Marine plastic litter in the ROPME Sea Area: Current knowledge and recommendations

Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 187 (2020) 109839

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Marine plastic litter in the ROPME Sea Area: Current knowledge and recommendations

T

B.P. Lyonsa,∗, W.J. Cowieb, T. Maesc, W.J.F. Le Quesnec a

Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture (Cefas), Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom Environment Agency, Abu Dhabi, Al Mamoura Building, Murour Road, PO Box:45553, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates c Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture (Cefas), Lowestoft, Suffolk, NR33 0HT, United Kingdom b

A R T I C LE I N FO

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Marine litter Microplastics ROPME Arabian gulf Plastics

The impact of marine litter, particularly plastic waste, is widely acknowledged as a growing global concern. Marine litter is an understudied issue in the Regional Organisation for Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) Sea Area where rapid economic growth has already placed considerable stress on infrastructure and coastal ecosystems. This paper outlines some of the drivers for waste generation in region and reviews the available literature to summarise the current state of knowledge on the environmental fate, behaviour and impact of marine litter within the ROPME Sea Area. While data is limited, those studies conducted demonstrate marine litter is posing a clear and growing threat to the environmental and socioeconomic prosperity of the ROPME Sea Area. The development of regional and national marine litter reduction plans are clearly a priority to focus and coordinate activity across multiple stakeholders. Discussion of the potential environmental impacts arising as a result of marine litter are presented together with a roadmap for establishing and implementing a ROPME Sea Area Marine Litter and Single-Use Plastic Action Plan.

1. Introduction The term “marine litter” or “marine debris” has been introduced to describe discarded, disposed of, or abandoned human-made objects present in the marine and coastal environment (UNEP, 2009; UNEP, 2016). It is now recognised that marine litter is a major global problem with its origins predominately coming from land-based sources (Jambeck et al., 2015). Data demonstrates that litter can be found in nearly every marine environment, from coastal zones near major urban areas, to the deepest parts of the ocean and remote areas of the Arctic ice sheet (Browne et al., 2011; Bergmann and Klages, 2012; Galgani, 2015; Woodall et al., 2015; Law, 2017; Maes et al., 2018). Its composition includes materials such as metals, ceramics, glass, textiles and wood. However, by far the largest and probably most harmful fraction of marine litter is plastic-based. In 2017 the global production of plastic reached 348 million tonnes, and the volume is expected to double over the next two decades (World Economic Forum, 2016; European Commission, 2018; UNEP, 2018). It has been estimated that annually 13 million tonnes of plastics enter the ocean and its surrounding environment every year, posing a serious and growing threat to both marine life and the goods and services that marine ecosystems provided (United Nations, 2018).

∗

Plastic based litter can have a wide variety of impacts in the marine environment (Gall and Thompson, 2015; Galloway et al., 2017; Beaumont et al., 2019). It can directly impact wildlife, causing the injury and death of marine birds, mammals, fish and turtles as a result of entanglement, including rare and endangered species (Gregory, 2009; Stelfox et al., 2016; Lusher et al., 2018). Ingestion by marine animals is also a growing concern (Bonanno and Orlando-Bonaca, 2018; Fossi et al., 2018). Research conducted in Australia has shown a 50% probability of morality in marine turtles once an animal has ingested 14 pieces of plastic (Wilcox et al., 2018). While data collected from the sea bird species, northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) sampled from the North Sea revealed that 95% of birds had plastic (on average 35 pieces weighing 0.31 g) in their stomachs (van Franeker et al., 2011). Often the cause of morality in such cases is linked to physical damaged (e.g. perforation and or blockage) of the gastrointestinal tract, or malnutrition due to plastics replacing prey items in the diet (Nelms et al., 2016; Roman et al., 2019). Once ingested, plastics also pose a risk due to the chemical additives contained within them, or adsorbed onto their surface. While data on the toxicological risk of plastics (or its additives and co-absorbed chemicals) is limited, the threat posed to both marine species (Burns and Boxall, 2018) and to human health if plastic contaminated seafood is consumed (Barboza et al., 2018), is a growing area

Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (B.P. Lyons).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.109839 Received 11 June 2019; Received in revised form 15 October 2019; Accepted 18 October 2019 0147-6513/ Crown Copyright © 2019 Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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of Climate Change and Environment estimated that residents in the Emirates were using 11 billion plastic bags annually (Pandey, 2016). In Abu Dhabi, this contributes to a daily average municipal solid waste generation of 1.56 kg/capita/day (EAD, 2016b). Such information reflects the extent of plastic bag and bottle use in the region and the subsequent pressures placed on the developing waste sector. Across the region recycling rates are generally below 10%, which while not uncommon globally fall below more developed sectors, such as the EU where rates of over 40% are achieved (Al-Maaded et al., 2012; EEA, 2018; GPCA, 2016; Al Lahou and Alsabbaagh, 2019).

of research. Beyond direct environmental damage, plastic pollution also has huge social and economic impact (UNEP, 2016; United Nations, 2018; UNEP, 2018). Annually it is estimated that globally litter causes $13 billion worth of economic damage to marine ecosystems (UNEP, 2018). While economic analysis of the impacts of marine litter on natural capital, based on 2011 ecosystem services values and litter load, estimated costs equating to between $3300 and $33,000 per tonne of plastic per year entering the marine environment (Beaumont et al., 2019). More focused regional assessments of the economic impact of marine litter have also been undertaken. In the Asia-Pacific region, tourism, fishing and shipping industries are estimated to be impacted by $1.3 billion per year, while in Europe the cost of removing litter from coasts is calculated to be $720 million per year (UNEP, 2018; United Nations, 2018). Disposal of plastic waste, and the threat it poses to the marine environment, is emerging as an important environmental challenge in the Middle East (PERSGA/UNEP (2008); Zafar, 2015; Kaza et al., 2018). This review considers the maritime area covered by the Regional Organisation for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME). ROPME is the regional seas convention established by Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The maritime area covered by ROPME (Fig. 1) is known as the ROPME Sea Area. The status of marine litter in the ROPME Sea Area is of specific interest due to a range of demographic and socioeconomic factors. Countries bordering the ROPME Sea Area are undergoing rapid economic and population growth, and a number have already developed more than 40% of their coastline (Hanneke et al., 2012). This urban expansion is leading to a rapid influx of labour to service the economic growth and prosperity of the region. Countries comprising the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), which boarder the western side of the ROPME Sea Area, have seen population growth rates in recent decades that rank amongst the highest recorded globally (Cebr, 2014). This unprecedented rate of development has created significant environmental and socioeconomic challenges (Sheppard et al., 2010; Hanneke et al., 2012; Devlin et al., 2015; Sheppard, 2016). Pressure on the coastal and marine ecosystem is especially high in countries such as Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar and the UAE where most of the population live within close proximity to the coastal environment (Hanneke et al., 2012). Global estimates suggest 80% of marine litter is derived from land-based sources (UNEP, 2016) and its localised abundance is linked to levels of waste management infrastructure, urbanisation and recreational activity (Jambeck et al., 2015; Sarafraz et al., 2016; Araújo et al., 2018). Therefore, it is timely to review the status of marine litter in the ROPME Sea Area and consider what actions may be required at a national and regional level to curb its input and accumulation.

1.2. The extent and impacts of marine litter in the ROPME Sea Area Within the ROPME Sea Area the distribution and composition of litter accumulating in the marine environment is poorly understood, with only a limited number of peer-reviewed reports available (Table 1). Although additional studies are underway (e.g. Saeed, 2018) this review only considers publicly available and peer-reviewed studies. Regionally, such data is essential as understanding the source, transport, accumulation and impact of plastic waste in the marine environment is a key component in the development of plastic pollution mitigation strategies (Schwarz et al., 2019). The first reports originated in the late 1980s and documented the presence of industrial plastic pellets along the shorelines of Kuwait (Shiber, 1989), Oman and the UAE (Khordagui et al., 1994). The studies documented widespread pollution of plastic production pellets (also referred to as nurdles), predominantly around the shorelines of the UAE (approx. 1000–60,000 pellets per m2) and to a lesser extent Oman (approx. 50–200 pellets per m2) (Khordagui et al., 1994). The density of pellet pollution varied greatly and even included intact 25 kg sacks containing the pellets that had been washed ashore. At the same time as the studies were conducted, the production volumes of polyethylene, vinyl and polyvinyl chloride were dramatically increasing in manufacturing facilities in the region and the authors linked this to a possible worsening of the situation in the years to come (Khordagui et al., 1994). Few other studies describing the composition and abundance of beach litter in the region are currently available. Those from Oman are over 15 years old and at the time reported a relatively low density of litter pollution, compared to other global studies (Claereboudt, 2004). This early study examined a series of 100 m transects on 11 beaches west of Muscat. The beaches were sub-sampled on two consecutive months with plastic and fishing related debris dominating the makeup of the litter recorded. More recently work published in Iran employing the OSPAR guidelines identified plastic and polystyrene based products, including caps/lids, drinks bottles and crisp/sweet packets as dominating the composition of beach litter (74–81%) on a stretch of coast close to Bandar Abbas in the Strait of Hormuz (Sarafraz et al., 2016). Further analysis of the data indicated that tourism and recreational activities were responsible for more than 90% of the litter observed on the beach surveyed. Similar compositions of beach litter were reported for the area in a follow up study investigating microplastic (MP) concentrations in coastal sediments (Naji et al., 2017b). While these studies predominantly focused on sandy shores, data has also been published for other types of coastal habitat (Martin et al., 2019). A survey of 4 mangrove forest locations on the Gulf coast of Saudi Arabia identified that such habitats can act as traps for marine litter. Plastic waste accounted for 95% of the total litter items observed with rope, plastic bags, food and drinks containers dominating the composition recorded. The make-up and density of litter was linked to the proximity of human activity in the region (Martin et al., 2019). A limited amount of data has also been reported during voluntary beach cleans and captured via ‘citizen science’ data hubs, such as those supported by the Clean Swell initiative (Ocean Conservancy, 2017). While not providing information at the same resolution (in terms of litter categories) as work conducted following UNEP or OSPAR guidelines, the data, as would be expected, identifies plastic waste as the main source of marine litter pollution in

1.1. The growing waste issue in countries surrounding the ROPME Sea Area The gross urban waste generation in the Middle East now exceeds 150 million tonnes per year (Zafar, 2018). In affluent GCC nations, municipal solid waste streams can contain up to 21% plastic-based items (Al-Maaded et al., 2012; Alsulaili et al., 2014; GPCA, 2016). This is in part driven by the local production of plastics, which in the GCC has seen 11% per annum growth over the last decade, reaching 27.1 million tonnes in 2016 (GPCA, 2016). Following global trends plastic waste generation in the region is continuing to grow, as an increase in consumer spending translates to higher consumption of plastics, particularly those designed to be single use. Worldwide the consumption of bottled water reached 100 billion gallons in 2017, and this is one of the many contributing factors helping to drive the boom in plastic production and use (BWR, 2017). The UAE, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia are regularly in the top 10% of global consumers per capita of bottled water and it is estimated that the average UAE resident uses 450 plastic bottles every year (BWR, 2017; Pandey, 2016). The region also has high consumption rates of single-use plastic bags. In 2013 the UAE's Ministry 2

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Fig. 1. The ROPME Sea Area (water body within solid black line), comprising the Inner ROPME Sea Area (Arabian or Persian Gulf), the Middle ROPME Sea Area (Sea of Oman) the outer ROPME Sea area (northern Indian Ocean, Oman coast).

Sea of Oman have been attributed to lost fishing gear (Farkas et al., 2017), while 52% of documented turtle moralities in Abu Dhabi have been linked to illegal or abandoned nets (EAD, 2016a). Research into the impacts of ghost fishing by abandoned or lost fishing gear has been conducted in the waters off the coast of Muscat (Sultanate of Oman) (Al-Masroori et al., 2004). Experimental field-based studies used deployed traps (termed gargoors) to simulate lost fishing gear. The authors reporting that the traps, once discarded, still had the potential to capture 1.34 kg/trap per day, which was modelled to predict mortality rates of 67 kg/trap and 78 kg/trap over a 3 and 6-month time period respectively. Significantly, from a fisheries management perspective the traps still targeted commercially important fish, which accounted for 83% of the species recorded. Recent work has also highlighted the risk such abandoned traps pose to marine turtles, with data from the UAE implicating them in the standings of the IUCN Red List endangered species, green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) (Yaghmour et al., 2018a,

the region. Globally cigarette butts are one of the most common forms of litter in the marine environment and their widespread abundance has been documented along shorelines of the ROPME Sea Area (Dobaradaran et al., 2017a, 2017b; Ocean Conservancy, 2017). Such debris, while causing aesthetic problems, also poses a toxicological risk via the metals and other contaminants associated with used cigarette butts (Dobaradaran et al., 2017b). Studies conducted in Kuwait reported the removal of over 7–8 tonnes of plastic waste from areas of coastline and linked the accumulation of mercury (Hg) in crustacean and gastropod species to the quantity of plastic waste at the sampling locations (BuOlayan and Thomas, 2015). Entanglement or entrapment of marine animals in litter, particularly that associated with the fishing industry (old traps or nets) has been widely reported in a growing number of studies globally (Stelfox et al., 2016). Mortalities of leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) in the 3

4

Marine Biota MPs

MPs

MPs Macro litter Macro litter Macro litter

Iran, Qeshm Island

Iran, Musa Estuary

Kuwait

Oman, Gulf of Oman Oman, Gulf of Oman

UAE, Gulf of Oman Fujairah UAE UAE Macro litter Macro litter

MPs

Iran, Khark Island

MPs

Macro litter

Saudi Arabia

Iran, Gulf of Oman

Macro litter

MPs

MPs MPs Macro litter MPs

Kuwait Kuwait Oman, Gulf of Oman Qatar (multiple sites around country) UAE

Qatar

Macro litter

Kuwait

MPs MPs

MPs

Iran, Strait of Hormuz

Kuwait Qatar

MPs MPs

Iran, Khark Island Iran, Strait of Hormuz

Sea surface/water column

Macro litter Macro litter

Iran, Strait of Hormuz Iran, Bushehr region

Intertidal beach

Microplastics (MPs)/Macro litter

Location

Marine Compartment

Farkas et al. (2017) Yaghmour et al. (2018a) Yaghmour et al., 2018b

Standings of green turtles (C. mydas) linked to entrapment in fishing traps (gargoors). Ingestion of marine debris by green sea turtles (C. mydas), from the eastern coast of the UAE.

Ferreira et al. (2006) Al-Masroori et al. (2004)

Saeed (2018)

Abbasi et al. (2018)

Naji et al. (2018)

Akhbarizadeh et al. (2018)

Aliabad et al. (2019)

Abayomi et al. (2017)

Saeed (2018) Castillo et al. (2016)

Martin et al. (2019)

Khordagui et al. (1994)

Saeed (2018) Shiber (1989) Claereboudt (2004) Abayomi et al. (2017)

Bu-Olayan and Thomas (2015)

Naji et al. (2017b)

Sarafraz et al. (2016) Dobaradaran et al., 2017a; Dobaradaran et al. (2017b) Akhbarizadeh et al. (2017) Naji et al. (2017a)

Reference

Shorelines surveys conducted according to OSPAR guidelines along 100 m and 1 km transects. Quantity of cigarette butts in surface sediments and concentrations of Hg and Pb within cigarette butts, at nine stations along coastline. Risk posed by MPs and metals found in coastal sediments collected from the intertidal zone. MPs quantification and morphology to assess the abundance, distribution, and polymer types in littoral surface sediments. Assessment of MPs contamination in shoreline sediments. MPs extraction via fluidization/floatation methodology and polymer composition with FT-IR analysis. Removal of plastic waste form intertidal areas across Kuwait and the study of Hg contamination in plastics and potential of bioaccumulation in resident species of crustaceans and gastropods. Sediment samples collected from 50 locations along the Kuwait's coast. Plastic pellet (nurdles) distribution along 12 shore lines in Kuwait. Beach debris abundance and weight were estimated from surveys on 11 beaches North of Muscat. Eight sandy beaches along the coastline of Qatar sampled. Sediments from the top 2 cm were collected. Visual identification of MPs under a stereomicroscope and polymer composition with FT-IR analysis. 15 coastal sites along east and west coastline of UAE assessed for litter (including industrial plastic pellets). Study of 4 mangrove forests in the RSA to act as traps for macro-plastics (similar work conducted in the Red sea in the same study). Seawater sampling conducted during 40, 1 km trawls in coastal waters using 300 μm neuston net. Surface water samples collected from 12 marine stations within the north-eastern section of Qatar's EEZ using a plankton tow-net mesh size 120 μm. Visual identification using a stereomicroscope and polymer composition with FT-IR analysis. Surface neuston net (mesh 300 μm), used to sample surface waters in a transect (4 sites) from the entrance of Doha Bay to 20 km offshore. Visual identification using a stereomicroscope and polymer composition with FT-IR analysis. Surface neuston net (mesh 333 μm) samples, from 7 stations within Chabahar Bay. MPs visually counted by stereomicroscope and further identified by ATR-FTIR spectroscopy. Study investigated the risk posed by MPs and metals in the edible tissue of 4 commercially exploited fish species sampled from local markets in the local fishmongers. Whole body analysis of MPs (between 10 and 5000 μm in diameter) abundance in five species of molluscs with different feeding strategies. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) used to identify the morphology and chemical composition analysis using FT-IR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy). Tissue samples of 4 commercial fish (gastrointestinal tracts, skin, muscle, gills and liver) and crustacean exoskeleton and muscle) species examined for MPs. Mainly fibrous MPs identified in all species and tissues examined. Clams and fish were examined for the presence of microplastics and polymer type characterised using Raman spectrometry. Marine litter in the stomach contents of green sea turtles (C. mydas) Simulating the ability of lost fishing traps to continue catching fish on fishing grounds near Muscat, Sultanate of Oman. Morality of leatherback turtle (D. coriacea) linked to lost/abandoned fishing gear.

Summary of sampling approach

Table 1 Summary of macro litter and microplastic (MPs) studies conducted within the Regional Organisation for Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) Sea Area.

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observed. It is now recognised that both land-based and ocean-based sources contribute to the concentration of MPs in marine samples. A growing body of evidence has documented the ingestion of MPs and larger litter items in marine organisms, including commercially important species (GESAMP, 2015; Wesch et al., 2016; Barboza et al., 2018). It is also known that MPs can act as vectors for organic and inorganic pollutants in aquatic environments, posing a potential toxicological threat to wildlife and humans as they enter marine food webs (Pittura et al., 2018). However, the full extent of the risk posed by ingesting plastic contaminated seafood is yet to be determined (United Nations, 2018). Studies in the ROPME Sea Area have also highlighted this risk, with work identifying MPs and their potential for marine food chain accumulation in mollusc species sampled from within the Strait of Hormuz (Naji et al., 2018) and fish and crustacean species from the Musa Estuary (Abbasi et al., 2018). Further studies have also identified MPs and metals in the edible portions of fish, including the Orange-spotted Grouper (Epinephelus coioides) and Pickhandle Barracuda (Sphyraena jello) sampled from local fish markets (Akhbarizadeh et al., 2018). The studies estimated intake of MPs to be between 169 and 555 items per portion (estimated at 300 g-week) consumed. While useful background information the work described highlights the issues encountered when studying MPs, where differences in the definition (size limits) and methods (e.g. sampling and reporting units) and lack of clear QA/QC procedures adopted by different research groups make direct comparison and verification of data between studies difficult.

2018b). The same study documenting perforation of the gastrointestinal tract in a stranded C. mydas, resulting from the ingestion of rusted gargoor fragments. Furthermore, the same authors in a separate study identified the extensive presence of ingested plastic items in the stomachs of C. mydas found stranded along the eastern coast of the UAE (Yaghmour et al., 2018b). The survey, which examined 14 stranded turtles, observed 86% of specimens has consumed marine debris (61.9 ± 17.2 items of 1.0 ± 0.3 g mass), which was dominated by white and transparent sheet like material. In 2001 studies conducted at Ra's Al Hadd in Oman found litter represented 7% of the food items recovered (dry weight) in stranded C. mydas (Ferreira et al., 2006). While earlier studies conducted in previous decades had failed to observe any litter in the stomach contents of stranded C. mydas sampled from the region (Hasbún et al., 2000; Ross, 1985). These results mirror global trends, which demonstrate the increasing consumption of litter by marine turtles compared to historical records (Schuyler et al., 2013). Along with the direct introduction of microplastics (MPs) into the ROPME Sea Area (through accidental spills or the wastewater system) the breakdown of larger plastics items will contribute to the deposition and accumulation of MPs in the marine environment, especially as rates of degradation are likely to be accelerated by the harsh environmental conditions of the region (Sheppard et al., 2010; Al-Salem et al., 2015). Baseline studies of MPs for the ROPME Sea Area are now starting to emerge with data available for MPs concentrations in the offshore marine waters of Qatar's Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (Castillo et al., 2016; Abayomi et al., 2017) and the Gulf of Oman (Aliabad et al., 2019). In Qatar concentrations detected (0–3 MP m−3) were similar to those reported for North East Atlantic and European coastal waters (Lusher et al., 2014; Maes et al., 2017). Castillo and colleagues used Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometry to identify thirty, mainly granular or fibrous MPs polymer types in surface seawater samples, with polypropylene dominating the composition. Likewise, water samples collected from Chabahar Bay (Gulf of Oman), contained similar densities of MPs with polyethylene and polypropylene fibres being the most abundant MPs in the samples analysed (Aliabad et al., 2019). Further studies in Qatar by Abayomi et al. (2017) employed different sampling and reporting methods, but again found concentrations of MPs in seawater to be in the range previously reported for marine coastal waters (GESAMP, 2015). Fibres were again the predominant MPs at all sampling stations, representing 94% of the total plastics identified. In the study intertidal sediments were also collected from locations around Qatar and examined for MPs contamination (Abayomi et al., 2017). No significant differences were reported between the populated and remote areas sampled, with the authors suggesting that MPs are evenly distributed in intertidal sandy sediments around Qatar. This was attributed to a combination of effective beach litter clearance in residential areas and sources of MPs mainly originating from sea-based sources, with the local fragmentation of beach litter making a smaller contribution. As reported elsewhere, fibres (44%) were the most abundant form of MP identified followed by films (40%) and fragments (14%) (Abayomi et al., 2017). Studies of intertidal sediments along the Iranian coast of the Strait of Hormuz also identified fibres (83%) as the most abundant MP type (Naji et al., 2017b). The number of MPs/kg measured were linked to the level of anthropogenic activity in the area and polyethylene (PE), nylon, and PET (polyethylene terephthalate) were the predominant polymers detected. Sources of MPs were identified as beach debris and fishing gear, along with the fibres associated with both municipal and industrial wastewater. A follow-on study in the same area again identified fibres linked to wastewater discharges associated within littoral sediments (Naji et al., 2017a). Similar studies conducted on Khark Island, located in the southwest of Iran, observed that fragments (61.7%) dominate the make-up of MPs in intertidal sediments (Akhbarizadeh et al., 2017). Concentrations again varied between sites, but as with previous studies a positive correlation between the human population density and industrial activity with the abundance of MPs was

1.3. Stemming the tide of marine litter in the ROPME Sea Area The primary challenge in mitigating the impact of marine litter is to reduce the land and sea-based sources by improving waste management and practice of 4Rs principles (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Redesign) to stop it entering the marine environment. It is suggested that the regulatory procedures and policies introduced nationally across the ROPME Sea area will always be unequal to the task of controlling the amount of plastic waste entering the marine environment unless decisions are made within a comprehensive regionally based planning and management framework. Tackling the marine litter crisis is not a straightforward, one-size-fits-all solution, but rather an integrated and continuous effort requiring action at a local, regional and global level. It is widely accepted that marine litter generation and prevention are clearly linked to a variety of human activities and policy areas operating at both national and international levels (Trouwborst, 2011). Furthermore, the primary actions to tackle the issue need to target terrestrial policies and practices (Jambeck et al., 2015; UNEP, 2016). Therefore, to address both its sources and impact, legislation, agreements and actions are required across multiple sectors. These need to include litter reduction initiatives focusing on solid waste and wastewater management, transboundary issues, product design, shipping, fisheries policies, and consumer driven behavioural patterns (GESAMP, 2015; UNEP, 2016; World Economic Forum, 2016; UNEP, 2018). As awareness of the scale of the marine litter problem has grown, international policy has been developed to tackle the issue. In 2018 the European Union introduced a European Strategy for Plastics in a Circular Economy, which outlined a vision and set of management measures to tackle the most common forms of plastic waste littering the environment (European Commission, 2018). Core to the development of this strategy is the proposed move to a circular plastics economy, where the design and production of plastic-based products takes into the account the requirement for reuse, repair, recycling and the development and promotion of more sustainable materials. Along with regional strategies many countries have also implemented their own single-use plastic reduction policies (Clapp and Swanston, 2009; Convery et al., 2007; Schnurr et al., 2018). At the forefront of this has been the development of legislation to ban or tax single use plastic bags. Globally, such schemes have now been 5

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1.4. Developing regional and national action plans to tackle the issue of marine litter

introduced in over 60 countries, including the complete ban of singleuse plastic bags in several African and Asian countries (Xanthos and Walker, 2017; Schnurr et al., 2018). Beyond a simple reduction in plastic bag use, studies have found clear evidence of demonstrable environmental benefits, with reduced littering in Ireland (Convery et al., 2007) and a significant reduction (approx. 35%) in the number of plastic bags found littering the UK's marine environment (Maes et al., 2018). Similar international initiatives, implementing bans or taxes have seen success rates in single-use plastic bag reduction range from 33% to 96% (Schnurr et al., 2018). Several countries bordering the ROPME Sea Area have launched single-use plastic bags reduction initiatives over the past decade, but to date none have gained the wider and sustained traction of the examples given above. In 2012 the Emirate of Ajman introduced ‘a day without plastic bags’ campaign and in 2013 Dubai launched a “say no to plastic bags” initiative, which targeted a 20% reduction in the estimated 2.9 billion bags used annually in the Emirate (Gulf News, 2013). More recent trials in the region have pointed to the potential success of such initiatives, with a major retail chain in Abu Dhabi piloting a Dh0.25 charge for single-use carrier bags, which resulted in a 75% reduction in the number of bags issued over the period of the pilot study (EAD, 2018; The National, 2018). Other promising developments include the Federal National Council in Abu Dhabi recently passing new legislation with the ambitious aim of recycling 75% of all municipal solid waste across the country by 2021 (Federal National Council, 2018; The State of Green Economy Report, 2019). Such targets are yet to be realised and it would require a paradigm shift in current waste management and recycling practises in the region. Within region, the Environment Agency – Abu Dhabi (EAD) is currently drafting national legislation to specifically tackle the problem of plastic based litter. EAD have developed a comprehensive draft singleuse plastic policy (2019–2021), which seeks to manage 15 of the most common single-use plastics found globally in marine litter. The approach follows the model of the European Commission with the proposed policy positions for specific single-use plastics adopted based on those plastic items with clear behavioural and sustainable alternatives (e.g. plastic bags, straws and cutlery), items with some alternatives (e.g. plastic bottles and beverage cups), and items with currently no or difficult alternatives (cigarette butts, sweet and crisp wrappers). In addition, EAD is planning a baseline study of both marine and terrestrial litter to gain a better understanding of the sources of plastic that are entering the environment. Following this, plastic items identified during the baseline survey will be added to the single-use plastic management list if required. More broadly, the medium-term, policy effort will address the fundamental waste management gaps identified in EAD's State of the Environment Report, (2017, which inclulde a lack of incentives and deterrents in the absence of adequate infrastructure to encourage the proper management and treatment of waste (EAD, 2017). Whilst such national initiatives are encouraging there impact may be limited if the input of litter to the marine environment is shown to arise from disparate and multiple sources across the ROPME area, or as a result of different sectors e.g. tourism, fishing and shipping. Therefore, issues such as who might be responsible for implementing policy or management action across the region will also need to be resolved. The input of marine litter from sea-based sources across the region is also being tackled at an international level with legislation and technical support aimed at reducing the littering from lost or abandoned fishing gear (FAO, 1995; FAO, 2016). The abandonment of fishing gear is specifically prohibited by the International Maritime Organisation in its Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (Convention, 1973), but local oversight and enforcement within the ROPME Sea Area is often lacking.

Developing national and regional actions plans to tackle the threat of marine litter should be a priority for countries surrounding the ROPME Sea Area. A growing number of national and regional frameworks are being implemented around the world, which could be used to guide the development of a regional action plan for the region (PERSGA/UNEP, 2008; OSPAR, 2014; HELCOM, 2015; SPREP, 2018). Further support and direction is also provided by the UN Environment Programme initiative, the Global Partnership on Marine Litter (GPML), which was launched at Rio + 20 in Brazil. Different approaches can be adopted, and often a regional action plan will establish the framework for the development of harmonised national action plans and the sharing of best practice between member states. The development of national or emirate action plans, such as that developed by EAD in the UAE is clearly an essential step, which allow the differences in national capacity, stakeholder engagement, government policy, local waste management practices and public awareness to be accounted for. There are examples of regional plans which may be adapted to meet the needs of the ROPME Sea Area. The Regional Organisation for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA) has developed one such plan (PERSGA/UNEP, 2008). The approach adopted in developing the PERSGA marine litter regional action plans was to established strategies, objectives and priority actions based on an assessment of coastal and marine litter in the PERSGA region. This was based on information gathered via questionnaires distributed to key government entities and stakeholders across PERSGA members states, which were then used to develop a series of high-level strategic goals and associated objectives and actions. Similar approaches have also been adopted by HELCOM (HELCOM, 2015) and OSPAR (OSPAR, 2014), the Regional Seas Conventions in the Baltic and North East Atlantic respectively. Taking these examples together we suggest a proposed framework that would act as a basis for developing a regional action plan suitable for the ROPME Sea Area (Table 2). The framework covers objectives and associated actions under the themes of 1) Governance, 2) Research and Monitoring, 3) Awareness and Education and 4) Legal Frameworks. The implementation of a marine litter regional action plan should be supported by a coordinated monitoring programme to identify primary sources of marine litter to inform targeted interventions, and to assess progress in relation to the targets and objectives set. While such baseline monitoring is being established in certain countries (e.g. as part of EADs national single-use plastic policy), they are yet to be adopted in a consistent manner across the region. Developing a ROPME Sea Area wide monitoring programme requires a consensus to be developed on what methods to employ (e.g. what litter classification scheme to adopt) and bodies such as ROPME or the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), would be best placed to drive forward such initiatives. 2. Conclusions There is now a clear global consensus that the continuous input and accumulation of waste in the marine environment has severe impacts for marine life, economic goods and services and human health (GESAMP, 2015; UNEP, 2016; Barboza et al., 2018; Beaumont et al., 2019). While there is presently a limited amount of data available for marine litter in the ROPME Sea Area, that which is available has started to document the harm it causes through entanglement and ingestion, along with its insidious presence in many coastal ecosystems (Table 1). The growing issue of marine litter in the ROPME Sea Area demands a concerted effort from policy makers and urban planners to devise effective waste minimisation, collection and recycling strategies to tackle the issue of plastic waste. The continued development and implementation of marine litter reduction plans, at both a regional and national level, will enable the integrated and cross sectorial approaches 6

7

Reduce and then eliminate the dumping of litter in the coastal and marine environment and to strengthen government capacity to manage marine litter.

Reduce and/or prevent the accumulation of litter on beaches and in the sea through the involvement of a wide range of stakeholders, including rural coastal communities.

Understanding the status of coastal and marine litter in the RSA in terms of sources, fate, impact, management practices and potential mitigation measures.

Establish a regional working group of RSA marine technical specialists to develop and implement the Marine Litter Action Plan.

Overview

To develop National Action Plans on marine litter.

To build Public-Private-Partnerships (PPP).

To share information and exchange experience on marine litter. To develop capacity building on marine litter management.

To support the regulation of marine litter pollution and its effects on the sea.

To clean-up litter from the coastal and marine environment and establish a plastics monitoring methodology for citizens and groups to follow. To educate stakeholder groups on marine litter issues.

To investigate effects of coastal and marine litter on human health. Investigate the economic impact of marine litter in the RSA region. Invest and develop in technology to promote a circular plastics-based economy. To raise public awareness of the impact of marine litter on coastal and marine environments.

Assess risk posed by microplastic contamination on the marine environment.

To understand impacts of litter on the coastal and marine environment

Establish the entity that is the mechanism for developing a regional response to the marine litter and single-use plastic issue. Establish taskforce terms of reference (ToRs) for managing single-use plastics and marine litter in the RSA. To assess priority sources and types of marine litter in the region.

Objectives

Develop a standardised regional beach survey programme to investigate the types, sources and extent of marine litter accumulation on the coast and in the sea. Implement regional studies on the impact of accumulated litter, including lost fishing gear, on coral reef communities and other sensitive habitats (e.g. sea grass beds and mangrove forests). Develop standardised study protocols (with appropriate QA/QC) to investigate the sources, fate and effects of microplastic contamination in marine waters, sediment and biota. Search for records of human health affected by litter that has accumulated on beaches or in the sea within the region. Conduct economic evaluations of the impact of marine litter on different sectors, such as tourism, fishing, shipping and desalination industries. Develop partnerships with the industry value chain in activities aimed at increasing the sustainability of plastics through their life cycle. Organize regional and local awareness workshops/seminars on the impact of marine litter for targeted stakeholders (e.g., schools, fishing communities, private sector, and decision makers). Develop regional strategies for clean-up campaigns within the RSA, including on methodologies to establish regionally coordinated citizen science led beach monitoring. Provide further education and training to ship owners, ship operators, crews, port users, fishermen and recreational boat users, with regard to their responsibilities to prevent marine pollution. Continue to encourage member countries to ratify the MARPOL convention and promote enforcement of Annex V of the MARPOL convention by the member countries that have ratified the convention. Exchange relevant information and experience with other regional and international organizations working on ocean clean up campaigns. Support the organisation of national and local training courses on marine litter regulation and management in the member countries. Involve non-profit organizations in the activities of the awareness and litter clearance programmes in each member country. Develop a set of regional guidelines for the development of National Action Plans on Marine Litter.

Taskforce develop ToRs and approve/modify Action Plan.

Develop a regional taskforce on marine litter within a suitable regional organisation.

Actions

*Adapted from the Regional Organisation for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA) Marine Litter Action Plan, and the Environment Agency – Abu Dhabi's Single Use Plastic Policy and Implementation Plan (2019–2021).

Legal Framework

4

Research and Monitoring

2

Awareness and Education

Governance

1

3

Theme

Priority

Table 2 Proposed framework for establishing and implementing the Regional Organisation for Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) Sea Area Marine Litter Action Plan.

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that are required to tackle the environmental, socioeconomic and human health threats posed (Table 2). This will help to address the infrastructural roadblocks, lack of awareness and low level of community participation, which are major factors behind the increasing generation of plastic wastes and the resulting adverse impact it has on the region's marine environment.

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