, costs of reindeer husbandry (Kumpula, 2001; Kyro reindeer herding district 1987e2013). Forestry can also have negative impacts on summer grazing grounds. For example, Helle & Vasama (1996) reported the negative effects of large-scale ditching and chemical herbicides on summer grazing and pasture rotation in € herding district. the Kyro € reindeer herding Expansion of the road network in the Kyro district has resulted in large-scale fragmentation of grazing
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Table 3 A summary of changes in land cover/use and their reported impacts on reindeer grazing grounds. See Fig. 4 for the related map. Pasture
Land use
Land cover/use
Changea
Impactsb-f
Winter 1
Forestry
Continuous forest cover
11%
Vehicle/cart tracks, winter roads
þ148 km
Fragmentation of grazing grounds Decline of arboreal lichens Altered snow conditions hinder digging ground-growing lichens Increasing grazing pressure in suitable areas Decreasing pasture area and increasing disturbances Facilitate practical reindeer herding Undisturbed forests, lichen resources Disturbances Disturbances
2 3
Nature conservation Infrastructure, tourism
Conservation areas Main roads, 1.5 km buffer zonee Snowmobile routes
All after 1987 þ16% Not studied
Summer 4
Forestry
Continuous forest cover
17%
5 6
Nature conservation Infrastructure, tourism
Vehicle/cart tracks, winter roads Conservation areas Main roads, 1.5 km buffer zonee Paths
þ560 km þ67% þ31% þ70 km
a b c d e f
Fragmentation of grazing grounds Forest drainage and soil scarification hinder reindeer movement Decreasing pasture area and increasing disturbances Undisturbed forests and other biotopes Disturbances Disturbances
Forest cover: 1987 vs. 2013; A road network and conservation areas: 1960s vs. 2010. € reindeer herding district (1987e2013). Kyro Ruotsala (2002). Nieminen (2010). Anttonen et al. (2011). Melamies (2011).
grounds. The total length of main roads and logging roads increased particularly in the summer grazing area. Anttonen et al. (2011) reported that main roads can have a notable impact on reindeer home range selection and within-home range selection, and the avoidance behaviour of reindeer may differ between seasons. The ecological impact of roads may also differ according to traffic volumes (Forman & Alexander, 1998), which hamper the estimation of the total impacts of roads on reindeer grazing (Anttonen et al., 2011). Logging roads increase disturbances in the landscape, as reindeer may follow them into wrong pasture areas and roads can contribute to reindeer thefts. On the other hand, logging roads can also facilitate practical reindeer herding activities (Ruotsala, 2002; Huusko, 2008; Melamies, 2011). 5.2. Reindeer herding and multiple-use landscapes The proportion of disturbed forests and fragmentation of grazing grounds increased notably outside conservation areas in the € reindeer herding district during the past 25 years. The study of Kyro Kumpula et al. (2007) showed that in northern Finland the largest continuous winter grazing grounds in mature and old-growth forests are nowadays found in conservation areas. These results highlight the importance of nature conservation areas at limiting overall land cover changes (Nagendra, 2008) and supporting longterm resource availability for traditional land use. Spruce forests with abundant arboreal lichens and early snow melt areas in the Pallastunturi (currently Pallas-Yll€ astunturi) national park have been reported already in the 1970s being essential resources for € reindeer herding district (Autto, reindeer husbandry in the Kyro 1975). A questionnaire survey of Nieminen (2010) in the Finnish reindeer herding area showed that a majority of reindeer herders were of the opinion that conservation areas benefit reindeer herding, and nearly all herders considered protection of forest land important (see also Ruotsala, 2002). Old-growth coniferous forests harbor important resources for reindeer herding as well as high biodiversity values (Esseen, €m, Ericson, & Sjo € berg, 1997; Kuuluvainen, 2009). AccordEhnstro ing to Rassi et al. (2010), forests are the most important habitat for threatened species in Finland, and more than one third of threatened forest species are old-growth specialists. One of the major
recent conflicts between foresty and other land uses concerned old wilderness-like forests in Central Lapland (Forest Lapland dispute). € reindeer herding district contains a part of these intact The Kyro forests that were threatened by clear-cutting during the past decade. After a dispute of several years between environmental organizations, local municipalities, reindeer owners' co-operatives €hallitus, the sections in most natural and the state enterprise Metsa state in these areas were permanently excluded from forestry in 2009. Restricted forestry was allowed in some areas, and some areas stayed open for regular forestry that needs to take into account the needs of multiple-use (Fig. 1). However, the agreement did not convert these set-aside forests into true protected areas. Reindeer herders have suggested that these areas containing important winter grazing resources should be included into the € reindeer herding district adjacent wilderness area (Kyro 1987e2013). In addition to forestry, infrastructure and activities related to tourism have resulted in loss of suitable grazing grounds in Fennoscandia. Reindeer have been reported to avoid population centres, tourist resorts and mountain cabins by a distance of €, 1993; Skarin & 2.5e12 km (Anttonen et al., 2011; Helle & S€ arkela Åhman, 2014), although reindeer can become adapted to human activity to some extent for example in an area offering good € m, & Moen, nutrition (Helle et al., 2012; Skarin, Danell, Bergstro 2010). During the study period of 50 years, the path network €stunturi national park, which expanded noticeably in the Pallas-Ylla is the most popular national park in Finland with 436 000 visitors €sja €rvi, 2011). The impact of tourism on in 2010 (Rantatalo & Ylla reindeer grazing was noticed in the 1970s, when reindeer started to avoid traditional summer pastures located within the national park due to increased disturbances in fell areas (Autto, 1975; Ruotsala, 2002). Reindeer are particularly vulnerable for disturbances during calving time in the late spring, which is also a high season for tourism in fells. Increasing popularity of recreational snowmobiling and husky safaris have also increased disturbances € reindeer in winter and spring grazing areas (Ruotsala, 2002; Kyro herding district 1987e2013). In general, reindeer herders demand a more holistic discussion about nature conservation planning, reserve management strategies and multiple land use questions in the region (Heikkinen, Sarkki, Jokinen, & Fornander,
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2010: see also Southwoth et al. 2006). 6. Conclusions € reindeer herding district illusLand cover changes in the Kyro trates rapid land use intensification in northern areas during the past decades. Most human activities in the forest landscape, such as a single clear-cut, have individually minor impacts on resources of traditional land use, but collectively over time their impact is more substantial. It is thus essential to study different types of disturbances in order to get a comprehensive view of various pressures on a reindeer herding system. Accumulation of land cover changes caused by forestry, road building and tourism gradually result in loss of key resources and declined quality of the landscape mosaic from a reindeer herding perspective. Land cover disturbances can also cause increasing grazing pressure in remaining suitable grazing grounds, which in a long-term may result in further declines in resources. Loss of suitable pasture land and other disturbances diminish the ability of the reindeer herding system to respond and adapt to annual natural variations in grazing conditions as well as new disturbances in the district. These developments can ultimately threaten the long-term economical sustainability of the livelihood. Comparisons of land cover transitions within and outside conservation areas provide more detailed information on rates and magnitudes of various disturbances. The results showed that conservation areas have reduced loss of continuous forest cover and landscape fragmentation at the landscape level. This highlights an increasingly important role of conservation areas in maintaining resources for reindeer husbandry in the face of on-going land use intensification. Sustainable management of resources outside conservation areas requires careful participatory planning and efficient cumulative impact assessment of different land use activities. Acknowledgements This study was funded by the Academy of Finland (CLADINAProject No. 128615) and the Nordic Council of Ministers (Nordic Centre of Excellence Tundra). I thank three anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments on the manuscript. References Anttonen, M., Kumpula, J., & Colpaert, A. (2011). Range selection by semidomesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in relation to infrastructure and human activity in the boreal forest environment, northern Finland. Arctic, 64, 1e14. € n paliskunta. Poromies, 4, 16e18. Autto, E. (1975). Kyro € Berg, A., Ostlund, L., Moen, J., & Olofsson, J. (2008). A century of logging and forestry in a reindeer herding area in northern Sweden. Forest Ecology and Management, 256, 1009e1020. Carpenter, S. R., Walker, M., Anderies, J. M., & Abel, N. (2001). From metaphor to measurement: resilience of what to what? Ecosystems, 4, 765e781. Chapin, F. S., III, Peterson, G., Berkes, F., Callaghan, T. V., Angelstam, P., Apps, M., et al. (2004). Resilience and vulnerability of northern regions to social and environmental change. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 33, 344e349. Chen, X., & Roberts, K. A. (2008). Roadless areas and biodiversity: a case study in Alabama, USA. Biodiversity & Conservation, 17, 2013e2022. Cumming, G. S., Barnes, G., Perz, S., Schmink, M., Sieving, K., Southworth, J., et al. (2005). An exploratory framework for the empirical measurement of resilience. Ecosystems, 8, 975e987. Dettki, H. (1998). Dispersal of fragments of two pendulous lichen species. Sauteria, 9, 123e132. €m, B., Ericson, L., & Sjo € berg, K. (1997). Boreal forests. Ecological Esseen, P.-A., Ehnstro Bulletins, 46, 16e47. Esseen, P.-A., Renhom, K.-E., & Pettersson, R. (1996). Epiphytic lichen biomass in managed and old-growth boreal forests: effect of branch quality. Ecological Applications, 6, 228e238. Forbes, B. C., & Kumpula, T. (2009). The ecological role and geography of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) in northern Eurasia. Geography Compass, 3, 1356e1380.
Forman, R. T., & Alexander, L. E. (1998). Roads and their major ecological effects. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 29, 207e231. þC2. €m, P., Reese, H., Kivinen, S., Moen, J., & Nilsson, M. (2011). Gilichinsky, M., Sandstro Mapping ground lichens using forest inventory and optical satellite data. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 32, 455e472. Heggberget, T., Gaare, E. M., & Ball, J. P. (2002). Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) and climate change: Importance of winter forage. Rangifer, 22, 13e32. Heikkinen, H. I., Sarkki, S., Jokinen, M., & Fornander, D. E. (2010). Global area conservation ideals versus the local realities of reindeer herding in northernmost Finland. International Journal Business and Globalisation, 4, 110e130. Heilman, G. E., Strittholt, J. R., Slosser, N. C., & Dellasala, D. A. (2002). Forest fragmentation of the conterminous United States: assessing forest intactness through road density and spatial characteristics. Bio Science, 52, 411e422. 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International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 27, 13e19. Kivinen, S., Moen, J., Berg, A., & Eriksson, Å. (2010). Effects of modern forest management on winter grazing resources for reindeer in Sweden. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 39, 269e278. Koivula, M. (2005). Effects of forest roads on spatial distribution of boreal carabid beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae). The Coleopterists Bulletin, 59, 465e487. Kumpula, J. (2001). Productivity of the semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer t. tarandus L.) stock and carrying capacity of pastures in Finland during 1960e1990's (p. A375). Acta Universitatis Ouluensis, Scientiae Rerum Naturalium. Kumpula, J., Colpaert, A., & Anttonen, M. (2007). Does forest harvesting and linear infrastructure change the usability value of pastureland for semidomesticatedreindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus)? Annales Zoologici Fennici, 44, 161e178. Kuuluvainen, T. (2009). Forest management and biodiversity conservation based on natural ecosystem dynamics in Northern Europe: the complexity challenge. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 38, 309e315. € reindeer herding district. (1987e2013). Annual management reports. RovaKyro niemi: Reindeer Herders’ Association. Lindqvist, E., & Posio, P. (Eds.). (2005). The natura guide for lapland. Environment guide, 124 p. 67). Lapland Regional Environment Centre (in Finnish). Lundqvist, H. (2007). Ecological cost-benefit modelling of herbivore habitat quality degradation due to range fragmentation. Transactions in GIS, 11, 745e763. McGarigal, K., & Marks, B. J. (1995). FRAGSTATS: Spatial pattern analysis program for quantifying landscape structure. US Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. €talouden yhteiselo Sattasniemen palMelamies, J. (2011). Poro- ja metsa iskunnanalueella. 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Many a little makes a mickle: Cumulative land cover changes and € reindeer herding district, northern traditional land use in the Kyro Finland Sonja Kivinen a, b, * a b
Department of Geography and Geology, University of Turku, FI-20014, Finland Department of Geography, University of Oulu, P.O. Box 3000, FI-90014, Finland
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 10 April 2015 Received in revised form 26 June 2015 Accepted 26 June 2015 Available online xxx
Traditional land use systems are threatened by land use intensification and resulting land cover transitions in northern areas. This article examines cumulative land cover changes and their impacts on € reindeer herding district in northern Finland. Land cover transitions reindeer grazing grounds in the Kyro were studied using Landsat TM and OLI images and topographic maps. The results showed that the herding district has experienced notable land cover changes during the past decades, and most of these changes were directly related to forestry. The proportion of continuous coniferous forests of the total forest cover declined from 92% to 78% between 1987 and 2013. Approximately one third of the forests outside current conservation areas were disturbed by forest management by 2013, and remaining forests were notably more fragmented than forests within conservation areas. The extent of the road and path networks expanded considerably between 1960s and 2010 as a result of increasing logging and tourism. Accumulation of disturbances gradually results in loss of key resources and declined quality of the landscape mosaic from the reindeer herding perspective, which can pose a serious threat to long-term sustainability of the livelihood. Rapid land cover changes in non-protected areas highlight an increasingly important role of conservation areas in maintaining resources for reindeer husbandry in the face of intensifying land use. Sustainable management of resources outside conservation areas requires careful participatory planning and efficient cumulative impact assessment of different land use activities. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Cumulative impacts Forestry Grazing grounds Land cover Landsat Multiple-use landscape Reindeer herding Traditional land use
1. Introduction Land use intensification in northern regions has resulted in significant land surface alterations during the past decades. Forestry, mining, tourism and energy production have various short- and long-term impacts on landscape structure and functions (Chapin III et al., 2004; Watson, Luck, Spooner, & Watson, 2014). Land cover transformations and competition on land resources have given rise to an increasing number of conflicts especially be€ m et al., tween modern land use and traditional land use (Sandstro 2003; Horstkotte, 2013). High-intensity disturbances over wide geographical areas can strongly alter abiotic and biotic environments and threaten the viability of traditional land use adapted to
* Corresponding author. Present address: Department of Geography and Geology, University of Turku, FI-20014, Finland. E-mail address: sonja.kivinen@utu.fi. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2015.06.013 0143-6228/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
€ m, regional conditions over a long time period (Horstkotte, Sandstro € ffler, 2012). & Moen, 2014; Moen & Keskitalo, 2010; Pape & Lo Reindeer herding is one of the oldest land uses in northern Finland (Forbes & Kumpula, 2009). Reindeer, reindeer herders, and natural and social environment represent a strongly interlinked and constantly co-evolving social-ecological system (Tyler et al., 2007). If the patterns or scales of human actions change, then the natural environment change, and the structure and dynamics of a social-ecological system can change accordingly. Disturbances exceeding a critical threshold may permanently alter a socialecological system and its functioning (Carpenter, Walker, Anderies, & Abel, 2001; Cumming et al., 2005; Zurlini et al., 2006). Land cover disturbances are among the biggest challenges faced by reindeer husbandry in circumpolar areas (Jernsletten & Klokov, 2002; Kitti, Gunslay, & Forbes, 2006). Land cover/use changes occur at different spatial-temporal scales and their interactions can have greater impact on a system than each disturbance itself (Zurlini et al., 2006; Schoon & Cox, 2011).
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Commercial forestry is the major driver of landscape transitions in northern boreal forests with significant impacts on the quantity and quality of reindeer grazing grounds (Horstkotte, 2013; Kivinen, € Berg, Moen, Ostlund, & Olofsson, 2012). Semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) graze freely for the main part of the year on natural pastures in forests, mires and fell regions. Reindeer feed on a wide variety of vascular plants in the summer, whereas their winter diet consists mainly of ground-growing lichens (mainly Cladonia spp.) and arboreal lichens (mainly Bryoria spp. and Alectoria spp.) (Heggberget, Gaare, & Ball, 2002). Modern forest management measures have mainly negative impacts on lichen resources as well as practical reindeer herding (Esseen, Renhom, & Pettersson, 1996; Kivinen, Moen, Berg, & Eriksson, 2010). For example, forestry has resulted in a scarcity of oldgrowth forests that are usually good winter pastures and impor€ tant habitats for arboreal lichens (Berg, Ostlund, Moen, & Olofsson, 2008; Kumpula, Colpaert, & Anttonen, 2007). Conservation areas in Fennoscandia are important for protecting forest biodiversity and landscape values, and they also provide essential resources for reindeer husbandry (Lindqvist & Posio, 2005; Nagendra, 2008; Nieminen, 2010). Road networks and other infrastructure have increased in northern areas as a result of commercial utilization of natural resources and tourism (Koivula, 2005; Riitters & Wickham, 2003). Roads, population centres and tourist resorts have various ecological impacts on their immediate surroundings, and importantly, their additive effect can be substantial at a landscape level, as they increase landscape fragmentation and the amount of various disturbances in the reindeer herding area (Chen & Roberts, 2008; Heilman, Strittholt, Slosser, & Dellasala, 2002; Reindeer Herders' Association, 2014). Reindeer have been reported to avoid infrastructure and sites of human activity up to several kilometers distance, and the area of avoidance may shift between seasons and years (Anttonen, Kumpula, & Colpaert, 2011; Skarin & Åhman, 2014). Reindeer herders are particularly concerned about loss of large, continuous grazing grounds that provide various resources in € nen, Saarikoski, Kumpula, Hyppo €nen, & different seasons (Rytko Hallikainen, 2013). Knowledge on spatial-temporal distribution of resources is important for both practical and decision-making purposes (Gilichinsky et al., 2011; Miranda, Altamirano, Cayuela, €m et al., 2003). This requires a Pincheira, & Lara, 2015; Sandstro comprehensive view on cumulative land cover changes and their impacts that result from for the most part individually minor but collectively significant human activities taking place over a period €ffler, 2012). This study focuses on cumulative of time (see Pape & Lo € reindeer herding district in northland cover changes in the Kyro western Finland. Land cover changes were studied over the past 25e50 years in order to examine accumulation of various pressures on reindeer grazing grounds. The aims of this study were to 1) quantify changes in continuous forest cover and the extent of a road network, 2) compare land cover disturbances within and outside existing conservation areas, and 3) estimate impacts of cumulative land cover changes on seasonal resources for the reindeer herding system. 2. Study area The reindeer herding area covers circa 36% of Finland and has been divided into 54 herding districts of varying sizes (Fig. 1). The € reindeer herding district (A ¼ 1706 km2) study area covers the Kyro located in northwestern Finland. The mean annual temperature is 1.3 C and the mean annual precipitation 547 mm. The region is situated in the northern boreal vegetation zone. It is characterized by coniferous forests (Pinus sylvestris L. and Picea abies (L.) Karst.),
205
large mires and to a lesser extent deciduous forests (mainly Betula spp.). Alpine vegetation is found in northern and western part of the study region (maximum elevation 809 m). A large proportion of the land is state-owned and managed by the state enterprise €hallitus. The largest village Raattama has 160 inhabitants. A Metsa €stunturi national hotel and ski resort is located in the Pallas-Ylla park. € herding district is situated in the area specially The Kyro intended for reindeer husbandry, where land may not be used in a manner that may significantly hinder reindeer herding (The Reindeer Husbandry Act) (Fig. 1). In 2013, the maximum permitted number of reindeer was 3500 and there were 92 reindeer owners in € the herding district. Reindeer husbandry practiced in the Kyro reindeer herding district strongly relies on natural pastures. Winter pastures and summer pastures are separated by a fence (41% and 59% of the total area of the district, respectively) in order to guarantee the availability of resources in different seasons (Ruotsala, 2002). Winter pastures situated in the northern part of the district consists mainly of coniferous forests and mires. Summer pastures include fells, mires and forests in the southern part of the district. Calving areas are mainly located in the western part of the region (Autto, 1975; Helle & Vasama, 1996; Ruotsala, 2002). Conservation areas covered 44% of the total area of the herding district in 2013 (Fig. 1). The oldest protected region, the PallasOunastunturi National Park was established in 1938. In 2005, the national park was extended southwards to cover the Yll€ as-Aakenus €stunturi National protected region and was renamed the Pallas-Ylla Park. The Pulju Wilderness Area was established in 1991 and Lep€vuoma-Murtovaara and Raakevuoma-Vuossija €nk€ pa a Protected Mires in 1988. The national park, the wilderness area and protected mires belong to the Natura 2000 -conservation network. In addition, some old forests in the region were excluded from forestry by €hallitus in 2009. Metsa 3. Material and methods 3.1. Remote sensing data and image classification Forest cover changes were studied using Landsat TM and Landsat OLI data in 30 m spatial resolution. Landsat TM data was obtained in 10 August 1987 and Landsat OLI data in 25 July 2013 (USGS, 2014). No cloudless images were available before 1987 from the study region. Unsupervised maximum likelihood classification was performed using bands 1e5 and 7 of the TM image and bands 2e7 of the OLI image. Open mires and biotopes above the treeline (shrubland, meadows, sparse forest and rocks) were derived from the CORINE Land Cover 2006 database and masked from the forest classification. Forests were classified into two classes: (1) continuous forest cover and (2) disturbed forest cover. Continuous forests included relatively undisturbed, spatiotemporally continuous mature coniferous and mixed forests. Disturbed forests include mainly clear-cuts and young forests as well as forest land converted to infrastructure. The decline of continuous forest cover and accumulation of disturbances, i.e. changes in disturbed forest cover was studied for the time period of 1987e2013. Analyses were carried out using ArcGIS 10.1 software (EsriInc.). The accuracy of forest cover classification was assessed for the year 2013 using aerial photographs acquired in 2010 and 2013 (National Land Survey of Finland). A total of 200 random points of which 100 points classified as continuous forest cover and 100 points classified as disturbed forest cover were selected for a classified image. The overall classification accuracy, the error of commission (false inclusion) and omission (false exclusion) and the kappa coefficient were calculated for continuous forest and disturbed forest cover. The overall accuracy of the classification of
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€ reindeer herding district (A ¼ 1706 km2) located in northwestern Finland. Fig. 1. Land cover types, seasonal grazing areas and conservation areas in the Kyro
forest cover in 2013 was 89.5%. The error of commission was 13.0% for continuous forest and 8.0% for disturbed forest, respectively. The error of omission was 8.4% for continuous forest and 12.4% for disturbed forest, respectively. The kappa coefficient was 0.79 indicating very good reliability. 3.2. GIS data The development of a road network was examined in the 1960s, 1980s and 2010 in order to study expansion of human activities in the region. Road data for the 1960s and 1980s were digitized from a €rvi, Pallastunturi, Pulju and total of eight topographic maps (Jerisja Sirkka) with spatial scale of 1:50 000 and topographic mapping carried out in 1963e1964 and in 1982e1984 (National Land Survey of Finland). Road data for 2010 were derived from a topographic database of Finland (National Land Survey of Finland). Borders of conservation areas existing in 2013 (national park, wilderness area, protected mire) were derived from a database provided by the Finnish Environment Institute. Areas excluded from forestry use €hallitus. Conserwere digitized from the maps provided by Metsa vation areas and areas excluded from forestry use are all referred as conservation areas in this study. 3.3. Spatial analyses Forest cover and the road network was analyzed 1) at the herding district level, 2) within and outside conservation areas (borders from 2013) and 3) in winter grazing and summer grazing areas (Fig. 1). The proportions of continuous forest cover and disturbed forest cover were calculated for 1987 and 2013. Fragmentation of forest cover was analyzed with Fragstats 4.2 software (McGarigal & Marks, 1995) by calculating the mean patch size (MPS), the largest patch index (LPS), and a splitting index (SI) for continuous forests. The largest patch index quantifies the percentage of the total landscape area comprised by the largest patch of continuous forest. The value of splitting index is 1 when the landscape consists of single patch. The splitting index increases as the landscape is increasingly subdivided into smaller patches and achieves its maximum value when the landscape is maximally subdivided, i.e. when every cell is a separate patch. The road network was classified into 1) main roads, 2) vehicle and cart tracks, 3) winter roads and 4) paths. The total length (km)
was calculated for each road class. In order to study the spatial coverage and configuration of different road types, an Euclidean distance to the nearest 1) main road, 2) main road, vehicle/cart track and winter road, and 3) all roads, tracks and paths was calculated in 25 m resolution. A roadless volume (RV) introduced by Watts et al. (2007) was calculated for the same three road classes. RV is calculated as the total sum of grid values of distance to the nearest road multiplied by grid area (625 m). Roads of equal length produce different RV depending on their spatial alignments with respect to other roads. RV is reduced substantially by roads that penetrate remote otherwise roadless areas, whereas roads located close to other roads reduce RV only moderately. Reindeer have been reported to avoid areas located less than 1e1.5 km from the main roads (Anttonen et al., 2011; Lundqvist, 2007). A 1.5 km buffer zone was calculated around the major roads to estimate the proportion of the reindeer herding district covered by this disturbance zone. 4. Results 4.1. Changes in continuous forest cover between 1987 and 2013 Continuous forests covered 54% and disturbed forests 5% of the € reindeer herding district in 1987. In 2013, total land area in the Kyro the proportion of continuous forest cover had declined to 46% and disturbed forest cover increased to 13% of the total area (Fig. 2). Circa 50% of the remaining continuous forests were located within conservation areas covering 44% of the total area of the herding district in 2013. The proportion of continuous forests of the total forest land declined from 92% to 78% during the study period. Outside conservation areas, the proportion of continuous forests of the total forest land declined from 88% to 69% (Table 1a). The cover of continuous forests declined more in the summer grazing area than in the winter grazing area. In 2013, 72% of continuous forests in the winter grazing area and 35% of continuous forests in the summer grazing area were found within conservation areas. Conservation areas covered 65% and 30% of the total land area in the winter grazing area and the summer grazing area, respectively. The mean patch size of continuous forest declined from 34 to 11 ha and the largest patch index from 29 to 14% in the herding district (Table 1b). The mean patch size and the largest patch index declined notably more outside conservation areas than within
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conservation areas. The splitting index increased 4.7-fold within the reindeer herding district, 2.1-fold within conservation areas and 17.8-fold outside conservation areas during the study period. The mean patch size and the largest patch index declined and the splitting index increased both in winter and summer grazing areas.
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Table 1 a) The proportion of continuous and disturbed forest of the total forest area. Statistics for 1987 and 2013 are calculated for existing conservation areas in 2013. b) Fragmentation statistics for continuous forests. MPS ¼ mean patch size, LPI ¼ largest patch index, SI ¼ splitting index. % Of forest area
4.2. Expansion of the road network between the 1960s and 2010 The total length of main roads increased by 74 km in the herding district between the 1960s and 2010 (Fig. 3, Table 2). The total length of vehicle/cart tracks and winter roads increased by 578 km and 444 km, respectively. The total length of paths increased by 78 km between the 1960s and 1980s, and slightly declined by 2010. A majority of main roads, vehicle/cart tracks and winter roads were located outside conservation areas, whereas nearly a half of paths were located within conservation areas. A 1.5 km buffer zone calculated around main roads covered 26% and 34% of the total area of the reindeer herding district in the1960s and 2010, respectively (Fig. 4). The distance to the nearest road, track or path declined by 0.7e1.8 km in the reindeer herding district between the 1960s and 2010. The distances to the nearest road, track or path were 2e4-fold longer within conservation areas compared to the distances outside conservation areas. Roadless volume (RV) calculated for different road types declined by 14e57% between the 1960s and 2010. Roadless volume within conservation areas was clearly greater compared to the RV outside conservation areas. The total length of main roads and cart/vehicle tracks increased more in the summer grazing area than in the winter grazing area (Table 3). The total length of paths increased only in the summer €stunturi National Park. A grazing area, particularly in the Pallas-Ylla 1.5 km buffer zone calculated around main roads covered 8% and 14% of the winter grazing area in the 1960s and 2010, respectively. In the summer grazing area, the proportion covered by the buffer zone was 21% in the 1960s and 47% in 2010. 5. Discussion 5.1. Land cover changes and their impacts on reindeer grazing grounds Fig. 4 and Table 3 summarizes land cover changes and their € herding reported impacts on reindeer grazing grounds in the Kyro district. The results showed that the herding district has
(a) € herding district Kyro Within conservation area Outside conservation area Winter grazing area Summer grazing area Continuous forest
(b) € herding district Kyro Within conservation area Outside conservation area Winter grazing area Summer grazing area
Continuous forest
Disturbed forest
1987
2013
1987
2013
91.8 97.3 87.7 93.6 90.7
78.1 90.9 68.6 83.7 74.9
8.2 2.7 12.3 6.4 9.3
21.9 9.1 31.4 16.3 25.1
MPS (ha)
LPI (%)
1987
2013
1987
2013
SI 1987
2013
34.3 38.5 23.8 25.2 42.3
11.2 16.0 7.7 9.2 13.0
28.5 15.8 33.2 24.5 48.2
13.7 10.6 7.0 6.3 23.2
9.9 20.8 8.6 15.0 4.3
46.3 43.7 153.4 85.3 18.1
experienced notable land cover changes during the past decades, and most of these changes were directly related to forestry. Declining continuous forest cover in the region corresponds with similar findings in other parts of northern Fennoscandia (Berg et al., 2008; Kivinen et al., 2012; Kivinen & Kumpula, 2014). The results also showed that land use changes in the herding district have resulted in a nearly 2.5-fold increase in the total length of a road network during the past 50 years. The main reason for expansion of the road network was intensifying forestry and associated increases in vehicle/cart tracks and winter roads (29-fold and 2.7-fold increase, respectively). Clear-cuts and roads create a fragmented forest landscape that has several adverse effects on resources for reindeer husbandry. The decline of old-growth forests and related loss of arboreal lichens has been reported by reindeer herders as a major negative € reindeer herding district (Ruotsala, land cover change in the Kyro 2002) and in the closely located Sattasniemi reindeer herding district (Melamies, 2011). A notable proportion of good winter pastures in the region are located at relatively high elevations where the renewal of forest is slow (Ruotsala, 2002). Clear-cutting in these environments together with shortened rotation cycles can strongly decrease the availability of arboreal lichens (Esseen et al.,
Fig. 2. Continuous and disturbed forest cover in 1987 and 2013.
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S. Kivinen / Applied Geography 63 (2015) 204e211
€ reindeer herding district between 1960's and 2010. Fig. 3. The development of the road network in the Kyro
Table 2 € herding district in 1960s, 1980s, and 2010. Characteristics of the road network in the Kyro Length (km)
Main road Vehicle/cart track Winter road Path Distance to the nearest (km) Main road Roads and tracks Roads, tracks and paths Roadless volume (km3) Main road Roads and tracks All roads, tracks and paths
€ herding district Kyro
Within CA
Outside CA
1960s
1980s
2010
2010
2010
166 157 16 245
204 279 90 323
240 421 460 300
3 27 63 140
236 394 397 160
4.1 3.2 2.2 7028 5432 3704
3.6 2.1 1.7 6216 3605 2822
3.5 1.4 1.1 6053 2333 1848
5.1 2.4 1.9 3838 1792 1402
2.3 0.6 0.5 2213 541 446
CA ¼ Conservation area.
1996). Furthermore, fragmentation of old forests hinder dispersal of arboreal lichens to new areas (Dettki, 1998), and can result in significant long-term loss of biomass of arboreal lichens in the land€mås, & Helle, 2011; Kivinen et al., 2012). scape (Horstkotte, Moen, La
€ reindeer herding district. See Fig. 4. A summary of land cover/use changes in the Kyro Table 3 for reported impacts of forestry (1, 4), nature conservation (2, 5), and infrastructure and tourism (3, 6).
Maintaining the long-term availability of arboreal lichen resources would require more detailed landscape-level planning of clearcuttings e.g. by including efficient dispersal distances into logging plans. €nen et al. (2013) addressed an important knowledge gap Rytko in understanding the significance of different factors affecting lichen resources in the long-term as well as the long-term effects of € soil preparation on the condition of lichen pastures. In the Kyro herding district, reindeer herders have reported logging residues left on the ground to suppress the growth of ground lichens as well as to hinder reindeer access to lichens (Ruotsala, 2002; see also Melamies, 2011). Also other forest management practices, such as soil scarification carried out after clear-cutting reduces the biomass of ground lichens (Roturier & Bergsten, 2006). In addition, changes in forest structure can have impacts on reindeer grazing through altered snow conditions. Snow cover is often deeper and more hard-packed in clear-cuts than in forests and can hinder reindeer digging through the snow to reach ground lichens (Roturier & Roue, 2009; Melamies, 2011). Declining area of undisturbed winter grazing grounds increases the need for supplementary feeding and, € consequently, costs of reindeer husbandry (Kumpula, 2001; Kyro reindeer herding district 1987e2013). Forestry can also have negative impacts on summer grazing grounds. For example, Helle & Vasama (1996) reported the negative effects of large-scale ditching and chemical herbicides on summer grazing and pasture rotation in € herding district. the Kyro € reindeer herding Expansion of the road network in the Kyro district has resulted in large-scale fragmentation of grazing
S. Kivinen / Applied Geography 63 (2015) 204e211
209
Table 3 A summary of changes in land cover/use and their reported impacts on reindeer grazing grounds. See Fig. 4 for the related map. Pasture
Land use
Land cover/use
Changea
Impactsb-f
Winter 1
Forestry
Continuous forest cover
11%
Vehicle/cart tracks, winter roads
þ148 km
Fragmentation of grazing grounds Decline of arboreal lichens Altered snow conditions hinder digging ground-growing lichens Increasing grazing pressure in suitable areas Decreasing pasture area and increasing disturbances Facilitate practical reindeer herding Undisturbed forests, lichen resources Disturbances Disturbances
2 3
Nature conservation Infrastructure, tourism
Conservation areas Main roads, 1.5 km buffer zonee Snowmobile routes
All after 1987 þ16% Not studied
Summer 4
Forestry
Continuous forest cover
17%
5 6
Nature conservation Infrastructure, tourism
Vehicle/cart tracks, winter roads Conservation areas Main roads, 1.5 km buffer zonee Paths
þ560 km þ67% þ31% þ70 km
a b c d e f
Fragmentation of grazing grounds Forest drainage and soil scarification hinder reindeer movement Decreasing pasture area and increasing disturbances Undisturbed forests and other biotopes Disturbances Disturbances
Forest cover: 1987 vs. 2013; A road network and conservation areas: 1960s vs. 2010. € reindeer herding district (1987e2013). Kyro Ruotsala (2002). Nieminen (2010). Anttonen et al. (2011). Melamies (2011).
grounds. The total length of main roads and logging roads increased particularly in the summer grazing area. Anttonen et al. (2011) reported that main roads can have a notable impact on reindeer home range selection and within-home range selection, and the avoidance behaviour of reindeer may differ between seasons. The ecological impact of roads may also differ according to traffic volumes (Forman & Alexander, 1998), which hamper the estimation of the total impacts of roads on reindeer grazing (Anttonen et al., 2011). Logging roads increase disturbances in the landscape, as reindeer may follow them into wrong pasture areas and roads can contribute to reindeer thefts. On the other hand, logging roads can also facilitate practical reindeer herding activities (Ruotsala, 2002; Huusko, 2008; Melamies, 2011). 5.2. Reindeer herding and multiple-use landscapes The proportion of disturbed forests and fragmentation of grazing grounds increased notably outside conservation areas in the € reindeer herding district during the past 25 years. The study of Kyro Kumpula et al. (2007) showed that in northern Finland the largest continuous winter grazing grounds in mature and old-growth forests are nowadays found in conservation areas. These results highlight the importance of nature conservation areas at limiting overall land cover changes (Nagendra, 2008) and supporting longterm resource availability for traditional land use. Spruce forests with abundant arboreal lichens and early snow melt areas in the Pallastunturi (currently Pallas-Yll€ astunturi) national park have been reported already in the 1970s being essential resources for € reindeer herding district (Autto, reindeer husbandry in the Kyro 1975). A questionnaire survey of Nieminen (2010) in the Finnish reindeer herding area showed that a majority of reindeer herders were of the opinion that conservation areas benefit reindeer herding, and nearly all herders considered protection of forest land important (see also Ruotsala, 2002). Old-growth coniferous forests harbor important resources for reindeer herding as well as high biodiversity values (Esseen, €m, Ericson, & Sjo € berg, 1997; Kuuluvainen, 2009). AccordEhnstro ing to Rassi et al. (2010), forests are the most important habitat for threatened species in Finland, and more than one third of threatened forest species are old-growth specialists. One of the major
recent conflicts between foresty and other land uses concerned old wilderness-like forests in Central Lapland (Forest Lapland dispute). € reindeer herding district contains a part of these intact The Kyro forests that were threatened by clear-cutting during the past decade. After a dispute of several years between environmental organizations, local municipalities, reindeer owners' co-operatives €hallitus, the sections in most natural and the state enterprise Metsa state in these areas were permanently excluded from forestry in 2009. Restricted forestry was allowed in some areas, and some areas stayed open for regular forestry that needs to take into account the needs of multiple-use (Fig. 1). However, the agreement did not convert these set-aside forests into true protected areas. Reindeer herders have suggested that these areas containing important winter grazing resources should be included into the € reindeer herding district adjacent wilderness area (Kyro 1987e2013). In addition to forestry, infrastructure and activities related to tourism have resulted in loss of suitable grazing grounds in Fennoscandia. Reindeer have been reported to avoid population centres, tourist resorts and mountain cabins by a distance of €, 1993; Skarin & 2.5e12 km (Anttonen et al., 2011; Helle & S€ arkela Åhman, 2014), although reindeer can become adapted to human activity to some extent for example in an area offering good € m, & Moen, nutrition (Helle et al., 2012; Skarin, Danell, Bergstro 2010). During the study period of 50 years, the path network €stunturi national park, which expanded noticeably in the Pallas-Ylla is the most popular national park in Finland with 436 000 visitors €sja €rvi, 2011). The impact of tourism on in 2010 (Rantatalo & Ylla reindeer grazing was noticed in the 1970s, when reindeer started to avoid traditional summer pastures located within the national park due to increased disturbances in fell areas (Autto, 1975; Ruotsala, 2002). Reindeer are particularly vulnerable for disturbances during calving time in the late spring, which is also a high season for tourism in fells. Increasing popularity of recreational snowmobiling and husky safaris have also increased disturbances € reindeer in winter and spring grazing areas (Ruotsala, 2002; Kyro herding district 1987e2013). In general, reindeer herders demand a more holistic discussion about nature conservation planning, reserve management strategies and multiple land use questions in the region (Heikkinen, Sarkki, Jokinen, & Fornander,
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2010: see also Southwoth et al. 2006). 6. Conclusions € reindeer herding district illusLand cover changes in the Kyro trates rapid land use intensification in northern areas during the past decades. Most human activities in the forest landscape, such as a single clear-cut, have individually minor impacts on resources of traditional land use, but collectively over time their impact is more substantial. It is thus essential to study different types of disturbances in order to get a comprehensive view of various pressures on a reindeer herding system. Accumulation of land cover changes caused by forestry, road building and tourism gradually result in loss of key resources and declined quality of the landscape mosaic from a reindeer herding perspective. Land cover disturbances can also cause increasing grazing pressure in remaining suitable grazing grounds, which in a long-term may result in further declines in resources. Loss of suitable pasture land and other disturbances diminish the ability of the reindeer herding system to respond and adapt to annual natural variations in grazing conditions as well as new disturbances in the district. These developments can ultimately threaten the long-term economical sustainability of the livelihood. Comparisons of land cover transitions within and outside conservation areas provide more detailed information on rates and magnitudes of various disturbances. The results showed that conservation areas have reduced loss of continuous forest cover and landscape fragmentation at the landscape level. This highlights an increasingly important role of conservation areas in maintaining resources for reindeer husbandry in the face of on-going land use intensification. Sustainable management of resources outside conservation areas requires careful participatory planning and efficient cumulative impact assessment of different land use activities. Acknowledgements This study was funded by the Academy of Finland (CLADINAProject No. 128615) and the Nordic Council of Ministers (Nordic Centre of Excellence Tundra). I thank three anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments on the manuscript. References Anttonen, M., Kumpula, J., & Colpaert, A. (2011). Range selection by semidomesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in relation to infrastructure and human activity in the boreal forest environment, northern Finland. Arctic, 64, 1e14. € n paliskunta. Poromies, 4, 16e18. Autto, E. (1975). Kyro € Berg, A., Ostlund, L., Moen, J., & Olofsson, J. (2008). A century of logging and forestry in a reindeer herding area in northern Sweden. Forest Ecology and Management, 256, 1009e1020. Carpenter, S. R., Walker, M., Anderies, J. M., & Abel, N. (2001). From metaphor to measurement: resilience of what to what? Ecosystems, 4, 765e781. Chapin, F. S., III, Peterson, G., Berkes, F., Callaghan, T. V., Angelstam, P., Apps, M., et al. (2004). Resilience and vulnerability of northern regions to social and environmental change. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 33, 344e349. Chen, X., & Roberts, K. A. (2008). Roadless areas and biodiversity: a case study in Alabama, USA. Biodiversity & Conservation, 17, 2013e2022. Cumming, G. S., Barnes, G., Perz, S., Schmink, M., Sieving, K., Southworth, J., et al. (2005). An exploratory framework for the empirical measurement of resilience. Ecosystems, 8, 975e987. Dettki, H. (1998). Dispersal of fragments of two pendulous lichen species. Sauteria, 9, 123e132. €m, B., Ericson, L., & Sjo € berg, K. (1997). Boreal forests. Ecological Esseen, P.-A., Ehnstro Bulletins, 46, 16e47. Esseen, P.-A., Renhom, K.-E., & Pettersson, R. (1996). Epiphytic lichen biomass in managed and old-growth boreal forests: effect of branch quality. Ecological Applications, 6, 228e238. Forbes, B. C., & Kumpula, T. (2009). The ecological role and geography of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) in northern Eurasia. Geography Compass, 3, 1356e1380.
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