- Email: [email protected]
Market analysis for Autonomous Desalination Systems powered by renewable energy in southern Mediterranean countries. Case study on Turkey
Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40
Market analysis for Autonomous Desalination Systems powered by renewable energy in southern Mediterranean countries. Case study on Turkey Michael Papapetrou1*, Christian Epp1, Senem Teksoy2, Seval So¨zen2, Vicente Subiela Ortı´ n3, Ulrike Seibert4, Gisela Vogt4 1 WIP – Renewable Energies, Sylvensteinstr 2, 81369 Munich, Germany Tel. þ49–89–720 12 735; Fax þ49–89–720 12 791; email: [email protected], [email protected] 2 Istanbul Technical University (ITU), Faculty of Civil Eng’g, Department Of Environmental Eng’g, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey 3 Canary Islands Institute of Technology (ITC), Playa de Pozo Izquierdo s/n, Pozo Izquierdo, E-35119 Santa Lucı´a, Gran Canaria, Spain 4 Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (ISE), Department EES, Heidenhofstr. 2, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
Received 18 February 2005; accepted 10 March 2005
Abstract This paper presents research results on the market potential for Autonomous Desalination Systems (ADS) in Turkey. Seven representative municipalities in South–West Turkey have been selected and water, energy, environmental and socio-economic data have been collected. Additionally, the constitutional actors responsible for the water supply on a national and a local level have been identified and their role has been analysed. The results revealed water and energy shortages, especially during the summer months. Water quality is deteriorating because of pollution. These problems will become severe in the near future as demand is increasing triggering competition over the available resources. A win-win situation for the end users and the governmental authorities was identified in the use of ADS. Still, it was concluded that the market needs support from the governmental authorities with actions ranging from information supply to legislative reforms., The study was carried out within ADIRA. In this EU funded project the other research target countries were Morocco, Jordan, Egypt and Cyprus where similar conclusions were reached. Thus, the regional size of the market is quite large and the
*Corresponding author. Presented at the Conference on Desalination and the Environment, Santa Margherita, Italy, 22–26 May 2005. European Desalination Society. 0011-9164/05/$– See front matter Ó 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved doi:10.1016/j.desal.2005.03.029
30
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40
critical mass for attracting private funds and the interest of governments, development organisations and the private sector can be formed. Keywords: Market analysis; Turkey; Rural water supply; Renewable energy; Desalination
1. Introduction In recent years, the research community worked intensively on coupling desalination systems with renewable energy technologies in robust and cost-effective autonomous desalination systems (ADS). Many pilot plants have been built and operated with encouraging results (see for example [1]). A comprehensive overview of the technological status quo is given by Tzen and Morris in [2]. The technology is well developed and some products have already reached the market [3]. Further technological developments and cost reduction potentials could be achieved through the competition that would be created by wide-scale implementation around the world. There are barriers however, impeding the deployment of desalination based on renewable energy. The most suitable regions are usually poor or underdeveloped and lack information and resources to initiate ADS projects. Additionally, governmental control over water supply structures favours large-scale approaches, like water conveyance, and does not support locally planned autonomous solutions. In the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, per-capita availability of freshwater has fallen by 60% between 1960 and 1995. Today it is the lowest in the world and is predicted to fall by another 50% by 2025 [4]. Most of the arid rural areas in the MENA region however, are blessed with abundant renewable energy resources such as sun and wind. Meanwhile, many of them have access to sea or brackish water resources. Hence, the MENA region has a
good potential to cover part of its pressing water needs by autonomous desalination units. In order to identify the size and peculiarities of that market, extended research is required. In an effort to contribute to a better understanding of the market and faster commercialisation of ADS in that part of the world, areas with a good potential for ADS installations have been identified in the ADIRA project and the administrative structures in the water sector have been analysed in five countries of the MENA region (Cyprus, Egypt, Jordan, Morocco and Turkey). In this paper, the results for Turkey are presented after a short introduction of the ADIRA project and a description of the methodology of data collection and analysis. Finally the results are discussed and conclusions are drawn.
2. The ADIRA project The paper is based on research carried out within the ADIRA project (Autonomous Desalination System Concepts for Seawater and Brackish Water in Rural Areas with Renewable Energies – Potentials, Technologies, Field Experience, Socio-Technical and Socio-Economic Impacts). ADIRA aims to develop optimum concepts for fresh water supply in rural areas derived from salty water (sea water and brackish water). Units powered by autonomous, renewable energy systems, with fresh water output in the range of 0.1 m3/day to 10 m3/day, are the focus of this project.
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40
Instead of developing new desalination technologies, the adaptation of existing concepts from various suppliers for the use with renewable energy is targeted by evaluation of the potential and the optimum solution for the areas and countries involved (Morocco, Egypt, Jordan, Cyprus and Turkey) taking into account the technical, economical, environmental, organisational, socio-technical and socio-economic aspects. The main objective of the project is to make a substantial contribution to boost the implementation of decentralised desalination units in MENA countries. In order to reach this goal, this project is pursuing the following six lines of action [5]: 1) Identification and quantification of regions, where decentralised desalination units are a solution for the fresh water supply problem. 2) Technical study and development of technical concepts for installing sustainable desalination units in certain areas. 3) Planning, implementation and monitoring of pilot installations to achieve detailed results on technical viability, socio-technical and socio-economic concerns. 4) Information collection on actors in the field of water and energy supply, possible investors and analysis of the political framework in order to identify potentials and barriers to boost the implementation of decentralised desalination units. 5) Preparation of tools, data bases, training and awareness-raising materials for supporting the systems designers, installers, operators and final water users in the implementation and sustainable operation of decentralised desalination units. 6) Dissemination of the project results, the lessons learned and experiences at all levels in order to raise awareness among all relevant stakeholders at local, national and international levels.
31
This paper presents results for Turkey, studied under action 1 and action 4.
3. Methodology 3.1. Identification of areas for ADS implementation in Turkey The objective here was to gain an overview of areas suitable for implementation of ADS within Turkey. A first screening of the country took place in order to choose regions for further analysis. Criteria used for the selection included available water and renewable energy resources, socio-economic conditions, availability of reliable data, and political interest. At that stage, no detailed data collection took place, merely publicly available data was used. Then, more detailed data collection took place for seven municipalities in the identified regions. For the data collection, a specifically formulated questionnaire was prepared, and filled in by the local partner. Data was obtained mainly through personal contact with key persons in the central and local authorities and from previous studies in the region. The collected information covers the following fields: Water demand Energy supply Renewable energy potential Socio-economic conditions Environmental situation 3.2. Actor analysis The main objective in this research step was to identify barriers to the development of the ADS market and opportunities for boosting it. The aim was to identify and analyse all constitutional actors, on a national and local level.
32
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40
The analysis of the constitutional actors in Turkey was based on a research template outlining the information that has to be collected and the perspective from which it has to be presented. The local partner used many different sources such as previous and on-going research and analysis work, internet research, dialogue with institutes and consultation with decision makers in the relevant ministries and authorities. The results were compiled in a report where the conditions for Turkey were evaluated. The collected information included: Overview of the water sector Actors in the water supply sector on a national level Actors in the water supply sector on a local level Outlook for changes in the water supply administrative structure 4. Introduction to Turkey Turkey is not listed among the countries suffering from water shortages. However, the country’s geographical and climatic diversity
Fig. 1. Geographical regions of Turkey [7].
means that its water supplies are often not to be found in the right place and at the right time to meet demand. There are high seasonal fluctuations in water demand and supply, especially during summer months in areas with high tourist activity. The overall situation of water supply within the country, according to 2000 data, states that Turkey has 3227 municipalities, of which only 2359 have a drinking water network and just 143 have a drinking water treatment facility [6]. Turkey is divided into 81 administrative provinces and seven geographical regions (see Fig. 1). After a first screening, the Mediterranean and the Aegean regions were selected for further analysis because of their fluctuating water demand and their high solar and wind energy potential. Additionally, the local authorities as well as the private sector in these regions are interested in introducing alternative solutions for their water and energy supply. The Aegean region extends from the Aegean coast to the inner parts of western Anatolia. There are significant differences
33
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40
between the coastal areas and those inland, in terms of both geographical features and socio-economic conditions. The Mediterranean region is located in the south of Turkey and includes the Taurus and Amanos mountain range. From these regions, seven municipalities lying in the Mediterranean coast and the transition zone between the Aegean and the Mediterranean were chosen as suitable areas to be analysed for their potential for ADS applications.
water demand profile. In the following sections the data collected, as described in 3.1, are presented in brief. 5.1. Water demand The water demand for each of the seven selected municipalities is presented in Table 2. Agriculture and tourism sectors constitute the major shares in the overall water demand. Over-exploitation of groundwater resources in the region has caused intrusion of sea water into the aquifer. This is the main reason for the water quality problems encountered in the water resources near the coast. Furthermore, surface run-offs from agricultural lands, with considerable nutrient content, reach and contaminate the surface water resources. The water supply relies mainly on groundwater resources augmented with the considerable rainfall, for both domestic and irrigational water requirements. It is predicted that all seven municipalities will face severe water shortages due to increasing tourism activities and populations in combination with deteriorating water quality. Current activities include dam constructions, upgrading of water mains and sewerage systems. At a central level, only water transmission from resources in the vicinity has been examined as a possible future solution until now.
5. Identification of suitable areas The selected municipalities are listed in Table 1. They belong to the Mu_la and Antalya provinces, which are mostly known for their tourist potential and historical heritage. In the summer months, the population is approximately three times higher than during winter, resulting in similar fluctuations in the Table 1 Selected regions for ADS installations Province
Municipalities
Mug˘ la (Aegean region)
Fethiye Datc¸a Marmaris Kas¸ Kemer Alanya Finike
Antalya (Mediterranean region)
Table 2 Distribution of water demand by sectors Region
Drinking (%)
Irrigation (%)
Tourism (%)
Total (m3/d)
Water demand per capita (m3/d)
Alanya Finike Kas¸ Kemer Datc¸a Fethiye Marmaris
29 11 24 7 33 28 22
53 88 64 59 6 66 16
18 1 11 35 62 6 62
102,000 43,600 23,300 98,010 3,640 72,960 65,000
0.40 1.04 0.49 1.78 0.26 0.47 0.82
34
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40
Table 3 Energy infrastructure in the selected municipalities Region
Installed Power (MW)
Percentage of HPP (%)
Supplied energy (G Wh/year)
Alanya Finike Kas¸ Kemer Datc¸a Fethiye Marmaris
120 15 25 120 27 116 240
32 80 48 — — 84 —
350 22 12 150 21 267 80
Some examples of alternative approaches can be found on the local level, where tourist complexes and hotels employ desalination for drinking water, swimming-pool augmentation and irrigation purposes. 5.2. Energy supply The energy situation of the selected regions is summarised in Table 3. Major local sources of energy in the selected municipalities are the Hydroelectric Power Plants (HPP) which count for up to 84% of the installed power. The energy demands that cannot be covered from the locally installed power are mainly supplied by the HPP’s operated in Antalya and Mu_la, which have an overall energy production of 4.288 GWh/ year and 2.410 GWh/year, respectively. In the selected municipalities, energy demand arises mainly from the domestic and tourist sectors. Indusrial activities are very limited and do not affect the energy demand profile. The renewable energy potential in the selected regions is generally quite good. The annual average daily solar radiation is 13.9 MJ/m2. This is a high figure but fluctuates strongly within the year. Regarding the wind energy potential, there are sites in the eastern part of the Mediterranean region where the annual wind speed average approaches 7 m/s, a good figure for installing wind turbines. However, in general in the Mediterranean
and Aegean regions the average wind speed is low, about 5.5 m/s. The renewable energy potential is exploited only to a minor degree. The only applications are passive solar systems, which are used for water heating in almost every house and hotel. However, other types of technology like photovoltaic (PV) systems or wind turbines are very rarely applied in the municipalities under consideration. Datc¸a is an exception with some wind energy installations. The local administrations claim that the existing electricity infrastructure is satisfactory. However, weathering and abrasion effects of the wind and frequent storms because of the vicinity to the seaside shortens the economical lifetime of the transmission and distribution networks. Additionally, energy demand is increasing fast because of growing population and growth of the tourist activities. This already causes failure of the electricity grid quite often in some parts of these regions. Antalya, for example, is planning to increase the main voltage line from 6.3 kV to 31.6 kV due to the failure of the electricity grid at times of high demand. 5.3. Socio-economic conditions A summary of the socio-economic conditions is presented in Table 4. Fethiye and Alanya have the highest populations, while
35
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40 Table 4 Summary of socio-economic information[8] Region
Population Rural (%) Annual growth Growth due Per capita Unemployment (%) of population (%) to Migration (%) income ($/year)a
Alanya 257,671 Finike 42,087 Kemer 55,092 Kas¸ 47,519 Datc¸a 13,914 Fethiye 154,209 Marmaris 79,302 a
66 77 69 87 42 67 64
6.9 2 8.6 1.7 2.6 1.9 6.4
5.2 3.7 7.1 3.3 4.8 3 0.3
1,080 4,000 9,105 7,635 1,750 6,485 6,485
4 14 4 5.7 1.6 1.2 4
Estimated value (ref. State Institute of Statistics).
Kemer has the highest annual growth rate. In general, all the municipalities have high population growth rates, mainly due to migration. This gives an indication for the anticipated increase in water and energy demand. The local economy relies mainly on tourism. However, there are also other important activities contributing to the local economy, including agriculture, forestry, fishing, construction, trade and services. 52% of the employed population in the selected regions works in the agriculture sector, followed by the tourism sector, which has a share of 39%. However, tourism contributes more to the local economy and attracts more investment than agriculture. Overall, the employment situation is good, with unemployment exceeding 10% only in Finike. However, per capita income ranges from $1000 per year in Alanya, up to $9000 per year in Kemer, reflecting the large differences among the economic situation of the seven municipalities.
18 C. The annual rainfall reaches up to 1000 mm at some locations along the coast. As already mentioned above, the region has no major industrial activities and depends mainly on tourism and agriculture. Therefore, air pollution is not a problem in the area. However, water pollution is caused by untreated municipal wastewater and the surface run-off from the agricultural lands. Additionally, the growing population and tourism industry is a challenge and can pose serious threats to the environment and the natural resources if it is not developed in a sustainable way. 6. Actor analysis The institutional framework of the water supply in Turkey is structured into three levels decision-making ! ministries executive ! governmental organisations under the ministries users ! governmental and non-governmental organisations responsible for the operation and maintenance of the water supply structures.
5.4. Environmental situation All the regions of interest have a common Mediterranean climate. The summers are hot and dry while the winters are mild and rainy. The annual average ambient temperature is
6.1. Decision-making level At the decision-making level, the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (MENR) is the main state organisation which has the
36
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40
overall responsibility and control over the water resources of Turkey. Other ministries involved in decisions related to water issues include the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Services (MARS), concerning irrigation and supply of water to rural populations. The Ministry of Environment and Forestry is responsible for the protection of water resources against pollution while the Ministry of Health is responsible for ensuring that the quality of the supplied water does not expose the population to health risks. Finally, the Ministry of Interior (MoI) is responsible for the irrigation associations. The State Planning Organisation (SPO) is also classified as a decision-making level entity. SPO is responsible for the annual programmes and long-term development plans of the government. It gives direction to the sectoral and geographic distribution of investments and thus strongly affects the available funds and infrastructure decisions of the water sector. 6.2. Executive level At the executive level, the State Hydraulic Works (SHW) is the primary state agency of Turkey. It operates under the aegis of MENR, but is a legal entity and has a supplementary budget. SHW is responsible for the nation’s overall water resources planning, management, execution and operation. The second important organisation at the executive level is the General Directorate of Rural Services (GDRS) which operates under the aegis of MARS. GDRS is responsible for developing small-scale water works for irrigation and for supplying water in villages and rural districts. GDRS has to supply potable water to 77,183 settlements. Among these, 7609 have healthy but insufficient amounts of water and 7393 receive low-quality water [9].
6.3. Users level At the consumer level, the body responsible for the provision of water services depends on the size of the settlement. Municipalities are defined as the administrative units established in settlements with more than 5,000 inhabitants. They are responsible for the supply of drinking and industrial water, disposal of wastewater and storm water, and the construction and management of necessary plants and networks. They may either construct or manage those plants; or they may choose to have them constructed or managed. The Bank of Provinces is the main body providing financial and technical assistance to the municipalities in the execution of these public water and wastewater works. In cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants, SHW, is responsible for the supply of drinking, process and industrial water. In such cases, SHW constructs the intakes or dams, transmission lines, pumping stations and the necessary infrastructure for the supply of water. Usually, the municipalities then take over the operation of water transmission lines and pumping stations as well as the storage and distribution of water. However, after 1981, some of the metropolitan cities like Ankara and Istanbul started to establish utilities which are responsible both for the supply of water to the cities as well as for the construction of water and sewerage networks and plants, e.g. ISKI (Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration). These utilities have established satisfactory technical and financial resources to build their own reservoirs, dams and transmission lines to supply water to the city instead of SHW. As already mentioned, villages, rural districts, and military garrisons, where populations are lower than 5000, are served by the regional directorates of GDRS for the supply of domestic and irrigational water.
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40
SHW also assumes responsibility in cases where GDRS technically fails to meet the demand. In the case of irrigation water management, there are two approaches: —Irrigation Associations formed under the Municipality Law as local government entities which are under the administrative control of the MoI. —Irrigation Cooperatives developed by GDRS. It is important to mention that all local administrations work very close with SHW, as it is the only authority, which is empowered to manage the water resources. They have to ask for the permission of SHW before using either surface or ground water resources. In cases where water is to be taken from a dam or a river, or it has to be conveyed a certain distance
Fig. 2. Water authorities in Turkey.
37
from the source, SHW constructs the transmission lines and necessary pumping stations and transfers the operation and maintenance of these to the local administrations where they prove to have satisfactory staff and facilities. In July 2004, the National Assembly adopted the ‘Law of Local Administrations’, which aims for the reconstruction of the public sector for an effective and participatory administration as well as the involvement of the private sector in public services. This law will mainly bring about the transfer of the authorisation to the local administrations as a part of the decentralisation of authorities approach. The central authorities will only determine the general objectives, policies and standards regarding the public services at the national level. The vertical and horizontal distribution of responsibilities among the national authorities
38
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40
for the water issues is illustrated in Fig. 2. The figure, developed with the information collected during the performed research, is based on a figure from [10]. 7. Discussion The central question of this study is the evaluation of the market potential for ADS in Turkey. Furthermore, it is of interest to highlight obstacles to the expansion of the market and identify driving forces. Finally, the aim is to pave the way towards an enhanced understanding of this emerging market and suggest approaches for its successful and sustainable growth. As analysed in section 5 above, the quality of water resources in the selected areas is deteriorating. Surface water is contaminated by runoffs from the agricultural activities, while the salinity of groundwater resources is increasing because of sea water intrusion. At the same time, a steep rise in water demand over the coming years is anticipated, caused by rising populations and growth of the tourism industry. It is clear that the area cannot continue to depend solely on its renewable water resources. Alternative solutions have to be employed. Already new dams are being built and water conveyance projects are planned. Other solutions include measures to minimise losses of the distribution system and construction of sewage networks, in combination with treatment plants and recycling of water. Finally, desalination plants for sea water are another obvious choice as the area of interest lies on the coast. Of course, planning should include a combination of these solutions based on the principles of integrated water management techniques. Nevertheless, there are consumers with high seasonal variations in their water demand profile who need more water than can be provided centrally during the high
season. In our analysis, this was the case of agriculture and hotels that have an uneven distribution of water demand over the year. Additionally, some consumers require water of higher quality than that supplied by the mains. In the case study of Turkey, these are the luxurious hotels that want to provide ‘bottled’ quality drinking water to their customers. In such cases, small-scale solutions tailored to the needs of the specific consumers are required. Small desalination and water purification systems are very suitable for such applications. There is a variety of relevant products available on the market and numerous other technologies in the stage of research or development. These small-scale units can be powered by renewable energy systems and operate autonomously as described in the introduction. This allows independence from the electricity grid, which may be unreliable because of the harsh meteorological conditions as analysed in section 5.2. Moreover, the energy demand is rising with a similar pace to the water demand and is very variable over the year, peaking in the summer period. As the hydroelectric potential of the area is almost fully exploited, the price of the marginal unit of electricity is expected to rise and shortages of supply may occur during the peak period. Taking this into account, coupling of desalination units with renewable energy equipment makes sense, either in autonomous or hybrid combinations. Solar energy is a favourable option in Turkey as there is a good resource available, especially in the summer months when additional water is mostly needed. Autonomous operation is particularly suitable for isolated consumers who do not have access to the grid. As the analysis of section 6 shows, the municipalities as well as the central authorities, mainly SHW, have to be contacted in
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40
order to obtain the required licences to install ADS. However, this process is changing as a new law on local administrations has been adopted. It is still not clear how effective the new law will be in simplifying the administrative procedures, but the objective was in the right direction of decentralising control and leaving more space for the private sector. As a general conclusion, the studied municipalities need alternative water sources, and demand does exist for decentralised applications producing clean water tailored to the needs of the consumers. In the examined region however, there is an extensive coverage of the electricity grid reducing the need for autonomous applications. Still, the unreliability of the grid and the environmental problems connected with diesel generators makes the renewable energy option more attractive, either in autonomous operation or in combination with the grid. There are many incentives and forms of support that could be given to individuals at very low cost, boosting ADS implementation. The most important is information flow and awareness campaigns to inform targeted consumers about the option of installing ADS units. Secondly, the administrative procedures for getting the required licences should be simplified to a reasonable degree. Finally, the governmental organisations at the executive level should provide technical support. There is much more that could be done, both at a practical level as well as concerning the legislative and administrative framework conditions. Concrete suggestions for the five target countries of the ADIRA project will be developed and documented in a comprehensive report when the research is completed. In other countries in the MENA region, there are many areas with similar conditions, which are even more suitable for ADS
39
applications as they do not have access to the electricity grid. The final results of the ADIRA project will quantify this potential for the five target countries and will suggest ways to exploit it. Additionally, the ADIRA research will be of help to other countries in the region or worldwide in their effort to solve their water-related problems in an efficient and sustainable way. 8. Conclusions In this paper, the first results of research on ADS market potential in Turkey have been presented. Seven municipalities in southwest Turkey have been chosen as representative areas for further analysis. The data collection showed that the municipalities will face severe water and energy shortages, especially during the summer months, mainly because of the growth of the tourism industry. At the same time, agriculture is competing with tourism for the restricted water resources, while the water quality is deteriorating because of pollution. In face of these imminent problems, consumers demanding a large quantity or high quality of water do have an interest in considering the option of installing ADS. In the cases examined, it is a responsibility of the local authority to supply water in adequate quality and quantity. Nevertheless, any water works still have to be carried out in cooperation with SHW, the central authority controlling Turkey’s water resources. Consequently, ADS units could also benefit the governmental authorities by offering the end users what they need in an environmental friendly way, without requiring any additional effort or costs from the authority’s side. And it is the governmental authorities who are in the position to support ADS to enter the market. This can be done with a combination of actions covering the complete range from information supply and technical support to financial incentives and legislative
40
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40
reforms. Specific suggestions in these directions are under development within the ADIRA project for Turkey, Morocco, Jordan, Egypt and Cyprus. Acknowledgements
This paper presents the results of research carried out within the ADIRA project in co-operation with the following Institutions: Fraunhofer ISE (project co-ordination), Fondation Marrakech 21 (FM21), Agricultural University of Athens (AUA), Canary Islands Institute of Technology (ITC), Jordan University of Science and Technology (JUST), Istanbul Technical University (ITU), WIP-Renewable Energies. The ADIRA project is supported by the European Commission under contract number ME8/AIDCO/2001/0515/59610. However, the views expressed here are those of the writers and can therefore in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the European Community. In addition we are grateful to the Middle East Desalination Research Centre (MEDRC) for their kind contributions as an additional sponsor.
References [1] T. Espino, B. Penate, G. Piernavieja, D. Herold and A. Neskakis, Optimised desalination of
seawater by a PV powered reverse osmosis plant for a decentralised coastal water supply. Desalination, 156 (2003) 349–350. [2] E. Tzen and R. Morris, Renewable energy sources for desalination. Solar Energy, 75 (2003) 375–379. [3] Solco and Solarflow, http://www.sesltd.com.au/ html/waterpure.htm, accessed on 24 January. [4] The World Bank, From Scarcity to Security: Averting a Water Crisis in the Middle East and North Africa, December 1995. [5] U. Seibert, G. Vogt, C. Brennig, R. Gebhard and F. Holz, Autonomous desalination system concepts for seawater and brackish water in rural areas with renewable energies – potentials, technologies, field experience, socio-technical and socio-economic impacts – ADIRA, Desalination, 168 (2004) 29–37. [6] EC Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, Development of Tools and Guidelines for the Promotion of the Sustainable Urban Wastewater Treatment and Reuse in the Agricultural Production in the Mediterranean CountriesMEDAWARE, Sub-Task 1-Report, Turkey, September. [7] Bill Eaves, http://www.users.zetnet.co.uk/eaves/ eclipse99/turkey.html. accessed on 14 April 2005. [8] State Institute of Statistics, http://www.die. gov.tr/nufus_sayimi/2000tablo5.xls, accessed on 1 February, 2005. [9] General Directorate of Rural Services, http:// www.khgm.gov.tr, accessed on 27 January 2005. [10] S. Burak, I. Duranyildiz and U¨. Yetis, 1997 ‘Water Resources Management’ in National Environmental Action Plan, State Planning Organization, Ankara, 2005, p. 101. (ISBN 975–19–1799–9).
Market analysis for Autonomous Desalination Systems powered by renewable energy in southern Mediterranean countries. Case study on Turkey Michael Papapetrou1*, Christian Epp1, Senem Teksoy2, Seval So¨zen2, Vicente Subiela Ortı´ n3, Ulrike Seibert4, Gisela Vogt4 1 WIP – Renewable Energies, Sylvensteinstr 2, 81369 Munich, Germany Tel. þ49–89–720 12 735; Fax þ49–89–720 12 791; email: [email protected], [email protected] 2 Istanbul Technical University (ITU), Faculty of Civil Eng’g, Department Of Environmental Eng’g, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey 3 Canary Islands Institute of Technology (ITC), Playa de Pozo Izquierdo s/n, Pozo Izquierdo, E-35119 Santa Lucı´a, Gran Canaria, Spain 4 Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (ISE), Department EES, Heidenhofstr. 2, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
Received 18 February 2005; accepted 10 March 2005
Abstract This paper presents research results on the market potential for Autonomous Desalination Systems (ADS) in Turkey. Seven representative municipalities in South–West Turkey have been selected and water, energy, environmental and socio-economic data have been collected. Additionally, the constitutional actors responsible for the water supply on a national and a local level have been identified and their role has been analysed. The results revealed water and energy shortages, especially during the summer months. Water quality is deteriorating because of pollution. These problems will become severe in the near future as demand is increasing triggering competition over the available resources. A win-win situation for the end users and the governmental authorities was identified in the use of ADS. Still, it was concluded that the market needs support from the governmental authorities with actions ranging from information supply to legislative reforms., The study was carried out within ADIRA. In this EU funded project the other research target countries were Morocco, Jordan, Egypt and Cyprus where similar conclusions were reached. Thus, the regional size of the market is quite large and the
*Corresponding author. Presented at the Conference on Desalination and the Environment, Santa Margherita, Italy, 22–26 May 2005. European Desalination Society. 0011-9164/05/$– See front matter Ó 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved doi:10.1016/j.desal.2005.03.029
30
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40
critical mass for attracting private funds and the interest of governments, development organisations and the private sector can be formed. Keywords: Market analysis; Turkey; Rural water supply; Renewable energy; Desalination
1. Introduction In recent years, the research community worked intensively on coupling desalination systems with renewable energy technologies in robust and cost-effective autonomous desalination systems (ADS). Many pilot plants have been built and operated with encouraging results (see for example [1]). A comprehensive overview of the technological status quo is given by Tzen and Morris in [2]. The technology is well developed and some products have already reached the market [3]. Further technological developments and cost reduction potentials could be achieved through the competition that would be created by wide-scale implementation around the world. There are barriers however, impeding the deployment of desalination based on renewable energy. The most suitable regions are usually poor or underdeveloped and lack information and resources to initiate ADS projects. Additionally, governmental control over water supply structures favours large-scale approaches, like water conveyance, and does not support locally planned autonomous solutions. In the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, per-capita availability of freshwater has fallen by 60% between 1960 and 1995. Today it is the lowest in the world and is predicted to fall by another 50% by 2025 [4]. Most of the arid rural areas in the MENA region however, are blessed with abundant renewable energy resources such as sun and wind. Meanwhile, many of them have access to sea or brackish water resources. Hence, the MENA region has a
good potential to cover part of its pressing water needs by autonomous desalination units. In order to identify the size and peculiarities of that market, extended research is required. In an effort to contribute to a better understanding of the market and faster commercialisation of ADS in that part of the world, areas with a good potential for ADS installations have been identified in the ADIRA project and the administrative structures in the water sector have been analysed in five countries of the MENA region (Cyprus, Egypt, Jordan, Morocco and Turkey). In this paper, the results for Turkey are presented after a short introduction of the ADIRA project and a description of the methodology of data collection and analysis. Finally the results are discussed and conclusions are drawn.
2. The ADIRA project The paper is based on research carried out within the ADIRA project (Autonomous Desalination System Concepts for Seawater and Brackish Water in Rural Areas with Renewable Energies – Potentials, Technologies, Field Experience, Socio-Technical and Socio-Economic Impacts). ADIRA aims to develop optimum concepts for fresh water supply in rural areas derived from salty water (sea water and brackish water). Units powered by autonomous, renewable energy systems, with fresh water output in the range of 0.1 m3/day to 10 m3/day, are the focus of this project.
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40
Instead of developing new desalination technologies, the adaptation of existing concepts from various suppliers for the use with renewable energy is targeted by evaluation of the potential and the optimum solution for the areas and countries involved (Morocco, Egypt, Jordan, Cyprus and Turkey) taking into account the technical, economical, environmental, organisational, socio-technical and socio-economic aspects. The main objective of the project is to make a substantial contribution to boost the implementation of decentralised desalination units in MENA countries. In order to reach this goal, this project is pursuing the following six lines of action [5]: 1) Identification and quantification of regions, where decentralised desalination units are a solution for the fresh water supply problem. 2) Technical study and development of technical concepts for installing sustainable desalination units in certain areas. 3) Planning, implementation and monitoring of pilot installations to achieve detailed results on technical viability, socio-technical and socio-economic concerns. 4) Information collection on actors in the field of water and energy supply, possible investors and analysis of the political framework in order to identify potentials and barriers to boost the implementation of decentralised desalination units. 5) Preparation of tools, data bases, training and awareness-raising materials for supporting the systems designers, installers, operators and final water users in the implementation and sustainable operation of decentralised desalination units. 6) Dissemination of the project results, the lessons learned and experiences at all levels in order to raise awareness among all relevant stakeholders at local, national and international levels.
31
This paper presents results for Turkey, studied under action 1 and action 4.
3. Methodology 3.1. Identification of areas for ADS implementation in Turkey The objective here was to gain an overview of areas suitable for implementation of ADS within Turkey. A first screening of the country took place in order to choose regions for further analysis. Criteria used for the selection included available water and renewable energy resources, socio-economic conditions, availability of reliable data, and political interest. At that stage, no detailed data collection took place, merely publicly available data was used. Then, more detailed data collection took place for seven municipalities in the identified regions. For the data collection, a specifically formulated questionnaire was prepared, and filled in by the local partner. Data was obtained mainly through personal contact with key persons in the central and local authorities and from previous studies in the region. The collected information covers the following fields: Water demand Energy supply Renewable energy potential Socio-economic conditions Environmental situation 3.2. Actor analysis The main objective in this research step was to identify barriers to the development of the ADS market and opportunities for boosting it. The aim was to identify and analyse all constitutional actors, on a national and local level.
32
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40
The analysis of the constitutional actors in Turkey was based on a research template outlining the information that has to be collected and the perspective from which it has to be presented. The local partner used many different sources such as previous and on-going research and analysis work, internet research, dialogue with institutes and consultation with decision makers in the relevant ministries and authorities. The results were compiled in a report where the conditions for Turkey were evaluated. The collected information included: Overview of the water sector Actors in the water supply sector on a national level Actors in the water supply sector on a local level Outlook for changes in the water supply administrative structure 4. Introduction to Turkey Turkey is not listed among the countries suffering from water shortages. However, the country’s geographical and climatic diversity
Fig. 1. Geographical regions of Turkey [7].
means that its water supplies are often not to be found in the right place and at the right time to meet demand. There are high seasonal fluctuations in water demand and supply, especially during summer months in areas with high tourist activity. The overall situation of water supply within the country, according to 2000 data, states that Turkey has 3227 municipalities, of which only 2359 have a drinking water network and just 143 have a drinking water treatment facility [6]. Turkey is divided into 81 administrative provinces and seven geographical regions (see Fig. 1). After a first screening, the Mediterranean and the Aegean regions were selected for further analysis because of their fluctuating water demand and their high solar and wind energy potential. Additionally, the local authorities as well as the private sector in these regions are interested in introducing alternative solutions for their water and energy supply. The Aegean region extends from the Aegean coast to the inner parts of western Anatolia. There are significant differences
33
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40
between the coastal areas and those inland, in terms of both geographical features and socio-economic conditions. The Mediterranean region is located in the south of Turkey and includes the Taurus and Amanos mountain range. From these regions, seven municipalities lying in the Mediterranean coast and the transition zone between the Aegean and the Mediterranean were chosen as suitable areas to be analysed for their potential for ADS applications.
water demand profile. In the following sections the data collected, as described in 3.1, are presented in brief. 5.1. Water demand The water demand for each of the seven selected municipalities is presented in Table 2. Agriculture and tourism sectors constitute the major shares in the overall water demand. Over-exploitation of groundwater resources in the region has caused intrusion of sea water into the aquifer. This is the main reason for the water quality problems encountered in the water resources near the coast. Furthermore, surface run-offs from agricultural lands, with considerable nutrient content, reach and contaminate the surface water resources. The water supply relies mainly on groundwater resources augmented with the considerable rainfall, for both domestic and irrigational water requirements. It is predicted that all seven municipalities will face severe water shortages due to increasing tourism activities and populations in combination with deteriorating water quality. Current activities include dam constructions, upgrading of water mains and sewerage systems. At a central level, only water transmission from resources in the vicinity has been examined as a possible future solution until now.
5. Identification of suitable areas The selected municipalities are listed in Table 1. They belong to the Mu_la and Antalya provinces, which are mostly known for their tourist potential and historical heritage. In the summer months, the population is approximately three times higher than during winter, resulting in similar fluctuations in the Table 1 Selected regions for ADS installations Province
Municipalities
Mug˘ la (Aegean region)
Fethiye Datc¸a Marmaris Kas¸ Kemer Alanya Finike
Antalya (Mediterranean region)
Table 2 Distribution of water demand by sectors Region
Drinking (%)
Irrigation (%)
Tourism (%)
Total (m3/d)
Water demand per capita (m3/d)
Alanya Finike Kas¸ Kemer Datc¸a Fethiye Marmaris
29 11 24 7 33 28 22
53 88 64 59 6 66 16
18 1 11 35 62 6 62
102,000 43,600 23,300 98,010 3,640 72,960 65,000
0.40 1.04 0.49 1.78 0.26 0.47 0.82
34
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40
Table 3 Energy infrastructure in the selected municipalities Region
Installed Power (MW)
Percentage of HPP (%)
Supplied energy (G Wh/year)
Alanya Finike Kas¸ Kemer Datc¸a Fethiye Marmaris
120 15 25 120 27 116 240
32 80 48 — — 84 —
350 22 12 150 21 267 80
Some examples of alternative approaches can be found on the local level, where tourist complexes and hotels employ desalination for drinking water, swimming-pool augmentation and irrigation purposes. 5.2. Energy supply The energy situation of the selected regions is summarised in Table 3. Major local sources of energy in the selected municipalities are the Hydroelectric Power Plants (HPP) which count for up to 84% of the installed power. The energy demands that cannot be covered from the locally installed power are mainly supplied by the HPP’s operated in Antalya and Mu_la, which have an overall energy production of 4.288 GWh/ year and 2.410 GWh/year, respectively. In the selected municipalities, energy demand arises mainly from the domestic and tourist sectors. Indusrial activities are very limited and do not affect the energy demand profile. The renewable energy potential in the selected regions is generally quite good. The annual average daily solar radiation is 13.9 MJ/m2. This is a high figure but fluctuates strongly within the year. Regarding the wind energy potential, there are sites in the eastern part of the Mediterranean region where the annual wind speed average approaches 7 m/s, a good figure for installing wind turbines. However, in general in the Mediterranean
and Aegean regions the average wind speed is low, about 5.5 m/s. The renewable energy potential is exploited only to a minor degree. The only applications are passive solar systems, which are used for water heating in almost every house and hotel. However, other types of technology like photovoltaic (PV) systems or wind turbines are very rarely applied in the municipalities under consideration. Datc¸a is an exception with some wind energy installations. The local administrations claim that the existing electricity infrastructure is satisfactory. However, weathering and abrasion effects of the wind and frequent storms because of the vicinity to the seaside shortens the economical lifetime of the transmission and distribution networks. Additionally, energy demand is increasing fast because of growing population and growth of the tourist activities. This already causes failure of the electricity grid quite often in some parts of these regions. Antalya, for example, is planning to increase the main voltage line from 6.3 kV to 31.6 kV due to the failure of the electricity grid at times of high demand. 5.3. Socio-economic conditions A summary of the socio-economic conditions is presented in Table 4. Fethiye and Alanya have the highest populations, while
35
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40 Table 4 Summary of socio-economic information[8] Region
Population Rural (%) Annual growth Growth due Per capita Unemployment (%) of population (%) to Migration (%) income ($/year)a
Alanya 257,671 Finike 42,087 Kemer 55,092 Kas¸ 47,519 Datc¸a 13,914 Fethiye 154,209 Marmaris 79,302 a
66 77 69 87 42 67 64
6.9 2 8.6 1.7 2.6 1.9 6.4
5.2 3.7 7.1 3.3 4.8 3 0.3
1,080 4,000 9,105 7,635 1,750 6,485 6,485
4 14 4 5.7 1.6 1.2 4
Estimated value (ref. State Institute of Statistics).
Kemer has the highest annual growth rate. In general, all the municipalities have high population growth rates, mainly due to migration. This gives an indication for the anticipated increase in water and energy demand. The local economy relies mainly on tourism. However, there are also other important activities contributing to the local economy, including agriculture, forestry, fishing, construction, trade and services. 52% of the employed population in the selected regions works in the agriculture sector, followed by the tourism sector, which has a share of 39%. However, tourism contributes more to the local economy and attracts more investment than agriculture. Overall, the employment situation is good, with unemployment exceeding 10% only in Finike. However, per capita income ranges from $1000 per year in Alanya, up to $9000 per year in Kemer, reflecting the large differences among the economic situation of the seven municipalities.
18 C. The annual rainfall reaches up to 1000 mm at some locations along the coast. As already mentioned above, the region has no major industrial activities and depends mainly on tourism and agriculture. Therefore, air pollution is not a problem in the area. However, water pollution is caused by untreated municipal wastewater and the surface run-off from the agricultural lands. Additionally, the growing population and tourism industry is a challenge and can pose serious threats to the environment and the natural resources if it is not developed in a sustainable way. 6. Actor analysis The institutional framework of the water supply in Turkey is structured into three levels decision-making ! ministries executive ! governmental organisations under the ministries users ! governmental and non-governmental organisations responsible for the operation and maintenance of the water supply structures.
5.4. Environmental situation All the regions of interest have a common Mediterranean climate. The summers are hot and dry while the winters are mild and rainy. The annual average ambient temperature is
6.1. Decision-making level At the decision-making level, the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (MENR) is the main state organisation which has the
36
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40
overall responsibility and control over the water resources of Turkey. Other ministries involved in decisions related to water issues include the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Services (MARS), concerning irrigation and supply of water to rural populations. The Ministry of Environment and Forestry is responsible for the protection of water resources against pollution while the Ministry of Health is responsible for ensuring that the quality of the supplied water does not expose the population to health risks. Finally, the Ministry of Interior (MoI) is responsible for the irrigation associations. The State Planning Organisation (SPO) is also classified as a decision-making level entity. SPO is responsible for the annual programmes and long-term development plans of the government. It gives direction to the sectoral and geographic distribution of investments and thus strongly affects the available funds and infrastructure decisions of the water sector. 6.2. Executive level At the executive level, the State Hydraulic Works (SHW) is the primary state agency of Turkey. It operates under the aegis of MENR, but is a legal entity and has a supplementary budget. SHW is responsible for the nation’s overall water resources planning, management, execution and operation. The second important organisation at the executive level is the General Directorate of Rural Services (GDRS) which operates under the aegis of MARS. GDRS is responsible for developing small-scale water works for irrigation and for supplying water in villages and rural districts. GDRS has to supply potable water to 77,183 settlements. Among these, 7609 have healthy but insufficient amounts of water and 7393 receive low-quality water [9].
6.3. Users level At the consumer level, the body responsible for the provision of water services depends on the size of the settlement. Municipalities are defined as the administrative units established in settlements with more than 5,000 inhabitants. They are responsible for the supply of drinking and industrial water, disposal of wastewater and storm water, and the construction and management of necessary plants and networks. They may either construct or manage those plants; or they may choose to have them constructed or managed. The Bank of Provinces is the main body providing financial and technical assistance to the municipalities in the execution of these public water and wastewater works. In cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants, SHW, is responsible for the supply of drinking, process and industrial water. In such cases, SHW constructs the intakes or dams, transmission lines, pumping stations and the necessary infrastructure for the supply of water. Usually, the municipalities then take over the operation of water transmission lines and pumping stations as well as the storage and distribution of water. However, after 1981, some of the metropolitan cities like Ankara and Istanbul started to establish utilities which are responsible both for the supply of water to the cities as well as for the construction of water and sewerage networks and plants, e.g. ISKI (Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration). These utilities have established satisfactory technical and financial resources to build their own reservoirs, dams and transmission lines to supply water to the city instead of SHW. As already mentioned, villages, rural districts, and military garrisons, where populations are lower than 5000, are served by the regional directorates of GDRS for the supply of domestic and irrigational water.
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40
SHW also assumes responsibility in cases where GDRS technically fails to meet the demand. In the case of irrigation water management, there are two approaches: —Irrigation Associations formed under the Municipality Law as local government entities which are under the administrative control of the MoI. —Irrigation Cooperatives developed by GDRS. It is important to mention that all local administrations work very close with SHW, as it is the only authority, which is empowered to manage the water resources. They have to ask for the permission of SHW before using either surface or ground water resources. In cases where water is to be taken from a dam or a river, or it has to be conveyed a certain distance
Fig. 2. Water authorities in Turkey.
37
from the source, SHW constructs the transmission lines and necessary pumping stations and transfers the operation and maintenance of these to the local administrations where they prove to have satisfactory staff and facilities. In July 2004, the National Assembly adopted the ‘Law of Local Administrations’, which aims for the reconstruction of the public sector for an effective and participatory administration as well as the involvement of the private sector in public services. This law will mainly bring about the transfer of the authorisation to the local administrations as a part of the decentralisation of authorities approach. The central authorities will only determine the general objectives, policies and standards regarding the public services at the national level. The vertical and horizontal distribution of responsibilities among the national authorities
38
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40
for the water issues is illustrated in Fig. 2. The figure, developed with the information collected during the performed research, is based on a figure from [10]. 7. Discussion The central question of this study is the evaluation of the market potential for ADS in Turkey. Furthermore, it is of interest to highlight obstacles to the expansion of the market and identify driving forces. Finally, the aim is to pave the way towards an enhanced understanding of this emerging market and suggest approaches for its successful and sustainable growth. As analysed in section 5 above, the quality of water resources in the selected areas is deteriorating. Surface water is contaminated by runoffs from the agricultural activities, while the salinity of groundwater resources is increasing because of sea water intrusion. At the same time, a steep rise in water demand over the coming years is anticipated, caused by rising populations and growth of the tourism industry. It is clear that the area cannot continue to depend solely on its renewable water resources. Alternative solutions have to be employed. Already new dams are being built and water conveyance projects are planned. Other solutions include measures to minimise losses of the distribution system and construction of sewage networks, in combination with treatment plants and recycling of water. Finally, desalination plants for sea water are another obvious choice as the area of interest lies on the coast. Of course, planning should include a combination of these solutions based on the principles of integrated water management techniques. Nevertheless, there are consumers with high seasonal variations in their water demand profile who need more water than can be provided centrally during the high
season. In our analysis, this was the case of agriculture and hotels that have an uneven distribution of water demand over the year. Additionally, some consumers require water of higher quality than that supplied by the mains. In the case study of Turkey, these are the luxurious hotels that want to provide ‘bottled’ quality drinking water to their customers. In such cases, small-scale solutions tailored to the needs of the specific consumers are required. Small desalination and water purification systems are very suitable for such applications. There is a variety of relevant products available on the market and numerous other technologies in the stage of research or development. These small-scale units can be powered by renewable energy systems and operate autonomously as described in the introduction. This allows independence from the electricity grid, which may be unreliable because of the harsh meteorological conditions as analysed in section 5.2. Moreover, the energy demand is rising with a similar pace to the water demand and is very variable over the year, peaking in the summer period. As the hydroelectric potential of the area is almost fully exploited, the price of the marginal unit of electricity is expected to rise and shortages of supply may occur during the peak period. Taking this into account, coupling of desalination units with renewable energy equipment makes sense, either in autonomous or hybrid combinations. Solar energy is a favourable option in Turkey as there is a good resource available, especially in the summer months when additional water is mostly needed. Autonomous operation is particularly suitable for isolated consumers who do not have access to the grid. As the analysis of section 6 shows, the municipalities as well as the central authorities, mainly SHW, have to be contacted in
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40
order to obtain the required licences to install ADS. However, this process is changing as a new law on local administrations has been adopted. It is still not clear how effective the new law will be in simplifying the administrative procedures, but the objective was in the right direction of decentralising control and leaving more space for the private sector. As a general conclusion, the studied municipalities need alternative water sources, and demand does exist for decentralised applications producing clean water tailored to the needs of the consumers. In the examined region however, there is an extensive coverage of the electricity grid reducing the need for autonomous applications. Still, the unreliability of the grid and the environmental problems connected with diesel generators makes the renewable energy option more attractive, either in autonomous operation or in combination with the grid. There are many incentives and forms of support that could be given to individuals at very low cost, boosting ADS implementation. The most important is information flow and awareness campaigns to inform targeted consumers about the option of installing ADS units. Secondly, the administrative procedures for getting the required licences should be simplified to a reasonable degree. Finally, the governmental organisations at the executive level should provide technical support. There is much more that could be done, both at a practical level as well as concerning the legislative and administrative framework conditions. Concrete suggestions for the five target countries of the ADIRA project will be developed and documented in a comprehensive report when the research is completed. In other countries in the MENA region, there are many areas with similar conditions, which are even more suitable for ADS
39
applications as they do not have access to the electricity grid. The final results of the ADIRA project will quantify this potential for the five target countries and will suggest ways to exploit it. Additionally, the ADIRA research will be of help to other countries in the region or worldwide in their effort to solve their water-related problems in an efficient and sustainable way. 8. Conclusions In this paper, the first results of research on ADS market potential in Turkey have been presented. Seven municipalities in southwest Turkey have been chosen as representative areas for further analysis. The data collection showed that the municipalities will face severe water and energy shortages, especially during the summer months, mainly because of the growth of the tourism industry. At the same time, agriculture is competing with tourism for the restricted water resources, while the water quality is deteriorating because of pollution. In face of these imminent problems, consumers demanding a large quantity or high quality of water do have an interest in considering the option of installing ADS. In the cases examined, it is a responsibility of the local authority to supply water in adequate quality and quantity. Nevertheless, any water works still have to be carried out in cooperation with SHW, the central authority controlling Turkey’s water resources. Consequently, ADS units could also benefit the governmental authorities by offering the end users what they need in an environmental friendly way, without requiring any additional effort or costs from the authority’s side. And it is the governmental authorities who are in the position to support ADS to enter the market. This can be done with a combination of actions covering the complete range from information supply and technical support to financial incentives and legislative
40
M. Papapetrou et al. / Desalination 183 (2005) 29–40
reforms. Specific suggestions in these directions are under development within the ADIRA project for Turkey, Morocco, Jordan, Egypt and Cyprus. Acknowledgements
This paper presents the results of research carried out within the ADIRA project in co-operation with the following Institutions: Fraunhofer ISE (project co-ordination), Fondation Marrakech 21 (FM21), Agricultural University of Athens (AUA), Canary Islands Institute of Technology (ITC), Jordan University of Science and Technology (JUST), Istanbul Technical University (ITU), WIP-Renewable Energies. The ADIRA project is supported by the European Commission under contract number ME8/AIDCO/2001/0515/59610. However, the views expressed here are those of the writers and can therefore in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the European Community. In addition we are grateful to the Middle East Desalination Research Centre (MEDRC) for their kind contributions as an additional sponsor.
References [1] T. Espino, B. Penate, G. Piernavieja, D. Herold and A. Neskakis, Optimised desalination of
seawater by a PV powered reverse osmosis plant for a decentralised coastal water supply. Desalination, 156 (2003) 349–350. [2] E. Tzen and R. Morris, Renewable energy sources for desalination. Solar Energy, 75 (2003) 375–379. [3] Solco and Solarflow, http://www.sesltd.com.au/ html/waterpure.htm, accessed on 24 January. [4] The World Bank, From Scarcity to Security: Averting a Water Crisis in the Middle East and North Africa, December 1995. [5] U. Seibert, G. Vogt, C. Brennig, R. Gebhard and F. Holz, Autonomous desalination system concepts for seawater and brackish water in rural areas with renewable energies – potentials, technologies, field experience, socio-technical and socio-economic impacts – ADIRA, Desalination, 168 (2004) 29–37. [6] EC Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, Development of Tools and Guidelines for the Promotion of the Sustainable Urban Wastewater Treatment and Reuse in the Agricultural Production in the Mediterranean CountriesMEDAWARE, Sub-Task 1-Report, Turkey, September. [7] Bill Eaves, http://www.users.zetnet.co.uk/eaves/ eclipse99/turkey.html. accessed on 14 April 2005. [8] State Institute of Statistics, http://www.die. gov.tr/nufus_sayimi/2000tablo5.xls, accessed on 1 February, 2005. [9] General Directorate of Rural Services, http:// www.khgm.gov.tr, accessed on 27 January 2005. [10] S. Burak, I. Duranyildiz and U¨. Yetis, 1997 ‘Water Resources Management’ in National Environmental Action Plan, State Planning Organization, Ankara, 2005, p. 101. (ISBN 975–19–1799–9).