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Material and energy flows in high-hill, mid-hill and valley farming systems of Garhwal Himalaya
Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 86 (2001) 75–91
Material and energy flows in high-hill, mid-hill and valley farming systems of Garhwal Himalaya R.S. Tripathi∗ , V.K. Sah College of Forestry and Hill Agriculture, Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Hill Campus Ranichauri, Ranichauri 249199, Tehri Garhwal, India Received 7 October 1999; received in revised form 7 April 2000; accepted 12 September 2000
Abstract Biophysical and energy analyses of an agro-ecosystem are necessary for effective and efficient production planning. The present paper deals with biophysical, economic and energy input–output analyses of different agro-ecosystems and energy flows of village ecosystem in the Garhwal Himalaya. Vegetable based agro-ecosystem was profitable in high-hills, whereas wheat, rice, soybean and barnyard millet based agro-ecosystems proved energetically output–input efficient in lower hill farming system. The annual net energy contribution to the village ecosystem ranged between 4275 and 13,793 GJ from crops, 7427 and 11,834 GJ from forest and 2550 and 3690 GJ from the market. The gain of energy from the system to human beings was 8313–11,273 GJ and to livestock 6009–18,566 GJ per village per annum. Forest provided the maximum energy support to the village ecosystem, whereas crops proved the second major source of energy. This indicates the exploitable potential of these two components through adoption of scientific crop production and proper forest management practices in the Garhwal Himalaya. © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Energy flow; Hill farming system; Village system; Agro-ecosystem; Forest-ecosystem; Garhwal Himalaya
1. Introduction Energy flow analysis of an ecosystem is useful in describing functions of the system and is necessary for efficient and effective production planning of a particular region (Loucks and D’Alessio, 1975). The Himalayan village is an ecosystem, which functions as an independent unit of economic activity and is comprised of agro-ecosystem, livestock, and forest ecosystem and market support. Hill farming system is ∗ Corresponding author. Present address: Principal Scientist (Agricultural Economics), Division of Technology Evaluation and Transfer, Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal 132001, Haryana, India. Tel.: +91-184-290501; fax: +91-184-290480. E-mail address: [email protected] (R.S. Tripathi).
largely self-contained for land, labour and livestock. The agro-ecosystem is largely dependent on the other systems of the village and has forward and backward linkages with livestock, forest and the market. Therefore, it is of prime importance in a village ecosystem to examine the type and extent of interdependence of various components, so that the desired alterations can be made in order to harness the maximum benefits and proper management of the resources available within the system. A number of studies have been conducted in this regard in India and other countries as well but no reliable information is available on village ecosystem of the central Himalaya in general and agro-ecosystem in particular (Walter, 1973; Reddy, 1981; Pandey and Singh, 1984; Bhullar and Mittal, 1990; Martin and Nautiyal, 1993; Mittal, 1993).
0167-8809/01/$ – see front matter © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 1 6 7 - 8 8 0 9 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 2 7 0 - X
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The present study, therefore, is aimed at (1) biophysical, economic and energy input–output analyses of different hill agro-ecosystems, (2) efficiency estimation of agro-ecosystems in different farming situations, and (3) viability examination of forest-ecosystems at the existing level of agriculture in Garhwal Himalaya. 2. Materials and method
is practiced under rainfed as well as in irrigated conditions. The natural flow of water is diverted from hill streams to the crop fields for irrigation through small channels. Fodder trees for livestock are planted on risers of the field. The density of human population is much higher in valleys as compared to other farming situations. Being far from the forest area, women sometimes have to travel 10–15 km per day to collect fuelwood and fodder. The major source of family income in the valleys is crops and livestock.
2.1. Study area 2.2. Sampling procedure The study area lies between 30◦ 15 N latitude and 78◦ 25 E longitude cultivated land is the nucleus of the village settlement in the Garhwal Himalaya, where 90% of population is engaged in agriculture. Average size of operational farms is extremely small varying from 0.34 ha in high-hills to 0.57 ha in mid-hills which indicates high population pressure per unit of area. The net irrigated area to net sown area is about 20% in mid-hill and 29% in valley farming system. In high-hill farming system, crop cultivation is totally rainfed and restricted up to 2600 m above mean sea level (msl). Apple (Malus spp.) orchards are common and off-season vegetables grown on a commercial scale. The area experiences regular snow during winter months (December–February), hence, cultivation is practiced for 9 months only. The villages are surrounded by lush green forests of fir (Abies pindrow), spruce (Picea smithiana) and oak (Quercus semecarpifolia). Oak provides green fodder for livestock during lean months of the year. The human and livestock population is comparatively less in high-hill villages. Nomads and farmers of the lower elevation migrate their flocks of cattle to high-hills during rainy season. Subsequently, migration also takes place from high-hills to valleys during severe winters (October–February). Major source of family income in the high-hills is temperate fruits and off-season vegetable cultivation. In the mid-hill farming system, cereals and pulses occupy most of the area. The cereals provided grains as well as dry fodder. A sporadic case of off-season vegetable cultivation is also in practice. The surrounding forests meet fuelwood and fodder demand. Non-farm income is the main source of livelihood in mid-hills, as the agricultural enterprises are not economically viable. In the valley system, crop cultivation
The present study was based on an intensive enquiry of three villages selected in three agro-ecological situations-one from high-hills (>1600 m msl), one from mid-hills (900–1600 m msl) and one from valley farming system (<900 m msl) in Garhwal hills of Uttar Pradesh, in the Indian central Himalaya. District Tehri Garhwal and one Community Development Block (i.e. Chamba) were selected purposely as representative areas of the central Himalaya in respect of topography, altitudinal range, socio-economic setting, cropping pattern, forest and vegetation. All the villages of the selected block were grouped into three farming situations, namely, high-hills, mid-hills and valleys, and one village was selected from each of the farming situation using random sampling technique. 2.3. Questionnaire and inventory A complete inventory was prepared for family and livestock composition, cropping pattern, food and fuel consumption, consumption of fodder, production of milk, availability and utilization of human and bullock labour, biophysical units of input and output used for the production of different crops, fruits, livestock and interrelated enterprises in different agro-ecosystems. Data were recorded from 1 June 1994 to 31 May 1995 on prestructured questionnaires and schedules through direct personal interviews with all the households of the selected villages. All the activities of the villages were closely monitored and quantified over a 1-year period. Visits of the selected villages were arranged in such a manner that at least 5% observations could be recorded on spot for each of the important operations. Five samples of various items were weighed on the spot in each village to verify the statements
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given by the respondents. Data which seemed extra ordinary were adjusted using a correction factor developed by taking differences in the statements given by the respondents and the actual quantity measured for five samples on the spot. 2.4. Budget calculations The budget was calculated separately for each farming system using local market prices of the input and output prevalent in the area. The input was calculated in terms of labour and material, i.e. human and bullock labour days, quantities of seeds, manure, chemical fertilizers, plant protection chemicals, etc. The output was calculated as crop yields and yields of by-products. The physical quantities of input and output converted into money values using local market prices. These quantities were also converted into energy terms following Mitchell (1979). The energy equivalents of Mitchell are adopted in the present study, because these equivalents are the most suitable and appropriate amongst all other available conversion equivalents at the existing subsistence farming situation of the study area. The energy equivalents and rates of various input–output items used in the study are given in Appendix A. The calorific equivalents are based on Gopalan et al. (1978) and Pimentel et al. (1973).
3. Results and discussion 3.1. Cropping pattern The major crops grown in the area were wheat (Triticum aestivum), rice (Oryza sativa), barley (Hordeum vulgare), barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumantacia) and finger millet (Eleusine coracana) in cereals; vegetable pea (Pisum sativum), potato (Solanum tuberosum), French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and cabbage (Brassica oleracea Var. Capitata) in vegetables; soybean (Glycine max) and lentil (Lens culinaris) in pulses; rapeseeds (Brassica campestris) and mustard (Brassica juncea) in oilseeds; and apple (Malus pumila) in fruits. In the high-hill farming system, 41.8% area was under cereals, 2.7% under pulses, 49.4% under vegetables and 6.1% under fruit crops. In the mid-hill system, about 70% of the
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cropped area was occupied by cereals, 7% pulses, 2% oilseeds and 1% by vegetables. In valleys, cereal crops occupied more than 94% of the total cropped area. The pulses covered about 5% area, whereas oilseeds and vegetables occupied 0.5% each of the cropland. There was a fallow period of 6 months in the cereal crop rotations, especially after finger millet in all the three farming systems. 3.2. Cost and return of agro-ecosystems 3.2.1. High-hill farming system The physical units of various inputs used for cultivation of cereals, vegetables and fruits and output obtained from these crops in high-hill farming system are presented in Table 1. The values portray that the highest requirement of human and bullock labour was for the cultivation of March sown potato (MS potato) being 251 and 50 days per hectare, respectively, followed by cabbage, French bean and finger millet. March sown vegetable pea (MS veg pea) needed the minimum labour amongst all the field crops being 86 days human and 17 days bullock labour per hectare. Apple required 29 days per hectare per year human labour. The quantity of seed required was highest for potato crop being about 1.2 Mg ha−1 and the lowest in millets. The maximum quantity of manure was used in July sown vegetable pea (JS veg pea) being 5.8 Mg ha−1 and the lowest in soybean. The highest application of fertilizers was applied in July sown potato (JS potato) being 191 kg ha−1 , followed by JS veg pea and MS veg pea. In wheat and French bean, fertilizer use was 5.6 and 13 kg ha−1 , respectively. Use of NPK was not in proper ratio as only nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers were applied by most of the farmers. A small quantity of potassium fertilizer was used in a few of the high-hill crops. Plant protection chemicals were not used in cereals, while a small quantity only was applied for vegetables in the high-hills. The biological yield (i.e out put, Table 1) of the crops grown in high-hill farming system was the highest in cabbage (green leaf) being 11.4 Mg ha−1 followed by green pods of MS veg pea (7.8 Mg) and MS potato (6.7 Mg). The lowest yield was recorded for cereal crops being 0.5 Mg in barnyard millet and 0.6 Mg ha−1 in wheat. The yield of by-product was the highest in millets being 1.5 Mg ha−1 followed by wheat, whereas it was almost negligible for vegetables.
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Table 1 Physical units of input and output (per hectare per year) used for different crops grown in high-hill farming system Particulars
Wheat
Finger millet
Barnyard millet
Soybean
Potatoa
Potatob
Peac
Pead
Cabbage
French bean
Apple
Input Human labour (days) Bullock labour (days) Seed (kg) Manure (Mg)
95.6 24.9 98.7 2.0
181.2 37.8 25.1 2.1
145.7 20.4 26.3 2.4
127.5 21.3 50.2 0.4
251.4 49.5 1184.4 3.7
153.9 9.5 1240.0 2.7
85.5 16.5 93.2 1.7
178.0 20.3 127.4 5.8
229.3 36.8 1.0 4.5
191.5 27.6 54.1 2.0
28.8 0.0 0.0 0.8
Fertilizer (kg) Urea Diammonium phosphate Muriate of potash Single super phosphate
5.6 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
32.6 56.2 0.0 4.8
55.3 76.7 0.0 58.7
48.7 57.5 0.0 25.4
26.7 138.6 0.4 2.4
26.6 3.3 0.8 0.2
13.4 0.0 0.0 0.0
47.5 35.5 15.3 0.8
Plant protection chemicals (kg)
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
1.5
1.5
0.3
0.0
0.0
2.0
0.6 1.3
0.8 1.5
0.5 1.5
1.6 0.5
6.7 0.1
2.6 0.1
7.8 0.0
4.6 0.4
11.4 0.0
2.0 0.2
0.9 2.8
Output (yield) Main product (Mg) By-product (Mg) a
March sown potato. July sown potato. c March sown vegetable pea. d July sown vegetable pea. b
The cost and return of crops grown in high-hill farming system and the return obtained from these crops are given in Table 2. It is evident from the table that the highest cost of cultivation was in MS potato being Rs 17,388 ha−1 followed by vegetable pea July sown and JS potato. The minimum cost of cultivation was on wheat crop (Rs 5207 ha−1 ). In vegetables, about 48% cost was on labour, 45% on material and 7% on overhead expenses, whereas in case of cereals, it was 65% on labour, 20% on material and 15% on overhead charges. Apple production cost estimated to Rs 3064 ha−1 per year, out of which about 24% was on labour, 34% on material and 42% on overhead charges. The highest net income in high-hills was from JS veg pea being Rs 41,809 ha−1 followed by MS veg pea and cabbage. Apple provided net income of Rs 2604 ha−1 per year. The cereal crops and JS potato gave remarkable net loss. 3.2.2. Mid-hill farming system The physical units of input and output used in mid-hill system are presented in Table 3 which depict that the highest requirement of human and bullock labour was in rice cultivation being 240 and 39 days per hectare, respectively, followed by finger millet. Barley required the minimum labour being 86 days
per hectare, whereas French bean needed the lowest amount of bullock labour. The quantity of seed was the highest in wheat crop being 100 kg ha−1 and the lowest in rapeseed and mustard. The highest quantity of manure was used in rice being 4 Mg ha−1 followed by wheat and the lowest in lentil. Use of fertilizers was at a low level, whereas plant protection chemicals were almost negligible in mid-hill farms. Yield was highest in rice crop being 1.5 Mg ha−1 followed by soybean and barnyard millet and the lowest in rapeseed and mustard under mid-hill situation. Yield of by-product was the highest in barnyard millet being 4.8 Mg ha−1 followed by rice. The cost and return of the crops grown in mid-hills are given in Table 4 which reveal that the highest cost of cultivation was in rice being Rs 9666 ha−1 followed by finger millet and French bean. The lowest cost was on pulses and barley. The mid-hill situation was not suitable for crop production as most of the crops proved economically enviable and gave remarkable net loss ranged from Rs 3793 ha−1 in finger millet to Rs 535 ha−1 in barnyard millet. The only economically viable crops of the system were soybean and pulses (mixed) that gave Rs 2053 and Rs 766 ha−1 net income to the mid-hill farmers, respectively.
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Table 3 Physical units of input and output (per hectare per year) used for different crops grown in mid-hill farming system Particulars
Wheat
Rice
Barley
Finger millet
Barnyard Soybean millet
Pulses (mixed)
Rapeseed and mustard
French bean
Lentil
Input Human labour (days) Bullock labour (days) Seed (kg) Manure (Mg)
128.1 35.7 99.3 3.8
240.1 38.5 53.4 4.0
86.1 31.9 83.3 0.8
219.0 42.5 31.7 2.8
179.4 28.5 30.1 2.8
152.1 30.5 49.6 2.4
99.5 26.1 23.4 0.7
93.3 36.6 13.8 1.4
180.1 25.2 37.0 1.7
92.4 38.1 47.4 0.5
2.0 4.6 0.0
11.1 1.6 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 8.7 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 5.2 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.9 1.6
1.5 3.6
0.4 1.0
0.9 2.2
1.1 4.8
1.3 0.7
0.5 0.3
0.2 0.2
1.1 0.2
0.4 0.3
Fertilizer (kg) Urea Diammonium phosphate Plant protection chemicals (kg) Output (yield) Main product (Mg) By-product (Mg)
3.2.3. Valley farming system The crop input and output for valley farming system are presented in Table 5, which show that maximum human and bullock labour were required in October sown potato (OS potato) being 234 and 43 days per hectare followed by rice, whereas lentil needed minimum labour. The highest quantity of manure was used in potato being 6.5 Mg ha−1 followed by wheat and rice. The lowest use of manure was in pulses and oilseeds (0.5 Mg ha−1 ). The use of fertilizer was 33 kg ha−1 in potato, 13 kg ha−1 in wheat, and 15 kg ha−1 in rice crop under valley condition. The yield was the highest in potato being 2.8 Mg ha−1 followed by rice and wheat while it was the lowest for rapeseed and mustard and lentil. The yield of by-product was the highest in barnyard millet being about 3.6 Mg ha−1 followed by rice and wheat. The cost and return of crops in valley farming system are summarised in Table 6. The highest cost of cultivation was in OS potato being Rs 15,531 ha−1 followed by rice and finger millet. The lowest cost was on pulses and oilseeds. Most of the crops grown in valley farming system gave net loss ranging from Rs 4893 in finger millet to Rs 270 ha−1 in barnyard millet. 3.3. Economic efficiency of agro-ecosystems 3.3.1. High-hill farming system The economic efficiency of agro-ecosystems was calculated by dividing gross benefit with total cost
(data not shown). The efficiency analysis of the agro-ecosystems practiced in the high-hill situation revealed that input cost was lower in fruit and cereal based agro-systems as compared to vegetable based rotations. Among the cereal rotations, input cost was lowest in finger millet–fallow rotation being Rs 7530 ha−1 per year followed by finger millet–fallow–barnyard millet–wheat, whereas it was Rs 11,144 ha−1 per year in barnyard millet–wheat rotation. Apple was the major fruit based agro-system followed extensively in high-hill farming situation. The cost on apple production was Rs 3064 ha−1 per year. Input cost was the highest for JS veg pea–MS potato amongst all the crop rotations adopted in the high-hills being Rs 30,448 ha−1 per year followed by 2 years rotation of French bean–MS potato–JS veg pea–MS potato and 1 year rotation cabbage–MS potato. The input–output budget analysis revealed that JS veg pea–MS potato rotation gave the highest net return in high-hills being Rs 44,456 ha−1 per year followed by cabbage–MS potato and JS potato–MS veg pea. The net income was Rs 24,607 ha−1 per year in 2 years crop rotation French bean–MS potato–JS veg pea–MS potato and Rs 8527 in soybean–MS potato. The French bean–MS potato yielded the lowest net income amongst all the vegetable based rotations being Rs 4760 ha−1 per year, whereas cereal based rotations proved economically enviable in high-hills. The loss ranged from Rs 4760 ha−1 in finger millet–fallow–barnyard millet–wheat to Rs
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Table 5 Physical units of input and output (per hectare per year) used for different crops grown in valley farming system Particulars
Wheat
Rice
Barley
Finger millet
Barnyard millet
Lentil
Pulses (mixed)
Rapeseed and mustard
Potato
Input Human labour (days) Bullock labour (days) Seed (kg) Manure (Mg)
137.2 34.9 93.2 3.3
212.9 41.0 44.0 3.1
119.7 27.3 91.9 2.5
172.0 41.6 30.4 1.9
122.9 28.0 31.0 2.6
85.4 25.5 39.4 0.7
112.7 24.2 24.0 0.5
111.9 22.9 15.1 0.5
234.4 43.4 966.7 6.5
7.7 5.7 0.0
12.3 2.5 0.3
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
3.3 0.0 0.1
33.3 0.0 0.0
1.5 1.81
1.8 3.4
0.5 1.2
0.5 1.0
1.0 3.7
0.3 0.3
0.6 0.4
0.2 0.4
2.8 0.3
Fertilizer (kg) Urea Diammonium phosphate Plant protection chemicals (kg) Output (yield) Main product (Mg) By-product (Mg)
3710 ha−1 per year in finger millet–fallow rotation. JS potato–MS veg pea, JS veg pea–MS potato and cabbage–MS potato rotations were the most efficient in high-hills providing Rs 2.8 and Rs 2.5 over each rupee invested on these rotations, respectively. The benefit–cost (B–C) ratio was 1.9 for apple production while in case of cereal based agro-ecosystems it varied from 0.5 to 0.5.
0.8 B–C ratio in mid-hills. The B–C ratio was the lowest in case of finger millet–fallow rotation as only one crop was grown in this system and the field left fallow for about 6 months in a year. The B–C ratio was 0.7 in rice–wheat, 0.7 in barnyard millet–barley, 0.7 in pulses (mixed)–rapeseed and mustard and 0.7 in 3 years crop rotation of finger millet–fallow–rice–wheat–barnyard millet–wheat adopted in mid-hills.
3.3.2. Mid-hill farming system In mid-hill situation, economic efficiency indicated that input cost was the lowest for 1 year rotation of finger millet–fallow being Rs 8808 ha−1 per year, followed by pulses (mixed)–rapeseed and mustard rotation (data not shown). The highest cost was in rice–wheat rotation being Rs 16,473 ha−1 per year followed by French bean–wheat, barnyard millet–wheat and soybean–wheat. The cost was Rs 12,640 ha−1 in finger millet–fallow–rice–wheat rotation and Rs 11,951 ha−1 per year barnyard millet–barley whereas finger millet–fallow–barnyard millet–wheat required Rs 11,397 ha−1 input cost. These results indicate that wheat based rotations needed the highest input in mid-hill farming system. The annual budget depicted that all the agro-systems adopted in mid-hill farming situation provided net loss ranging from Rs 5084 in rice–wheat to Rs 186 ha−1 per year in soybean–wheat rotation. The soybean–wheat, barnyard millet–lentil and barnyard millet–wheat crop rotations showed comparatively better advantage providing 1.0, 0.8 and
3.3.3. Valley farming system The cereal based rotations were dominated in valley situation whereas pulses and vegetable based rotations were also practiced by some of the farmers. The economic efficiency revealed that input cost was minimum for finger millet–fallow rotation being Rs 7439 ha−1 per year followed by pulses (mixed)–rapeseed and mustard rotation (data not shown). The highest cost was for pulses (mixed)–OS potato crop rotation being Rs 20,602 ha−1 per year followed by rice–wheat and barnyard millet–wheat. The input–output budget revealed that pulses (mixed)–potato rotation gave the highest net return of Rs 4904 ha−1 per year in valleys followed by barnyard millet–wheat. The other valley agro-systems proved economically enviable and gave remarkable net loss to the farmers. The highest loss was in finger millet–fallow rotation being Rs 4893 ha−1 per year, followed by barnyard millet–barley. The B–C ratio was 1.2 for pulses–potato and 1.0 in barnyard millet–wheat rotation.
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3.4. Energetics of agro-ecosystems 3.4.1. High-hill farming system The energy input–output analysis revealed that energy input requirement of vegetable crops was much higher than the cereal crops in high-hill farming system (Table 2). Energy requirement was minimum in soybean cultivation being 4.8 GJ ha−1 and the highest in JS veg pea. The energy input in wheat was the lowest among all the cereal crops followed by finger millet. The input requirement was more for cereals than those of pulses (soybean). The energy input of cereals and vegetables was higher than the input used for fruit production. Energy output of soybean was highest in high-hills. Potato (MS), JS veg pea and cabbage cultivation required a much greater degree of energy compared to cereals and pulses in terms of human labour, seed, manure and fertilizers. Most of the vegetable crops were input intensive in high-hills. The energy output of potato, JS veg pea, cabbage and French bean was significantly lower than the input required. Apple required 9 GJ ha−1 per year input energy and provided 60.9 GJ ha−1 output in high-hill situation. 3.4.2. Mid-hill farming system In mid-hill farming system, energy input was higher in cereals except for barley (Table 4). It was the highest for wheat and rice crops being 30 and 32 GJ ha−1 , respectively, followed by millets. The energy requirement was minimum for the cultivation of pulses and oilseeds being 6 and 12 GJ ha−1 . The energy output of cereal and soybean crops was much higher as compared to pulses, oilseeds and vegetables. The net energy return was highest in rice cultivation being 40 GJ ha−1 followed by finger millet, whereas it was the lowest in lentil and wheat. The rapeseed and French bean required more energy input than their energy output. Among the cereals, B–C ratio was higher for rice and barley than wheat, finger millet and barnyard millet. The energy B–C ratio was 1.6 in soybean and the lowest in case of French bean. 3.4.3. Valley farming system In valleys, input and output were higher for cereals than the pulses and oilseeds (Table 6). Potato required the highest energy input being 54 GJ ha−1
Table 7 Average food and fuel consumption (GJ per capita per year) in the sample families Particulars
High-hill Mid-hill Valley farming system farming system farming system
Cereals 3.0 Pulses 0.4 Fats and oils 0.1 Vegetables 0.1 Milk 0.5 Sugar 0.3 Fuelwood 10.6 Kerosine oil 0.4 Electricity 0.1 Total
15.6
3.4 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.3 9.6 0.4 0.1
3.0 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.6 0.3 9.9 0.3 0.1
15.0
14.8
and provided remarkable net energy loss whereas the highest energy output was obtained from rice being 73 GJ ha−1 followed by barnyard millet and wheat under valley situation. Amongst the cereals, highest B–C ratio was for rice and lowest in barley. The oilseed and pulse crops required low input and yielded less output as compared to the cereals. Paddy in cereals and potato in vegetables required maximum human labour. 3.5. Food and fuel consumption pattern The consumption of food and fuel energy was almost same in all the three farming systems being about 15 GJ per year per capita (Table 7). It is evident from the results that 70% of the total energy consumption was on fuel items and 30% on food articles. In general, out of the total food energy the highest share was on cereals and pulses constituting about 78% energy followed by milk (11%) and sugar (6%) in all the farming systems. Fat and oil shared about 3–4% of the total food energy, whereas vegetables accounted for only 2% energy. Fuelwood contributed more than 70% of the total fuel energy in hill farming systems. 3.6. Forage and fodder consumption pattern The major sources of livestock fodder were cultivated and forest lands in the hill farming systems. The green and dry grasses, tree leaves (Quercus spp., Celtis australis, Grewia optiva, etc.) and crop
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Table 8 Average consumption (GJ per capita per year) of fodder and production of milk in sample families Particulars
High-hills
Mid-hills
Valleys
Farm land
Forest land
Total
Farm land
Forest land
Total
Farm land
Forest land
Total
Fodder grasses Tree leaves Farm products
14.7 0.7 0.3
4.0 1.0 0.0
18.7 1.7 0.3
5.5 1.0 1.7
3.9 0.6 0.0
9.4 1.6 1.7
11.4 1.5 1.1
4.0 0.5 0.0
15.4 2.0 1.1
Total
15.7
5.0
20.7
8.1
4.5
12.6
13.9
4.5
18.4
Concentrates Milk production Home consumed Sold
0.0
0.0
0.8
0.0
0.0
0.6
0.0
0.0
0.7
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0
0.2 0.0
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0
0.1 0.0
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0
0.2 0.0
Total
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.2
by-products were the main items of fodder fed to the animals. Cultivation of pure fodder crops on cultivated land is not a common practice. Concentrates, which included cereals, pulses, salt, etc., were purchased from the market. The average quantity of concentrates fed to the animals in terms of energy ranged from 0.6 GJ in mid-hills to 0.8 GJ per year per capita in high-hill farming system. The details of fodder and concentrates fed to animals reveal that the highest quantity of fodder energy was consumed in high-hills being 20.7 GJ per year per capita and the lowest in mid-hill farming system (Table 8). In high-hill system, nearly 76% of the total fodder consumed was from owned land and remaining 24% collected from the nearby forests (data not shown). The contribution of grasses was about 91% of the total fodder whereas tree leaves shared about 8% of the total fodder. The crop by-products contributed only 1% of the fodder energy. Out of the total quantity of grass fed in high-hills, about 78% was grown on owned pasture land and risers and 22% collected from the forests, whereas in case of tree leaves, it was 43 and 57% from owned and forest lands, respectively. In mid-hill system, about 64% of the total fodder consumed was from owned land and remaining 36% collected from the forests (data not shown). The contribution of grasses was about 75% of the total fodder fed, whereas the share of tree leaves was 12%. The crop by-products contributed 13% of the total fodder energy in mid-hills. Out of the total quantity of grasses consumed 58% was grown on owned pasture land and
risers and 42% collected from forest areas whereas in case of tree leaves these were 63 and 37% on that order in mid-hills. In valley farming system, about 76% of the total fodder consumed was collected from owned land and rest 24% from the forest areas (data not shown). The contribution of grasses was about 84% of the total fodder whereas the tree leaves contributed nearly 10%. The crop by-products contributed 6% of the total fodder energy in valleys. Out of the total grasses about 74% was from owned land and risers and 26% collected from forests while in case of tree leaves these were 73 and 27% in the valleys. 3.7. Market support Market plays a pivotal role in smooth functioning of the system by providing energy to human beings in terms of food, inputs for crop production such as seeds, fertilizers, plant protection chemicals, and feed to the livestock. The details of energy flow from the market to human consumption, crop system and livestock are shown in Fig. 1. A considerable amount of energy flowed from market to human consumption in valley system (2994 GJ per year per village), whereas it was minimum in the mid-hill system (2289 GJ per year per village) (data not shown). Out of the total flow, milk, sugar, fat and oil energy were the highest in all the farming systems being 72, 66 and 65% in high-hills, mid-hills and valleys, respectively. The fruits and vegetables energy
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Fig. 1. Annual average energy flow (GJ per year) of village ecosystem in the Garhwal Himalaya, explaining the flow of energy from different components of the system. The boundaries of the village is surrounded by the forest which supports the fuelwood, fodder and bedding material requirement of the villagers.
were mostly at par in all the farming systems. The market support for crop production in terms of fertilizers, seeds and plant protection chemicals was maximum in high-hills (92 GJ per year) and minimum in the valley system (4 GJ per year). The reverse trend was noticed for the cattle feed, which was maximum in valleys (665 GJ per year) and minimum in mid-hills (252 GJ per year). The high-hill was the only system from
where 193 GJ per year per village surplus energy was diverted to market in terms of fruits and vegetables. 3.8. Subsidy from forest ecosystem The surrounding forest ecosystem provided a considerable amount of energy for operation of the agro-ecosystems in terms of animal fodder and fuel-
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wood (Martin and Nautiyal, 1993). Out of the total fodder requirement, 76, 64 and 76% were provided by the cultivated land (crop by-products, grasses from terrace risers and fodder tree on cultivated land), and the rest 24, 36 and 24% gathered from the surrounding forest area in high-hills, mid-hills and valleys, respectively (data not shown). A small fraction of the animal feed was imported from the market. A significant proportion of fodder-energy ends up as manure in the crop fields, helping to maintain soil fertility and water retaining capacity. It is postulated that the primary reason why hill farmers keep sufficient number of cattle is to provide manure for the fields (Ashish, 1983). The fuel requirement in the Himalayan village is 1.5 kg of wood per head per day (Das, 1981). Thus, the energy supplied by forest is the most critical factor for viability of the hill agro-ecosystem. According to Airy and Shastri (1982), 10.65 ha of forest land per ha of cultivated area is needed to meet the fuel requirement of the villages, but at present only 0.36 ha forest is available which is quite insufficient to meet the requirement. Another estimate made by Shah (1982) showed that the forest land available per ha of cultivated land in central Himalaya is only 1.58 ha. This availability ratio is too low to supply fodder and fuel without forest destruction. It is evident from the above discussion that the forest biomass and its ecosystem cannot remain viable at the current level of agricultural activities. Ecological imperatives require a strategic and proper management of forest ecosystem along with drastic change in the land-use pattern, promoting scientific tree-farming in
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barren and unproductive forest lands and finding alternate sources of fuel and fodder. The denuded village woodlands need to be restocked with fuel and fodder trees through better management, education and training of villagers, effective legislation for forest protection, and massive government support to act as buffer between natural reserve forests and agro-ecosystems. 3.9. Energy flows of agro-ecosystem Annual energy flow pattern of the village showed that agro-ecosystem, forest ecosystem, livestock, human use and market are comprising the whole village ecosystem (Fig. 1). The annual use of human energy was 1.2–1.1 times higher for the crop production in mid-hills and valleys than those of high-hills due to larger cropped area in these situations. Energy required for upkeep of livestock was 1.8–3.1 times higher in high-hills and valleys than the mid-hills as farmers kept comparatively more animals in these situations (Table 9). The women had to travel 5–15 km per day to collect fodder and fuel. The energy required for fodder and fuelwood collection was more in valleys than in high and mid-hills because the later two were quite close to the supporting area ‘the forest’ (Sah et al., 1988). The human labour availability and utilization were more in valleys than in other two farming systems (Table 10). Utilization of human labour was 73.3, 89.6 and 127.5% of the total family labour available in high-hills, mid-hills and valleys, respectively. The labour were also hired from other areas to perform
Table 9 Family and livestock composition of the sample families (average per family)a Particulars
High-hill farming system
Mid-hills farming system
Valleys farming system
Total number of family members Agricultural workers Non-agricultural workers Migrants Dependents Total number of livestock Draught animals Buffaloes Cows Sheep and goats Young stock
7.6 2.5 1.0 1.1 2.9 7.1 1.9 1.5 2.9 0.4 0.5
6.8 2.2 1.0 0.6 3.0 5.4 2.0 1.4 0.8 0.8 0.4
7.1 2.5 0.9 0.7 3.0 8.9 1.9 1.7 3.2 1.5 0.6
a
(532) (175) (72) (79) (206) (504) (132) (105) (209) (25) (33)
Figures in parentheses show total number per village.
(564) (181) (85) (51) (247) (443) (166) (116) (66) (62) (33)
(762) (266) (97) (74) (325) (951) (205) (182) (342) (156) (66)
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Table 10 Average availability of family labour and its utilization (GJ per family per year) for different purposes in the sample farmsa Particulars Family human labour available Human labour utilized for Crop production Fruit production Upkeep of livestock Fodder collection Fuelwood collection Total Percent utilized to total family labour available Total bullock labour available Bullock labour utilized Percent utilized to total bullock labour available a
High-hill farming system
Mid-hill farming system
Valleys farming system
4.7 (327)
4.1 (338)
4.6 (497)
0.7 2.8 0.6 1.7 0.3
1.0 0.0 0.4 1.7 0.5
0.7 0.0 0.5 3.9 0.7
(51) (20) (44) (121) (23)
(83) (36) (144) (40)
(78) (56) (417) (82)
3.4 (259)
3.6 (303)
5.9 (633)
72.3 20.7 (1452) 7.5 (52) 3.6
89.6 22.0 (1826) 1.3 (106) 5.8
127.5 21.1 (2255) 1.0 (105) 4.7
Figures in parentheses show total number per village.
agricultural operations in valleys (Pandey and Singh, 1984). The Bullock labour was used only for crop production. Though availability of bullock energy was high, their utilization was limited to 5.9% of the total availability. Relatively high numbers of draught animals are maintained to supply manure for improvement of soil fertility and crop production. The family itself for performing agricultural operations contributed the major proportion of labour. The high-hill farmers send fruits and off-season vegetables to market, which fetched good returns, whereas small quantity of vegetables also marketed by the valley farmers. The agronomic yield and milk production were not enough to meet the minimum energy requirement of humans (1225 GJ per capita per day). Details of food and fuel consumption reveal that the highest quantity of energy was consumed in terms of cereals, ranged between 68 and 71% of the total food stuff followed by milk (10–13%). The consumption of energy in terms of fuelwood ranged from 9.6 GJ in mid-hills to 10.6 GJ per capita per year in high-hills. About 75% of the total requirement of foodgrains and milk and almost total requirement of sugar, oils and other consumable items were met by import from plains of India (Ashish, 1983). Since, foodgrain production was not enough to meet the requirement of the people, a significant proportion of adult male workers migrated temporarily to out side the area and worked on wages or salaries. These migrants sent back a
remarkable amount of earnings to their families to support the necessities of the life. Due to this fact, economy of the Uttar Pradesh hills is popularly known as “money-order economy” (Rawat and Shastri, 1983). As a result of high male migration, most of the agricultural chores were the sole responsibility of women, therefore, agriculture of the area is called “women agriculture” and the operational structure of the population is characterized by high female participation in the primary activities.
4. Conclusions The study provided the following conclusions: 1. The agro-ecosystems based on cereals, pulses and oilseeds were energetically viable but proved economically unprofitable in the hill farming systems. Vegetable based systems were economically profitable in high-hills. 2. The agro-ecosystems could be made viable in the hills through adoption of proper land-use, introduction of improved crop production technology and high yielding varieties of crops, along with creation of strong production and marketing infrastructure. 3. The marketable surplus needs to be increased in the village by introduction of market oriented production system.
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4. The livestock module was an input intensive and energy consuming component, which could be made viable through replacement of inferior and unproductive milch animals by improved breeds and introduction of quality fodder in cultivation. 5. The forest ecosystem cannot remain viable at the existing level of village activities in the hills, therefore, strategic and efficient management of forest are urgently required along with the promotion of scientific tree farming in barren and unproduc-
89
tive forestlands, denuded village woodlands and unmanaged grazing lands and pastures. 6. Overall, education and training to the villagers, effective legislation for forest protection and significant financial support from the government is needed. Better use of human resources could be utilized by creating additional employment opportunities in the villages through significant establishment of agro-based small scale cottage industries in the area.
Appendix A. Energy equivalents of different input and output values used for different farming systems Particulars
Unit
Energy value in GJ per unit
Human labour Bullock labour
Adult man (days) worked for 8 h One bullock (average weight 300 kg) worked for 8 h kg
0.007 0.037
Nutrients in kg Nutrients in kg Nutrients in kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg
0.077 0.014 0.009 0.101 0.016 0.014 0.016 0.015 0.017 0.025 0.009 0.004 0.004 0.003
l l kg kg kg kg kg kg kg l kW/h
0.003 0.005 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.014 0.039 0.015 0.019 0.046 0.003
Farm yard manure Chemical fertilizers Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Insecticide/pesticides Wheat Rice Barley Finger/barnyard millet Lentil, soybean and other pulses Rapeseed, mustard and cabbage seed Apple Potato Fresh vegetables Leafy vegetable Milk Cow Buffalo Green fodder Tree leaves Straw Concentrates Fats and oils Sugar Fuelwood Kerosine oil Electricity
0.007
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Appendix B. Rate of different inputs and outputs used for the estimation of cost and return on different farming systems (1 US$ = 42 rupees (approximately)) Particulars
Unit
Human labour Bullock labour
Adult man (days) worked for 8 h One bullock (average weight 300 kg) worked for 8 h Mg
Farm yard manure Chemical fertilizers Urea Diammonium phosphate Single super phosphate Muriate of potash Insecticide/pesticides Seed Wheat Rice Barley Finger/barnyard millet Lentil, French bean and other pulses Soybean Rapeseed, mustard Vegetable pea Potato (MS) Potato (JS and OS) Cabbage Main product Wheat Rice Barley Finger/barnyard millet Lentil and other pulses Soybean Vegetable pea (MS) Vegetable pea (JS) Other pulses Rapeseed and mustard Cabbage Potato (MS and OS) Potato (JS) French bean (green pods) By-products Straw of wheat and barley Straw of rice Soybean, French bean, pulses, pea Lentil, rapeseed and mustard Fuelwood
Rupees per unit 25.00 80.00 20.00
kg kg kg kg kg
3.00 7.00 4.00 5.50 210.00
kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg
6.00 6.00 6.00 5.00 15.00 12.00 15.00 35.00 5.50 4.00 70.00
kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg
4.50 4.00 4.00 4.00 10.00 7.00 6.00 12.00 10.00 10.00 4.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg
45.00 20.00 10.00 10.00 25.00
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References Airy, K.S., Shastri, C., 1982. Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of human population. In: An Integrated Ecology of Eastern Kumaun Himalaya, with Emphasis on Natural Resources. Second Annual Report (HCS/DST/187/76), Kumaun University, Nainital, Uttar Pradesh, India, 193 pp. Ashish, M., 1983. Agricultural economy of Kumaun Hills: threat of ecological disaster. In: Singh, J.S., Singh, S.P., Shastri, C. (Eds.), The Himalaya: Nature, Man and Culture. Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital, Uttar Pradesh, India. Bhullar, B.S., Mittal, J.P., 1990. Energy requirements for wheat production in a selected village of Punjab. J. Rural Technol. 2 (1), 9–22. Das, S.K., 1981. Plan for Afforestation in Civil-soyam Panchayat and Pasture Land and Solving the Problem of Fuel, Woodmaterial for Agricultural Appliances and Fodder for Livestock, by Managing the Grazing Lands of Almora Districts. District Magistrate, Almora, Uttar Pradesh, India. Gopalan, C., Ramasastri, B.V., Balasubramaniam, S.C., 1978. Nutritive Value of Indian Foods. National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, India. Loucks, O.L., D’Alessio, A., 1975. Energy Flow and Human Adaptation, A Summary of Ecosystem Studies, The Institute of Ecology, Madison, WI. Martin, P.J., Nautiyal, J.C., 1993. Population supporting capacity in the central Himalaya. In: Khurana, D.K., Khosla, P.K. (Eds.), Agroforestry for Rural Needs. ISTS, Dr. Y.S. Parmar University
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of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India, pp. 439–462. Mitchell, R., 1979. The Analysis of Indian Agro-ecosystems. Interprint, New Delhi, 180 pp. Mittal, J.P., 1993. Comparative energy requirement in wheat cultivation under different technologies levels in India. Econ. Affairs 38 (4), 201–210. Pandey, U., Singh, J.S., 1984. Energy-flow relationship between agro and forest ecosystems in central Himalaya. Environ. Conserv. 11, 45–53. Pimentel, D., Hurd, L.E., Bellotti, A.C., Forester, M.L., Oka, I.D., Sholes, O.D., Whitman, R.J., 1973. Food production and energy crisis. Science 182, 443–449. Rawat, A.S., Shastri, C., 1983. Demographic profile of Kumaun Garhwal Hills in retrospect: 1865–1931. In: Singh, O.P. (Ed.), The Himalaya: Nature, Man and Culture. Rajesh Publications, New Delhi, India, 379 pp. Reddy, A.K.N., 1981. An Indian village agricultural ecosystem case study of Ungra village II. Discuss. Biomass 1, 77–88. Sah, V.K., Tripathi, R.S., Gautam, P.L., 1988. Problems and prospects of development in U.P. hills: an integrated approach. Sikkim Sci. Soc. 1, 108–119. Shah, S.L., 1982. Ecological degradation and future of agriculture in the Himalayas. Indian J. Agric. Econ. 37 (1), 1–22. Walter, H., 1973. Die Vegetation der Erde, Bd. 1: Die tropischen Under Sub-tropischen Zonen in Okophyiologischer Betrachtung. Fischer, Stuttgart.
Material and energy flows in high-hill, mid-hill and valley farming systems of Garhwal Himalaya R.S. Tripathi∗ , V.K. Sah College of Forestry and Hill Agriculture, Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Hill Campus Ranichauri, Ranichauri 249199, Tehri Garhwal, India Received 7 October 1999; received in revised form 7 April 2000; accepted 12 September 2000
Abstract Biophysical and energy analyses of an agro-ecosystem are necessary for effective and efficient production planning. The present paper deals with biophysical, economic and energy input–output analyses of different agro-ecosystems and energy flows of village ecosystem in the Garhwal Himalaya. Vegetable based agro-ecosystem was profitable in high-hills, whereas wheat, rice, soybean and barnyard millet based agro-ecosystems proved energetically output–input efficient in lower hill farming system. The annual net energy contribution to the village ecosystem ranged between 4275 and 13,793 GJ from crops, 7427 and 11,834 GJ from forest and 2550 and 3690 GJ from the market. The gain of energy from the system to human beings was 8313–11,273 GJ and to livestock 6009–18,566 GJ per village per annum. Forest provided the maximum energy support to the village ecosystem, whereas crops proved the second major source of energy. This indicates the exploitable potential of these two components through adoption of scientific crop production and proper forest management practices in the Garhwal Himalaya. © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Energy flow; Hill farming system; Village system; Agro-ecosystem; Forest-ecosystem; Garhwal Himalaya
1. Introduction Energy flow analysis of an ecosystem is useful in describing functions of the system and is necessary for efficient and effective production planning of a particular region (Loucks and D’Alessio, 1975). The Himalayan village is an ecosystem, which functions as an independent unit of economic activity and is comprised of agro-ecosystem, livestock, and forest ecosystem and market support. Hill farming system is ∗ Corresponding author. Present address: Principal Scientist (Agricultural Economics), Division of Technology Evaluation and Transfer, Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal 132001, Haryana, India. Tel.: +91-184-290501; fax: +91-184-290480. E-mail address: [email protected] (R.S. Tripathi).
largely self-contained for land, labour and livestock. The agro-ecosystem is largely dependent on the other systems of the village and has forward and backward linkages with livestock, forest and the market. Therefore, it is of prime importance in a village ecosystem to examine the type and extent of interdependence of various components, so that the desired alterations can be made in order to harness the maximum benefits and proper management of the resources available within the system. A number of studies have been conducted in this regard in India and other countries as well but no reliable information is available on village ecosystem of the central Himalaya in general and agro-ecosystem in particular (Walter, 1973; Reddy, 1981; Pandey and Singh, 1984; Bhullar and Mittal, 1990; Martin and Nautiyal, 1993; Mittal, 1993).
0167-8809/01/$ – see front matter © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 1 6 7 - 8 8 0 9 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 2 7 0 - X
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The present study, therefore, is aimed at (1) biophysical, economic and energy input–output analyses of different hill agro-ecosystems, (2) efficiency estimation of agro-ecosystems in different farming situations, and (3) viability examination of forest-ecosystems at the existing level of agriculture in Garhwal Himalaya. 2. Materials and method
is practiced under rainfed as well as in irrigated conditions. The natural flow of water is diverted from hill streams to the crop fields for irrigation through small channels. Fodder trees for livestock are planted on risers of the field. The density of human population is much higher in valleys as compared to other farming situations. Being far from the forest area, women sometimes have to travel 10–15 km per day to collect fuelwood and fodder. The major source of family income in the valleys is crops and livestock.
2.1. Study area 2.2. Sampling procedure The study area lies between 30◦ 15 N latitude and 78◦ 25 E longitude cultivated land is the nucleus of the village settlement in the Garhwal Himalaya, where 90% of population is engaged in agriculture. Average size of operational farms is extremely small varying from 0.34 ha in high-hills to 0.57 ha in mid-hills which indicates high population pressure per unit of area. The net irrigated area to net sown area is about 20% in mid-hill and 29% in valley farming system. In high-hill farming system, crop cultivation is totally rainfed and restricted up to 2600 m above mean sea level (msl). Apple (Malus spp.) orchards are common and off-season vegetables grown on a commercial scale. The area experiences regular snow during winter months (December–February), hence, cultivation is practiced for 9 months only. The villages are surrounded by lush green forests of fir (Abies pindrow), spruce (Picea smithiana) and oak (Quercus semecarpifolia). Oak provides green fodder for livestock during lean months of the year. The human and livestock population is comparatively less in high-hill villages. Nomads and farmers of the lower elevation migrate their flocks of cattle to high-hills during rainy season. Subsequently, migration also takes place from high-hills to valleys during severe winters (October–February). Major source of family income in the high-hills is temperate fruits and off-season vegetable cultivation. In the mid-hill farming system, cereals and pulses occupy most of the area. The cereals provided grains as well as dry fodder. A sporadic case of off-season vegetable cultivation is also in practice. The surrounding forests meet fuelwood and fodder demand. Non-farm income is the main source of livelihood in mid-hills, as the agricultural enterprises are not economically viable. In the valley system, crop cultivation
The present study was based on an intensive enquiry of three villages selected in three agro-ecological situations-one from high-hills (>1600 m msl), one from mid-hills (900–1600 m msl) and one from valley farming system (<900 m msl) in Garhwal hills of Uttar Pradesh, in the Indian central Himalaya. District Tehri Garhwal and one Community Development Block (i.e. Chamba) were selected purposely as representative areas of the central Himalaya in respect of topography, altitudinal range, socio-economic setting, cropping pattern, forest and vegetation. All the villages of the selected block were grouped into three farming situations, namely, high-hills, mid-hills and valleys, and one village was selected from each of the farming situation using random sampling technique. 2.3. Questionnaire and inventory A complete inventory was prepared for family and livestock composition, cropping pattern, food and fuel consumption, consumption of fodder, production of milk, availability and utilization of human and bullock labour, biophysical units of input and output used for the production of different crops, fruits, livestock and interrelated enterprises in different agro-ecosystems. Data were recorded from 1 June 1994 to 31 May 1995 on prestructured questionnaires and schedules through direct personal interviews with all the households of the selected villages. All the activities of the villages were closely monitored and quantified over a 1-year period. Visits of the selected villages were arranged in such a manner that at least 5% observations could be recorded on spot for each of the important operations. Five samples of various items were weighed on the spot in each village to verify the statements
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given by the respondents. Data which seemed extra ordinary were adjusted using a correction factor developed by taking differences in the statements given by the respondents and the actual quantity measured for five samples on the spot. 2.4. Budget calculations The budget was calculated separately for each farming system using local market prices of the input and output prevalent in the area. The input was calculated in terms of labour and material, i.e. human and bullock labour days, quantities of seeds, manure, chemical fertilizers, plant protection chemicals, etc. The output was calculated as crop yields and yields of by-products. The physical quantities of input and output converted into money values using local market prices. These quantities were also converted into energy terms following Mitchell (1979). The energy equivalents of Mitchell are adopted in the present study, because these equivalents are the most suitable and appropriate amongst all other available conversion equivalents at the existing subsistence farming situation of the study area. The energy equivalents and rates of various input–output items used in the study are given in Appendix A. The calorific equivalents are based on Gopalan et al. (1978) and Pimentel et al. (1973).
3. Results and discussion 3.1. Cropping pattern The major crops grown in the area were wheat (Triticum aestivum), rice (Oryza sativa), barley (Hordeum vulgare), barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumantacia) and finger millet (Eleusine coracana) in cereals; vegetable pea (Pisum sativum), potato (Solanum tuberosum), French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and cabbage (Brassica oleracea Var. Capitata) in vegetables; soybean (Glycine max) and lentil (Lens culinaris) in pulses; rapeseeds (Brassica campestris) and mustard (Brassica juncea) in oilseeds; and apple (Malus pumila) in fruits. In the high-hill farming system, 41.8% area was under cereals, 2.7% under pulses, 49.4% under vegetables and 6.1% under fruit crops. In the mid-hill system, about 70% of the
77
cropped area was occupied by cereals, 7% pulses, 2% oilseeds and 1% by vegetables. In valleys, cereal crops occupied more than 94% of the total cropped area. The pulses covered about 5% area, whereas oilseeds and vegetables occupied 0.5% each of the cropland. There was a fallow period of 6 months in the cereal crop rotations, especially after finger millet in all the three farming systems. 3.2. Cost and return of agro-ecosystems 3.2.1. High-hill farming system The physical units of various inputs used for cultivation of cereals, vegetables and fruits and output obtained from these crops in high-hill farming system are presented in Table 1. The values portray that the highest requirement of human and bullock labour was for the cultivation of March sown potato (MS potato) being 251 and 50 days per hectare, respectively, followed by cabbage, French bean and finger millet. March sown vegetable pea (MS veg pea) needed the minimum labour amongst all the field crops being 86 days human and 17 days bullock labour per hectare. Apple required 29 days per hectare per year human labour. The quantity of seed required was highest for potato crop being about 1.2 Mg ha−1 and the lowest in millets. The maximum quantity of manure was used in July sown vegetable pea (JS veg pea) being 5.8 Mg ha−1 and the lowest in soybean. The highest application of fertilizers was applied in July sown potato (JS potato) being 191 kg ha−1 , followed by JS veg pea and MS veg pea. In wheat and French bean, fertilizer use was 5.6 and 13 kg ha−1 , respectively. Use of NPK was not in proper ratio as only nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers were applied by most of the farmers. A small quantity of potassium fertilizer was used in a few of the high-hill crops. Plant protection chemicals were not used in cereals, while a small quantity only was applied for vegetables in the high-hills. The biological yield (i.e out put, Table 1) of the crops grown in high-hill farming system was the highest in cabbage (green leaf) being 11.4 Mg ha−1 followed by green pods of MS veg pea (7.8 Mg) and MS potato (6.7 Mg). The lowest yield was recorded for cereal crops being 0.5 Mg in barnyard millet and 0.6 Mg ha−1 in wheat. The yield of by-product was the highest in millets being 1.5 Mg ha−1 followed by wheat, whereas it was almost negligible for vegetables.
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Table 1 Physical units of input and output (per hectare per year) used for different crops grown in high-hill farming system Particulars
Wheat
Finger millet
Barnyard millet
Soybean
Potatoa
Potatob
Peac
Pead
Cabbage
French bean
Apple
Input Human labour (days) Bullock labour (days) Seed (kg) Manure (Mg)
95.6 24.9 98.7 2.0
181.2 37.8 25.1 2.1
145.7 20.4 26.3 2.4
127.5 21.3 50.2 0.4
251.4 49.5 1184.4 3.7
153.9 9.5 1240.0 2.7
85.5 16.5 93.2 1.7
178.0 20.3 127.4 5.8
229.3 36.8 1.0 4.5
191.5 27.6 54.1 2.0
28.8 0.0 0.0 0.8
Fertilizer (kg) Urea Diammonium phosphate Muriate of potash Single super phosphate
5.6 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
32.6 56.2 0.0 4.8
55.3 76.7 0.0 58.7
48.7 57.5 0.0 25.4
26.7 138.6 0.4 2.4
26.6 3.3 0.8 0.2
13.4 0.0 0.0 0.0
47.5 35.5 15.3 0.8
Plant protection chemicals (kg)
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
1.5
1.5
0.3
0.0
0.0
2.0
0.6 1.3
0.8 1.5
0.5 1.5
1.6 0.5
6.7 0.1
2.6 0.1
7.8 0.0
4.6 0.4
11.4 0.0
2.0 0.2
0.9 2.8
Output (yield) Main product (Mg) By-product (Mg) a
March sown potato. July sown potato. c March sown vegetable pea. d July sown vegetable pea. b
The cost and return of crops grown in high-hill farming system and the return obtained from these crops are given in Table 2. It is evident from the table that the highest cost of cultivation was in MS potato being Rs 17,388 ha−1 followed by vegetable pea July sown and JS potato. The minimum cost of cultivation was on wheat crop (Rs 5207 ha−1 ). In vegetables, about 48% cost was on labour, 45% on material and 7% on overhead expenses, whereas in case of cereals, it was 65% on labour, 20% on material and 15% on overhead charges. Apple production cost estimated to Rs 3064 ha−1 per year, out of which about 24% was on labour, 34% on material and 42% on overhead charges. The highest net income in high-hills was from JS veg pea being Rs 41,809 ha−1 followed by MS veg pea and cabbage. Apple provided net income of Rs 2604 ha−1 per year. The cereal crops and JS potato gave remarkable net loss. 3.2.2. Mid-hill farming system The physical units of input and output used in mid-hill system are presented in Table 3 which depict that the highest requirement of human and bullock labour was in rice cultivation being 240 and 39 days per hectare, respectively, followed by finger millet. Barley required the minimum labour being 86 days
per hectare, whereas French bean needed the lowest amount of bullock labour. The quantity of seed was the highest in wheat crop being 100 kg ha−1 and the lowest in rapeseed and mustard. The highest quantity of manure was used in rice being 4 Mg ha−1 followed by wheat and the lowest in lentil. Use of fertilizers was at a low level, whereas plant protection chemicals were almost negligible in mid-hill farms. Yield was highest in rice crop being 1.5 Mg ha−1 followed by soybean and barnyard millet and the lowest in rapeseed and mustard under mid-hill situation. Yield of by-product was the highest in barnyard millet being 4.8 Mg ha−1 followed by rice. The cost and return of the crops grown in mid-hills are given in Table 4 which reveal that the highest cost of cultivation was in rice being Rs 9666 ha−1 followed by finger millet and French bean. The lowest cost was on pulses and barley. The mid-hill situation was not suitable for crop production as most of the crops proved economically enviable and gave remarkable net loss ranged from Rs 3793 ha−1 in finger millet to Rs 535 ha−1 in barnyard millet. The only economically viable crops of the system were soybean and pulses (mixed) that gave Rs 2053 and Rs 766 ha−1 net income to the mid-hill farmers, respectively.
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Table 3 Physical units of input and output (per hectare per year) used for different crops grown in mid-hill farming system Particulars
Wheat
Rice
Barley
Finger millet
Barnyard Soybean millet
Pulses (mixed)
Rapeseed and mustard
French bean
Lentil
Input Human labour (days) Bullock labour (days) Seed (kg) Manure (Mg)
128.1 35.7 99.3 3.8
240.1 38.5 53.4 4.0
86.1 31.9 83.3 0.8
219.0 42.5 31.7 2.8
179.4 28.5 30.1 2.8
152.1 30.5 49.6 2.4
99.5 26.1 23.4 0.7
93.3 36.6 13.8 1.4
180.1 25.2 37.0 1.7
92.4 38.1 47.4 0.5
2.0 4.6 0.0
11.1 1.6 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 8.7 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 5.2 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.9 1.6
1.5 3.6
0.4 1.0
0.9 2.2
1.1 4.8
1.3 0.7
0.5 0.3
0.2 0.2
1.1 0.2
0.4 0.3
Fertilizer (kg) Urea Diammonium phosphate Plant protection chemicals (kg) Output (yield) Main product (Mg) By-product (Mg)
3.2.3. Valley farming system The crop input and output for valley farming system are presented in Table 5, which show that maximum human and bullock labour were required in October sown potato (OS potato) being 234 and 43 days per hectare followed by rice, whereas lentil needed minimum labour. The highest quantity of manure was used in potato being 6.5 Mg ha−1 followed by wheat and rice. The lowest use of manure was in pulses and oilseeds (0.5 Mg ha−1 ). The use of fertilizer was 33 kg ha−1 in potato, 13 kg ha−1 in wheat, and 15 kg ha−1 in rice crop under valley condition. The yield was the highest in potato being 2.8 Mg ha−1 followed by rice and wheat while it was the lowest for rapeseed and mustard and lentil. The yield of by-product was the highest in barnyard millet being about 3.6 Mg ha−1 followed by rice and wheat. The cost and return of crops in valley farming system are summarised in Table 6. The highest cost of cultivation was in OS potato being Rs 15,531 ha−1 followed by rice and finger millet. The lowest cost was on pulses and oilseeds. Most of the crops grown in valley farming system gave net loss ranging from Rs 4893 in finger millet to Rs 270 ha−1 in barnyard millet. 3.3. Economic efficiency of agro-ecosystems 3.3.1. High-hill farming system The economic efficiency of agro-ecosystems was calculated by dividing gross benefit with total cost
(data not shown). The efficiency analysis of the agro-ecosystems practiced in the high-hill situation revealed that input cost was lower in fruit and cereal based agro-systems as compared to vegetable based rotations. Among the cereal rotations, input cost was lowest in finger millet–fallow rotation being Rs 7530 ha−1 per year followed by finger millet–fallow–barnyard millet–wheat, whereas it was Rs 11,144 ha−1 per year in barnyard millet–wheat rotation. Apple was the major fruit based agro-system followed extensively in high-hill farming situation. The cost on apple production was Rs 3064 ha−1 per year. Input cost was the highest for JS veg pea–MS potato amongst all the crop rotations adopted in the high-hills being Rs 30,448 ha−1 per year followed by 2 years rotation of French bean–MS potato–JS veg pea–MS potato and 1 year rotation cabbage–MS potato. The input–output budget analysis revealed that JS veg pea–MS potato rotation gave the highest net return in high-hills being Rs 44,456 ha−1 per year followed by cabbage–MS potato and JS potato–MS veg pea. The net income was Rs 24,607 ha−1 per year in 2 years crop rotation French bean–MS potato–JS veg pea–MS potato and Rs 8527 in soybean–MS potato. The French bean–MS potato yielded the lowest net income amongst all the vegetable based rotations being Rs 4760 ha−1 per year, whereas cereal based rotations proved economically enviable in high-hills. The loss ranged from Rs 4760 ha−1 in finger millet–fallow–barnyard millet–wheat to Rs
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Table 5 Physical units of input and output (per hectare per year) used for different crops grown in valley farming system Particulars
Wheat
Rice
Barley
Finger millet
Barnyard millet
Lentil
Pulses (mixed)
Rapeseed and mustard
Potato
Input Human labour (days) Bullock labour (days) Seed (kg) Manure (Mg)
137.2 34.9 93.2 3.3
212.9 41.0 44.0 3.1
119.7 27.3 91.9 2.5
172.0 41.6 30.4 1.9
122.9 28.0 31.0 2.6
85.4 25.5 39.4 0.7
112.7 24.2 24.0 0.5
111.9 22.9 15.1 0.5
234.4 43.4 966.7 6.5
7.7 5.7 0.0
12.3 2.5 0.3
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
3.3 0.0 0.1
33.3 0.0 0.0
1.5 1.81
1.8 3.4
0.5 1.2
0.5 1.0
1.0 3.7
0.3 0.3
0.6 0.4
0.2 0.4
2.8 0.3
Fertilizer (kg) Urea Diammonium phosphate Plant protection chemicals (kg) Output (yield) Main product (Mg) By-product (Mg)
3710 ha−1 per year in finger millet–fallow rotation. JS potato–MS veg pea, JS veg pea–MS potato and cabbage–MS potato rotations were the most efficient in high-hills providing Rs 2.8 and Rs 2.5 over each rupee invested on these rotations, respectively. The benefit–cost (B–C) ratio was 1.9 for apple production while in case of cereal based agro-ecosystems it varied from 0.5 to 0.5.
0.8 B–C ratio in mid-hills. The B–C ratio was the lowest in case of finger millet–fallow rotation as only one crop was grown in this system and the field left fallow for about 6 months in a year. The B–C ratio was 0.7 in rice–wheat, 0.7 in barnyard millet–barley, 0.7 in pulses (mixed)–rapeseed and mustard and 0.7 in 3 years crop rotation of finger millet–fallow–rice–wheat–barnyard millet–wheat adopted in mid-hills.
3.3.2. Mid-hill farming system In mid-hill situation, economic efficiency indicated that input cost was the lowest for 1 year rotation of finger millet–fallow being Rs 8808 ha−1 per year, followed by pulses (mixed)–rapeseed and mustard rotation (data not shown). The highest cost was in rice–wheat rotation being Rs 16,473 ha−1 per year followed by French bean–wheat, barnyard millet–wheat and soybean–wheat. The cost was Rs 12,640 ha−1 in finger millet–fallow–rice–wheat rotation and Rs 11,951 ha−1 per year barnyard millet–barley whereas finger millet–fallow–barnyard millet–wheat required Rs 11,397 ha−1 input cost. These results indicate that wheat based rotations needed the highest input in mid-hill farming system. The annual budget depicted that all the agro-systems adopted in mid-hill farming situation provided net loss ranging from Rs 5084 in rice–wheat to Rs 186 ha−1 per year in soybean–wheat rotation. The soybean–wheat, barnyard millet–lentil and barnyard millet–wheat crop rotations showed comparatively better advantage providing 1.0, 0.8 and
3.3.3. Valley farming system The cereal based rotations were dominated in valley situation whereas pulses and vegetable based rotations were also practiced by some of the farmers. The economic efficiency revealed that input cost was minimum for finger millet–fallow rotation being Rs 7439 ha−1 per year followed by pulses (mixed)–rapeseed and mustard rotation (data not shown). The highest cost was for pulses (mixed)–OS potato crop rotation being Rs 20,602 ha−1 per year followed by rice–wheat and barnyard millet–wheat. The input–output budget revealed that pulses (mixed)–potato rotation gave the highest net return of Rs 4904 ha−1 per year in valleys followed by barnyard millet–wheat. The other valley agro-systems proved economically enviable and gave remarkable net loss to the farmers. The highest loss was in finger millet–fallow rotation being Rs 4893 ha−1 per year, followed by barnyard millet–barley. The B–C ratio was 1.2 for pulses–potato and 1.0 in barnyard millet–wheat rotation.
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3.4. Energetics of agro-ecosystems 3.4.1. High-hill farming system The energy input–output analysis revealed that energy input requirement of vegetable crops was much higher than the cereal crops in high-hill farming system (Table 2). Energy requirement was minimum in soybean cultivation being 4.8 GJ ha−1 and the highest in JS veg pea. The energy input in wheat was the lowest among all the cereal crops followed by finger millet. The input requirement was more for cereals than those of pulses (soybean). The energy input of cereals and vegetables was higher than the input used for fruit production. Energy output of soybean was highest in high-hills. Potato (MS), JS veg pea and cabbage cultivation required a much greater degree of energy compared to cereals and pulses in terms of human labour, seed, manure and fertilizers. Most of the vegetable crops were input intensive in high-hills. The energy output of potato, JS veg pea, cabbage and French bean was significantly lower than the input required. Apple required 9 GJ ha−1 per year input energy and provided 60.9 GJ ha−1 output in high-hill situation. 3.4.2. Mid-hill farming system In mid-hill farming system, energy input was higher in cereals except for barley (Table 4). It was the highest for wheat and rice crops being 30 and 32 GJ ha−1 , respectively, followed by millets. The energy requirement was minimum for the cultivation of pulses and oilseeds being 6 and 12 GJ ha−1 . The energy output of cereal and soybean crops was much higher as compared to pulses, oilseeds and vegetables. The net energy return was highest in rice cultivation being 40 GJ ha−1 followed by finger millet, whereas it was the lowest in lentil and wheat. The rapeseed and French bean required more energy input than their energy output. Among the cereals, B–C ratio was higher for rice and barley than wheat, finger millet and barnyard millet. The energy B–C ratio was 1.6 in soybean and the lowest in case of French bean. 3.4.3. Valley farming system In valleys, input and output were higher for cereals than the pulses and oilseeds (Table 6). Potato required the highest energy input being 54 GJ ha−1
Table 7 Average food and fuel consumption (GJ per capita per year) in the sample families Particulars
High-hill Mid-hill Valley farming system farming system farming system
Cereals 3.0 Pulses 0.4 Fats and oils 0.1 Vegetables 0.1 Milk 0.5 Sugar 0.3 Fuelwood 10.6 Kerosine oil 0.4 Electricity 0.1 Total
15.6
3.4 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.3 9.6 0.4 0.1
3.0 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.6 0.3 9.9 0.3 0.1
15.0
14.8
and provided remarkable net energy loss whereas the highest energy output was obtained from rice being 73 GJ ha−1 followed by barnyard millet and wheat under valley situation. Amongst the cereals, highest B–C ratio was for rice and lowest in barley. The oilseed and pulse crops required low input and yielded less output as compared to the cereals. Paddy in cereals and potato in vegetables required maximum human labour. 3.5. Food and fuel consumption pattern The consumption of food and fuel energy was almost same in all the three farming systems being about 15 GJ per year per capita (Table 7). It is evident from the results that 70% of the total energy consumption was on fuel items and 30% on food articles. In general, out of the total food energy the highest share was on cereals and pulses constituting about 78% energy followed by milk (11%) and sugar (6%) in all the farming systems. Fat and oil shared about 3–4% of the total food energy, whereas vegetables accounted for only 2% energy. Fuelwood contributed more than 70% of the total fuel energy in hill farming systems. 3.6. Forage and fodder consumption pattern The major sources of livestock fodder were cultivated and forest lands in the hill farming systems. The green and dry grasses, tree leaves (Quercus spp., Celtis australis, Grewia optiva, etc.) and crop
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Table 8 Average consumption (GJ per capita per year) of fodder and production of milk in sample families Particulars
High-hills
Mid-hills
Valleys
Farm land
Forest land
Total
Farm land
Forest land
Total
Farm land
Forest land
Total
Fodder grasses Tree leaves Farm products
14.7 0.7 0.3
4.0 1.0 0.0
18.7 1.7 0.3
5.5 1.0 1.7
3.9 0.6 0.0
9.4 1.6 1.7
11.4 1.5 1.1
4.0 0.5 0.0
15.4 2.0 1.1
Total
15.7
5.0
20.7
8.1
4.5
12.6
13.9
4.5
18.4
Concentrates Milk production Home consumed Sold
0.0
0.0
0.8
0.0
0.0
0.6
0.0
0.0
0.7
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0
0.2 0.0
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0
0.1 0.0
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0
0.2 0.0
Total
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.2
by-products were the main items of fodder fed to the animals. Cultivation of pure fodder crops on cultivated land is not a common practice. Concentrates, which included cereals, pulses, salt, etc., were purchased from the market. The average quantity of concentrates fed to the animals in terms of energy ranged from 0.6 GJ in mid-hills to 0.8 GJ per year per capita in high-hill farming system. The details of fodder and concentrates fed to animals reveal that the highest quantity of fodder energy was consumed in high-hills being 20.7 GJ per year per capita and the lowest in mid-hill farming system (Table 8). In high-hill system, nearly 76% of the total fodder consumed was from owned land and remaining 24% collected from the nearby forests (data not shown). The contribution of grasses was about 91% of the total fodder whereas tree leaves shared about 8% of the total fodder. The crop by-products contributed only 1% of the fodder energy. Out of the total quantity of grass fed in high-hills, about 78% was grown on owned pasture land and risers and 22% collected from the forests, whereas in case of tree leaves, it was 43 and 57% from owned and forest lands, respectively. In mid-hill system, about 64% of the total fodder consumed was from owned land and remaining 36% collected from the forests (data not shown). The contribution of grasses was about 75% of the total fodder fed, whereas the share of tree leaves was 12%. The crop by-products contributed 13% of the total fodder energy in mid-hills. Out of the total quantity of grasses consumed 58% was grown on owned pasture land and
risers and 42% collected from forest areas whereas in case of tree leaves these were 63 and 37% on that order in mid-hills. In valley farming system, about 76% of the total fodder consumed was collected from owned land and rest 24% from the forest areas (data not shown). The contribution of grasses was about 84% of the total fodder whereas the tree leaves contributed nearly 10%. The crop by-products contributed 6% of the total fodder energy in valleys. Out of the total grasses about 74% was from owned land and risers and 26% collected from forests while in case of tree leaves these were 73 and 27% in the valleys. 3.7. Market support Market plays a pivotal role in smooth functioning of the system by providing energy to human beings in terms of food, inputs for crop production such as seeds, fertilizers, plant protection chemicals, and feed to the livestock. The details of energy flow from the market to human consumption, crop system and livestock are shown in Fig. 1. A considerable amount of energy flowed from market to human consumption in valley system (2994 GJ per year per village), whereas it was minimum in the mid-hill system (2289 GJ per year per village) (data not shown). Out of the total flow, milk, sugar, fat and oil energy were the highest in all the farming systems being 72, 66 and 65% in high-hills, mid-hills and valleys, respectively. The fruits and vegetables energy
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Fig. 1. Annual average energy flow (GJ per year) of village ecosystem in the Garhwal Himalaya, explaining the flow of energy from different components of the system. The boundaries of the village is surrounded by the forest which supports the fuelwood, fodder and bedding material requirement of the villagers.
were mostly at par in all the farming systems. The market support for crop production in terms of fertilizers, seeds and plant protection chemicals was maximum in high-hills (92 GJ per year) and minimum in the valley system (4 GJ per year). The reverse trend was noticed for the cattle feed, which was maximum in valleys (665 GJ per year) and minimum in mid-hills (252 GJ per year). The high-hill was the only system from
where 193 GJ per year per village surplus energy was diverted to market in terms of fruits and vegetables. 3.8. Subsidy from forest ecosystem The surrounding forest ecosystem provided a considerable amount of energy for operation of the agro-ecosystems in terms of animal fodder and fuel-
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wood (Martin and Nautiyal, 1993). Out of the total fodder requirement, 76, 64 and 76% were provided by the cultivated land (crop by-products, grasses from terrace risers and fodder tree on cultivated land), and the rest 24, 36 and 24% gathered from the surrounding forest area in high-hills, mid-hills and valleys, respectively (data not shown). A small fraction of the animal feed was imported from the market. A significant proportion of fodder-energy ends up as manure in the crop fields, helping to maintain soil fertility and water retaining capacity. It is postulated that the primary reason why hill farmers keep sufficient number of cattle is to provide manure for the fields (Ashish, 1983). The fuel requirement in the Himalayan village is 1.5 kg of wood per head per day (Das, 1981). Thus, the energy supplied by forest is the most critical factor for viability of the hill agro-ecosystem. According to Airy and Shastri (1982), 10.65 ha of forest land per ha of cultivated area is needed to meet the fuel requirement of the villages, but at present only 0.36 ha forest is available which is quite insufficient to meet the requirement. Another estimate made by Shah (1982) showed that the forest land available per ha of cultivated land in central Himalaya is only 1.58 ha. This availability ratio is too low to supply fodder and fuel without forest destruction. It is evident from the above discussion that the forest biomass and its ecosystem cannot remain viable at the current level of agricultural activities. Ecological imperatives require a strategic and proper management of forest ecosystem along with drastic change in the land-use pattern, promoting scientific tree-farming in
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barren and unproductive forest lands and finding alternate sources of fuel and fodder. The denuded village woodlands need to be restocked with fuel and fodder trees through better management, education and training of villagers, effective legislation for forest protection, and massive government support to act as buffer between natural reserve forests and agro-ecosystems. 3.9. Energy flows of agro-ecosystem Annual energy flow pattern of the village showed that agro-ecosystem, forest ecosystem, livestock, human use and market are comprising the whole village ecosystem (Fig. 1). The annual use of human energy was 1.2–1.1 times higher for the crop production in mid-hills and valleys than those of high-hills due to larger cropped area in these situations. Energy required for upkeep of livestock was 1.8–3.1 times higher in high-hills and valleys than the mid-hills as farmers kept comparatively more animals in these situations (Table 9). The women had to travel 5–15 km per day to collect fodder and fuel. The energy required for fodder and fuelwood collection was more in valleys than in high and mid-hills because the later two were quite close to the supporting area ‘the forest’ (Sah et al., 1988). The human labour availability and utilization were more in valleys than in other two farming systems (Table 10). Utilization of human labour was 73.3, 89.6 and 127.5% of the total family labour available in high-hills, mid-hills and valleys, respectively. The labour were also hired from other areas to perform
Table 9 Family and livestock composition of the sample families (average per family)a Particulars
High-hill farming system
Mid-hills farming system
Valleys farming system
Total number of family members Agricultural workers Non-agricultural workers Migrants Dependents Total number of livestock Draught animals Buffaloes Cows Sheep and goats Young stock
7.6 2.5 1.0 1.1 2.9 7.1 1.9 1.5 2.9 0.4 0.5
6.8 2.2 1.0 0.6 3.0 5.4 2.0 1.4 0.8 0.8 0.4
7.1 2.5 0.9 0.7 3.0 8.9 1.9 1.7 3.2 1.5 0.6
a
(532) (175) (72) (79) (206) (504) (132) (105) (209) (25) (33)
Figures in parentheses show total number per village.
(564) (181) (85) (51) (247) (443) (166) (116) (66) (62) (33)
(762) (266) (97) (74) (325) (951) (205) (182) (342) (156) (66)
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Table 10 Average availability of family labour and its utilization (GJ per family per year) for different purposes in the sample farmsa Particulars Family human labour available Human labour utilized for Crop production Fruit production Upkeep of livestock Fodder collection Fuelwood collection Total Percent utilized to total family labour available Total bullock labour available Bullock labour utilized Percent utilized to total bullock labour available a
High-hill farming system
Mid-hill farming system
Valleys farming system
4.7 (327)
4.1 (338)
4.6 (497)
0.7 2.8 0.6 1.7 0.3
1.0 0.0 0.4 1.7 0.5
0.7 0.0 0.5 3.9 0.7
(51) (20) (44) (121) (23)
(83) (36) (144) (40)
(78) (56) (417) (82)
3.4 (259)
3.6 (303)
5.9 (633)
72.3 20.7 (1452) 7.5 (52) 3.6
89.6 22.0 (1826) 1.3 (106) 5.8
127.5 21.1 (2255) 1.0 (105) 4.7
Figures in parentheses show total number per village.
agricultural operations in valleys (Pandey and Singh, 1984). The Bullock labour was used only for crop production. Though availability of bullock energy was high, their utilization was limited to 5.9% of the total availability. Relatively high numbers of draught animals are maintained to supply manure for improvement of soil fertility and crop production. The family itself for performing agricultural operations contributed the major proportion of labour. The high-hill farmers send fruits and off-season vegetables to market, which fetched good returns, whereas small quantity of vegetables also marketed by the valley farmers. The agronomic yield and milk production were not enough to meet the minimum energy requirement of humans (1225 GJ per capita per day). Details of food and fuel consumption reveal that the highest quantity of energy was consumed in terms of cereals, ranged between 68 and 71% of the total food stuff followed by milk (10–13%). The consumption of energy in terms of fuelwood ranged from 9.6 GJ in mid-hills to 10.6 GJ per capita per year in high-hills. About 75% of the total requirement of foodgrains and milk and almost total requirement of sugar, oils and other consumable items were met by import from plains of India (Ashish, 1983). Since, foodgrain production was not enough to meet the requirement of the people, a significant proportion of adult male workers migrated temporarily to out side the area and worked on wages or salaries. These migrants sent back a
remarkable amount of earnings to their families to support the necessities of the life. Due to this fact, economy of the Uttar Pradesh hills is popularly known as “money-order economy” (Rawat and Shastri, 1983). As a result of high male migration, most of the agricultural chores were the sole responsibility of women, therefore, agriculture of the area is called “women agriculture” and the operational structure of the population is characterized by high female participation in the primary activities.
4. Conclusions The study provided the following conclusions: 1. The agro-ecosystems based on cereals, pulses and oilseeds were energetically viable but proved economically unprofitable in the hill farming systems. Vegetable based systems were economically profitable in high-hills. 2. The agro-ecosystems could be made viable in the hills through adoption of proper land-use, introduction of improved crop production technology and high yielding varieties of crops, along with creation of strong production and marketing infrastructure. 3. The marketable surplus needs to be increased in the village by introduction of market oriented production system.
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4. The livestock module was an input intensive and energy consuming component, which could be made viable through replacement of inferior and unproductive milch animals by improved breeds and introduction of quality fodder in cultivation. 5. The forest ecosystem cannot remain viable at the existing level of village activities in the hills, therefore, strategic and efficient management of forest are urgently required along with the promotion of scientific tree farming in barren and unproduc-
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tive forestlands, denuded village woodlands and unmanaged grazing lands and pastures. 6. Overall, education and training to the villagers, effective legislation for forest protection and significant financial support from the government is needed. Better use of human resources could be utilized by creating additional employment opportunities in the villages through significant establishment of agro-based small scale cottage industries in the area.
Appendix A. Energy equivalents of different input and output values used for different farming systems Particulars
Unit
Energy value in GJ per unit
Human labour Bullock labour
Adult man (days) worked for 8 h One bullock (average weight 300 kg) worked for 8 h kg
0.007 0.037
Nutrients in kg Nutrients in kg Nutrients in kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg
0.077 0.014 0.009 0.101 0.016 0.014 0.016 0.015 0.017 0.025 0.009 0.004 0.004 0.003
l l kg kg kg kg kg kg kg l kW/h
0.003 0.005 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.014 0.039 0.015 0.019 0.046 0.003
Farm yard manure Chemical fertilizers Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Insecticide/pesticides Wheat Rice Barley Finger/barnyard millet Lentil, soybean and other pulses Rapeseed, mustard and cabbage seed Apple Potato Fresh vegetables Leafy vegetable Milk Cow Buffalo Green fodder Tree leaves Straw Concentrates Fats and oils Sugar Fuelwood Kerosine oil Electricity
0.007
90
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Appendix B. Rate of different inputs and outputs used for the estimation of cost and return on different farming systems (1 US$ = 42 rupees (approximately)) Particulars
Unit
Human labour Bullock labour
Adult man (days) worked for 8 h One bullock (average weight 300 kg) worked for 8 h Mg
Farm yard manure Chemical fertilizers Urea Diammonium phosphate Single super phosphate Muriate of potash Insecticide/pesticides Seed Wheat Rice Barley Finger/barnyard millet Lentil, French bean and other pulses Soybean Rapeseed, mustard Vegetable pea Potato (MS) Potato (JS and OS) Cabbage Main product Wheat Rice Barley Finger/barnyard millet Lentil and other pulses Soybean Vegetable pea (MS) Vegetable pea (JS) Other pulses Rapeseed and mustard Cabbage Potato (MS and OS) Potato (JS) French bean (green pods) By-products Straw of wheat and barley Straw of rice Soybean, French bean, pulses, pea Lentil, rapeseed and mustard Fuelwood
Rupees per unit 25.00 80.00 20.00
kg kg kg kg kg
3.00 7.00 4.00 5.50 210.00
kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg
6.00 6.00 6.00 5.00 15.00 12.00 15.00 35.00 5.50 4.00 70.00
kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg
4.50 4.00 4.00 4.00 10.00 7.00 6.00 12.00 10.00 10.00 4.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg
45.00 20.00 10.00 10.00 25.00
R.S. Tripathi, V.K. Sah / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 86 (2001) 75–91
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