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Marketing extends beyond humans
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Journal of Business Research 61 (2008) 544 – 545
Marketing extends beyond humans Vicki G. Morwitz ⁎ Robert Stansky Faculty Research Fellow, Stern School of Business, New York University, 40 West 4th Street, Room 807, New York, NY 10012-1126, United States
Abstract This comment seeks to answer the following question. Is marketing – as most marketing textbooks define the term – something that is limited to humans, or do other non-human species also engage in marketing? To answer this question this comment reviews literature on animal behavior which suggests that at least some non-human animals do engage in exchange processes in order to mutually satisfy needs and wants. This comment therefore concludes that marketing is an activity that extends beyond humans to other members of the animal kingdom. © 2007 Published by Elsevier Inc. Keywords: Marketing; Exchange; Humans; Animals
1. Marketing extends beyond humans This special issue of the Journal of Business Research focuses on consumption- and marketing-related aspects of humans' animal companions. The previous article for example focuses on human's belief in animal spirituality, and in particular on ritual blessings of animals. The article concludes by noting that the emotional bond between humans and their animal companions may affect consumption related behaviors of humans and how humans respond to marketing efforts. This comment takes a step back and tries to address a more fundamental question. Namely, is marketing – as most marketing textbooks define the term – something that is limited to humans, or do other non-human species also engage in marketing? For example, could participating in the ritual blessings of animals affect the animals' consumption behavior or how animals respond to marketing efforts? In order to answer this question, we first need to define marketing. While there are numerous definitions of marketing, the comment focuses here on an early, often in-use, and relatively simple definition Philip Kotler provides in some of his classic marketing text books (e.g., Kotler and Turner, 1981). Specifically, marketing is “human activity directed at satisfying needs and wants through an exchange process.”
⁎ Tel.: +1 212 998 0518; fax: +1 212 995 4006. E-mail address: [email protected]. 0148-2963/$ - see front matter © 2007 Published by Elsevier Inc. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2007.07.009
This definition has several key components. First, the definition suggests that marketing is an activity limited to humans. Second, the definition suggests that marketing is done to satisfy needs and wants of the parties involved in the exchange. Last, the definition suggests that marketing involves an exchange process. Indeed, the field of marketing acknowledges exchange as its core concept (Houston and Gassenheimer, 1987). This comment questions the first premise, which is that marketing is an exclusively human activity. If other, non-human, animals satisfy their needs and wants through an exchange process, then we might plausibly conclude that other animals engage in “marketing.” To answer this question this comment turns next to the literature on animal behavior which suggests that at least some non-human animals do engage in exchange processes in order to mutually satisfy needs and wants. Humans are a member of the biological family of animals known as great apes or Hominidae (along with bonobos, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans). If exchange occurs in the animal kingdom, the most natural place to look first is among our closest relatives, the other great apes. Field studies observe exchange among our closest relatives. For example, chimpanzees engage in exchange with other chimpanzees and with humans in experimental settings (Nissen and Crawford, 1936; Savage-Rumbaugh et al., 1978). Nissen and Crawford (1936) provided pairs of preadolescent chimpanzees with food (chimcrackers, vegetables, or fruit) or tokens that could be exchanged for food using a special food-delivering apparatus into which the token could be inserted. Food and
V.G. Morwitz / Journal of Business Research 61 (2008) 544–545
tokens were transferred among the individuals, with tokens being transferred more often than food. Individuals begged for an exchange and received a positive response more often for individuals with whom they had an established relationship. Hyatt and Hopkins (1998) observed chimpanzees exchanging an object in their possession for a desired object held by a human experimenter. For example in one study, chimpanzees exchanged tubes that had earlier been filled with peanut butter for a food item (half a banana, apples, or additional peanut butter). Chimpanzees were only observed to give up the tubes when there was human solicitation and social engagement. The more desirable the object held by the human was to the chimpanzee, the faster the exchange occurred. Despite this evidence, one might still question whether or not chimpanzees engage in exchange outside of an experimental setting. Paquette (1992) observed captive, adolescent chimpanzees directly and spontaneously exchanging objects. In one case, a pair of chimpanzees (Spock and Maya, half-brother andsister who had lived together since youth) exchanged toys they had been playing with (a plastic bracelet and a ball). In another case they exchanged a piece of cloth for a handbag. Although these exchanges do not occur hand-to-hand as they might with humans, the objects were exchanged mouth-to-mouth or by depositing an object on the ground right in front of the receiver, within a five second delay. Paquette characterizes these exchanges as balanced reciprocity in which individuals immediately exchange objects that have the same approximate value. Note that Spock was of a higher rank than Maya and could have simply taken Maya's object by force, but did not. Research shows that exchanges occur among other primates outside the great ape family. For example, Drapier et al. (2005) examine whether a brown capuchin monkey would trade food with a human when such a trade involved delayed gratification. The experiments involved having the human experimenter hold one food object in each hand, showing both to the subjects, then giving one to the subject. Next the experimenter showed the second item to the subject. If the subject put the first object back in the experimenter's hand, he or she could then have the second object. The value of the food items (pellets, carrots, apples, and cookies) to the subjects is learned based on food-preference trials performed earlier. The results demonstrate that the monkey subjects exchange food to maximize their payoff. Subjects would trade food to receive a different type food that was more highly valued. Subjects almost never traded a highvalued food for less-valued one. Research also shows that other primates engage in exchange with other individuals of their own species. Westergaard et al. (1997) find that Tufted Capuchins engage in simple voluntary unidirectional transfer of food, by aimed throwing of food from one individual to another familiar individual who had not received food (i.e., monkey chow biscuits). While food was transferred, whether or not exchange occurs is unclear. Individuals may have exchanged food with the hope that in the future food would be given to them, or they may have exchanged food altruistically for goodwill. The authors of this study conclude that future research needs to learn whether or not capuchins throw food altruistically.
545
Thus far, the comment focuses on studies where one object was exchanged for another. Do animals also exchange objects for services? Frans de Waal (1997) proposes that chimpanzees have a reciprocal service economy and will trade goods and services (e.g., food and grooming). Hill (1982) observes that male chimpanzees will give food to female chimpanzees in exchange for sex. A common practice among some types of insects is for males to give nuptial food gifts (e.g., nutritious prey items, dried insect fragments) to females in exchange for sex (LeBas and Hockman, 2005; Sakaluk, 2000). In some cases, these gifts are wrapped, rather elaborately in silk; in other cases, inedible tokens – such as silk wrappings with nothing inside – are offered (LeBas and Hockman, 2005). Evidence supports the conclusion that in many species (e.g., crickets, katydids, hanging flies, scorpion flies, and dance flies) females will mate with the male who provides the largest gift (Sakaluk, 2000)—the male benefits by getting the opportunity to mate and the female benefits because the gifts have nutritional value that leads to increased fertility and increased chances of survival for their off-spring (Dussourd et al., 1991). In sum, marketing – that is, the exchange of goods or services to satisfy needs and wants – is an activity that extends beyond humans. Other members in the animal kingdom engage in marketing. References de Waal FBM. The chimpanzee's service economy: food for grooming. Evol Hum Behav 1997;8(6):375–86. Drapier Maud, Chauvin Chritophe, Dufour Valérie, Uhlrich Pierre, Thierry Bernard. Food-exchange with humans in brown capuchin monkeys. Primates 2005;46:241–8. Dussourd David E, Harvis Carl A, Meinwald Jerrold, Eisner Thomas. Pheromonal Advertisement of a nuptial gift by a male moth (Utetheisa Ornatrix). Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1991;88:9224–7. Hill K. Hunting and human evolution. J Hum Evol 1982;11:521–44. Houston Franklin S, Gassenheime Jule, B. Marketing and exchange. J Mark 1987;51(4):3–18. Hyatt Charles W, Hopkins William D. Interspecies object exchange: bartering in apes? Behav Processes 1998;42:177–87. Kotler P, Turner R. Marketing Management. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall; 1981. LeBas Natasha R, Hockman Leon R. An invasion of cheats: the evolution of worthless nuptial gifts. Curr Biol 2005;15:64–7. Nissen HW, Crawford MP. A preliminary study of food-sharing behavior in young chimpanzees. J Comp Psychol 1936;22:383–419. Paquette D. Object exchange between captive chimpanzees: a case report. Hum Evol 1992;7:11–5. Sakaluk Scott K. Sensory exploitation as an evolutionary origin to nuptial food gifts in insects. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 2000;267(1441):339–43. Savage-Rumbaugh ES, Rumbaugh D, Boysen S. Linguistically mediated tool use and exchange by chimpanzees (Pan Troglodytes). Behav Brain Sci 1978;4:539–54. Westergaard Gregory Charles, Kuhn Heather E, Babitz Mindy A, Suomi Stephen J. Aimed throwing as a means of food transfer between tuften capuchins (Cebus paella). Int J Primatol 1997;19(1):123–31.
Journal of Business Research 61 (2008) 544 – 545
Marketing extends beyond humans Vicki G. Morwitz ⁎ Robert Stansky Faculty Research Fellow, Stern School of Business, New York University, 40 West 4th Street, Room 807, New York, NY 10012-1126, United States
Abstract This comment seeks to answer the following question. Is marketing – as most marketing textbooks define the term – something that is limited to humans, or do other non-human species also engage in marketing? To answer this question this comment reviews literature on animal behavior which suggests that at least some non-human animals do engage in exchange processes in order to mutually satisfy needs and wants. This comment therefore concludes that marketing is an activity that extends beyond humans to other members of the animal kingdom. © 2007 Published by Elsevier Inc. Keywords: Marketing; Exchange; Humans; Animals
1. Marketing extends beyond humans This special issue of the Journal of Business Research focuses on consumption- and marketing-related aspects of humans' animal companions. The previous article for example focuses on human's belief in animal spirituality, and in particular on ritual blessings of animals. The article concludes by noting that the emotional bond between humans and their animal companions may affect consumption related behaviors of humans and how humans respond to marketing efforts. This comment takes a step back and tries to address a more fundamental question. Namely, is marketing – as most marketing textbooks define the term – something that is limited to humans, or do other non-human species also engage in marketing? For example, could participating in the ritual blessings of animals affect the animals' consumption behavior or how animals respond to marketing efforts? In order to answer this question, we first need to define marketing. While there are numerous definitions of marketing, the comment focuses here on an early, often in-use, and relatively simple definition Philip Kotler provides in some of his classic marketing text books (e.g., Kotler and Turner, 1981). Specifically, marketing is “human activity directed at satisfying needs and wants through an exchange process.”
⁎ Tel.: +1 212 998 0518; fax: +1 212 995 4006. E-mail address: [email protected]. 0148-2963/$ - see front matter © 2007 Published by Elsevier Inc. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2007.07.009
This definition has several key components. First, the definition suggests that marketing is an activity limited to humans. Second, the definition suggests that marketing is done to satisfy needs and wants of the parties involved in the exchange. Last, the definition suggests that marketing involves an exchange process. Indeed, the field of marketing acknowledges exchange as its core concept (Houston and Gassenheimer, 1987). This comment questions the first premise, which is that marketing is an exclusively human activity. If other, non-human, animals satisfy their needs and wants through an exchange process, then we might plausibly conclude that other animals engage in “marketing.” To answer this question this comment turns next to the literature on animal behavior which suggests that at least some non-human animals do engage in exchange processes in order to mutually satisfy needs and wants. Humans are a member of the biological family of animals known as great apes or Hominidae (along with bonobos, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans). If exchange occurs in the animal kingdom, the most natural place to look first is among our closest relatives, the other great apes. Field studies observe exchange among our closest relatives. For example, chimpanzees engage in exchange with other chimpanzees and with humans in experimental settings (Nissen and Crawford, 1936; Savage-Rumbaugh et al., 1978). Nissen and Crawford (1936) provided pairs of preadolescent chimpanzees with food (chimcrackers, vegetables, or fruit) or tokens that could be exchanged for food using a special food-delivering apparatus into which the token could be inserted. Food and
V.G. Morwitz / Journal of Business Research 61 (2008) 544–545
tokens were transferred among the individuals, with tokens being transferred more often than food. Individuals begged for an exchange and received a positive response more often for individuals with whom they had an established relationship. Hyatt and Hopkins (1998) observed chimpanzees exchanging an object in their possession for a desired object held by a human experimenter. For example in one study, chimpanzees exchanged tubes that had earlier been filled with peanut butter for a food item (half a banana, apples, or additional peanut butter). Chimpanzees were only observed to give up the tubes when there was human solicitation and social engagement. The more desirable the object held by the human was to the chimpanzee, the faster the exchange occurred. Despite this evidence, one might still question whether or not chimpanzees engage in exchange outside of an experimental setting. Paquette (1992) observed captive, adolescent chimpanzees directly and spontaneously exchanging objects. In one case, a pair of chimpanzees (Spock and Maya, half-brother andsister who had lived together since youth) exchanged toys they had been playing with (a plastic bracelet and a ball). In another case they exchanged a piece of cloth for a handbag. Although these exchanges do not occur hand-to-hand as they might with humans, the objects were exchanged mouth-to-mouth or by depositing an object on the ground right in front of the receiver, within a five second delay. Paquette characterizes these exchanges as balanced reciprocity in which individuals immediately exchange objects that have the same approximate value. Note that Spock was of a higher rank than Maya and could have simply taken Maya's object by force, but did not. Research shows that exchanges occur among other primates outside the great ape family. For example, Drapier et al. (2005) examine whether a brown capuchin monkey would trade food with a human when such a trade involved delayed gratification. The experiments involved having the human experimenter hold one food object in each hand, showing both to the subjects, then giving one to the subject. Next the experimenter showed the second item to the subject. If the subject put the first object back in the experimenter's hand, he or she could then have the second object. The value of the food items (pellets, carrots, apples, and cookies) to the subjects is learned based on food-preference trials performed earlier. The results demonstrate that the monkey subjects exchange food to maximize their payoff. Subjects would trade food to receive a different type food that was more highly valued. Subjects almost never traded a highvalued food for less-valued one. Research also shows that other primates engage in exchange with other individuals of their own species. Westergaard et al. (1997) find that Tufted Capuchins engage in simple voluntary unidirectional transfer of food, by aimed throwing of food from one individual to another familiar individual who had not received food (i.e., monkey chow biscuits). While food was transferred, whether or not exchange occurs is unclear. Individuals may have exchanged food with the hope that in the future food would be given to them, or they may have exchanged food altruistically for goodwill. The authors of this study conclude that future research needs to learn whether or not capuchins throw food altruistically.
545
Thus far, the comment focuses on studies where one object was exchanged for another. Do animals also exchange objects for services? Frans de Waal (1997) proposes that chimpanzees have a reciprocal service economy and will trade goods and services (e.g., food and grooming). Hill (1982) observes that male chimpanzees will give food to female chimpanzees in exchange for sex. A common practice among some types of insects is for males to give nuptial food gifts (e.g., nutritious prey items, dried insect fragments) to females in exchange for sex (LeBas and Hockman, 2005; Sakaluk, 2000). In some cases, these gifts are wrapped, rather elaborately in silk; in other cases, inedible tokens – such as silk wrappings with nothing inside – are offered (LeBas and Hockman, 2005). Evidence supports the conclusion that in many species (e.g., crickets, katydids, hanging flies, scorpion flies, and dance flies) females will mate with the male who provides the largest gift (Sakaluk, 2000)—the male benefits by getting the opportunity to mate and the female benefits because the gifts have nutritional value that leads to increased fertility and increased chances of survival for their off-spring (Dussourd et al., 1991). In sum, marketing – that is, the exchange of goods or services to satisfy needs and wants – is an activity that extends beyond humans. Other members in the animal kingdom engage in marketing. References de Waal FBM. The chimpanzee's service economy: food for grooming. Evol Hum Behav 1997;8(6):375–86. Drapier Maud, Chauvin Chritophe, Dufour Valérie, Uhlrich Pierre, Thierry Bernard. Food-exchange with humans in brown capuchin monkeys. Primates 2005;46:241–8. Dussourd David E, Harvis Carl A, Meinwald Jerrold, Eisner Thomas. Pheromonal Advertisement of a nuptial gift by a male moth (Utetheisa Ornatrix). Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1991;88:9224–7. Hill K. Hunting and human evolution. J Hum Evol 1982;11:521–44. Houston Franklin S, Gassenheime Jule, B. Marketing and exchange. J Mark 1987;51(4):3–18. Hyatt Charles W, Hopkins William D. Interspecies object exchange: bartering in apes? Behav Processes 1998;42:177–87. Kotler P, Turner R. Marketing Management. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall; 1981. LeBas Natasha R, Hockman Leon R. An invasion of cheats: the evolution of worthless nuptial gifts. Curr Biol 2005;15:64–7. Nissen HW, Crawford MP. A preliminary study of food-sharing behavior in young chimpanzees. J Comp Psychol 1936;22:383–419. Paquette D. Object exchange between captive chimpanzees: a case report. Hum Evol 1992;7:11–5. Sakaluk Scott K. Sensory exploitation as an evolutionary origin to nuptial food gifts in insects. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 2000;267(1441):339–43. Savage-Rumbaugh ES, Rumbaugh D, Boysen S. Linguistically mediated tool use and exchange by chimpanzees (Pan Troglodytes). Behav Brain Sci 1978;4:539–54. Westergaard Gregory Charles, Kuhn Heather E, Babitz Mindy A, Suomi Stephen J. Aimed throwing as a means of food transfer between tuften capuchins (Cebus paella). Int J Primatol 1997;19(1):123–31.