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Maya medicinal plants of San Jose Succotz, Belize
Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 2 (1980) 345 - 364 © Elsevier Sequoia S.A., Lausanne - Printed in the Netherlands
345
MAYA MEDICINAL PLANTS OF SAN JOSE SUCCOTZ, BELIZE THOR ARNASONa, FELIZ UCKb , JOHN LAMBERTc and RICHARD HEBDA d
aBiology Department, University of Ottawa, Ottawa (Canada), b San Jose Succotz; Belize ~Central America), CBiology Department, Carleton University, Ottawa (Canada) and Biology Department, University of Waterloo, Waterloo (Canada) (Received October 12,1979; accepted November 9,1979)
Summary The traditional use of plants for medicine was studied in the Maya village of San Jose Succotz, Belize. Sixty-four species were collected and 106 remedies are described. The ethnobotany of Succotz is discussed in relation to traditional concepts of medicine, ritual and magic in treatment of illnesses, and biochemically active constituents of the plants. Use of plants in Belize and the Yucatan is compared.
Introduction The tropical forests of Central America have provided the Maya people with their most varied and abundant resource. It is not surprising that an elaborate tradition developed in the area, in the use of plants for medicine. The medicinal plants described here were collected during a two-year period, from May 1976 to May 1978, while working with the Royal Ontario Museum archeological project at Lamanai, Belize, and later with a Canadian International Development Agency project in the same area (Lambert and Amason, 1978). This paper is the first of two articles describing the ethnobotany of the village of San Jose Succotz, Belize. The second article will deal with non-medical use of plants. No article devoted to ethnobotany has yet been published from Belize, although scattered notes appear in Forests and Flora of British Honduras by Standley and Record (1936) and the Forests and Flora of Guatemala by Standley and Steyermark (1958). Mention of the importance of herbal remedies at Succotz has been made by Pendergast (1972) who suggested the present study. In addition, Thompson (1930) has included a list of cultivated plants in an ethnology describing the area around Succotz. There are, of course, several other ethnobotanical studies from the Maya area (see Hill (1945) for a review, and Berlin et al. (1974) for a more recent approach), the most relevant of which is Roys' (1931) extensive Ethnobotany of the Maya on Yucatan medicinal plants. However, the flora of that area and the
346
s~ S UCCO tl,
Belize
~
Fig. 1. Location of San Jose Succotz in Belize, Central America .
names and uses of the plants listed are substantially different from those of our collection. The Maya village of Succotz has a population of about one thousand and lies on the western border of Belize near Guatemala (see Fig. 1). The people are of Maya origin and speak a dialect of Yucatec as well as Spanish, but many of the younger people leam only Spanish and English, the official language of Belize. At the same time as the language is being lost, much of the traditional culture is disappearing. Ten or twenty years ago the herbal remedies were heavily relied upon. They are less frequently used now with the advent of modem medical clinics. One of us (F.U.), a Maya from Succotz, felt that it was imperative to record the traditional names and uses of the plants now, before they are forgotten. In this article, we have attempted to report only those plants and remedies that are or were widely used in Succotz. We have, then, not drawn on the more-specialized knowledge of one or two professional herbalists (called Yerbateros) who live in the district. We have eliminated all unverified material and herbal remedies collected from people outside of the village. As we have focused on one village, we are able to record not only a collection of medicinal plants but also a distinct cultural tradition. Herbal remedies and Maya concepts of illness in Succotz The herbal remedies and medicinal plants are presented in Tables 1 - 14. The CCO No. represents the specimen number of voucher specimens which have been collected for deposit in the Carleton University Herbarium, Ottawa, Canada, the Missouri Botanical Garden Herbarium, St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A., and the National Herbarium, Belmopan, Belize. Nomenclature follows that of the Flora of Guatemala (Standley and Steyermark, 1958), except where new additions are concerned. These are marked with an asterisk.
San Diego (Sp)
~ordonsillo (Sp)
9. 17798
10. 17049 11. 18075
14. 17218
13 . 17979
12. 17009
Siempre viva (Sp)
8. 18157
S'ok rnaal (M) Carreton (Sp) P'oop'os (M)
v
Cacah (M)
v
ShaM (M)
SAnal (M)
7. 17615
6. 17829
v
Ortiga (Sp) Copal (Sp) Pom (M) Mano Lagarto (Sp) Jackass Bitters (Cr) Kayabim (M) Tab (M)
3. 17113 4. 17053
5. 17821
Palik'al (M) Naranja (Sp) Lial (M) Ortiga (Sp)
Local namet
1. Not collected 2. 17915
CCO No .
TABLE 1 Pain
1. Headache 2. Backache 3. Ear-ache
Same as above Severe toothache, tooth removal Bee sting
Bee sting
Eleurya aestuans (L.) Gaud.
Jatropha sp. Protium copal (Schlecht Cham.) Engler Neurolaena lobata (L.) R.Br.
Viguiera dentata (Cav) Spreng Psychotria carthaginensis Jacq. Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam .) Kurz Piper peltatum L.
Tragia yucatanensis Millsp.
Bursera simaruba (L .) Sarg . Not identified
Piper amalgo L. Eupatorium sp.
Pain in the heart
Citrus sinesis L. Osbeck
Rheumatism
Rheumatism
Stomach-ache Headache Toothache Muscle pains or spasms Headache
Bruises, swellings
Toothache
Use
Botanical name
Warm leaf. Place on affected area Wrap leaf around affected area.
Crush leaf. Place on affected area. Warm large leaves. Place on affected area. Chew root to freeze tooth. Boil leaf in water. Wash in preparation and drink some. Wrap forehead with leaves .
Warm leaves. Place in mouth.
Used with Neurolaena.
Leaves are cool.
Cultivated.
Leaf has stinging hairs.
Remarks
Leaf has downy covering of hairs. Leaf has stinging hairs. (continued overleaf)
1. Put mature leaf on forehead. 2. Rub juice from leaf on back. 3. Heat leaf and squeeze juice into ear. Same as above. Put resin into cavity. It swells and breaks tooth apart. Heat leaf over cooking fire . Place on sting.
Make a tea from leaves. Drink.
Preparation/administration
-::I
""
w
S kot~ (M) Iguerra (Sp) Oro sus (M) Blake Toothache
Wedelia poruiceps
S k'anang (M)
Mirabilla (Sp)
4. 17949
v
Cacah (M)
v
Mirabilis jalapa L.
Hamelia patens Jacq.
(L.) Sarg.
Bursera simaruba
Vitex gaumeri (Greenm.) Tropical ulcer
YaSnik (M)
Dermatitis from local poison woods, Metopium and Sebastiana Insect bites, various skin irritations (granos) Vitiligo (white patches on skin)
(bay sore)
Botanical name Use
Headache
Ricinus communis L.
Stomach spasms
Ear-ache
Bruise
Rheumatism
Use
Local namet
3. 17224
2. 17009
1. 17069
CCO No.
TABLE 2 Skin afflictions
tM = Maya; Sp = Spanish; Cr
20. 17203
19. 17980
Seem.
Strychnos panamensis
(Pers.) Safford
Datura candida
(L'her.) Han.
Rhoeo discolor
Cervantes
Castilla elastica
Botanical name
= Creole; 'indicates glottal stop.
Chicoloro (Sp)
18. 17062
v
Chanico (Sp)
17. 17817
16. 17187
tns (Sp) Rubber tree (Cr) Pabana (Sp)
Local namet
15. 17015
CCONo.
TABLE 1 (continued)
Rub flowers on afflicted area.
Warm leaf over fire. Rub juice on affected area.
Soak bark in water. Bathe affected skin area with this preparation.
Inner white bark is applied to sore.
Preparation/administration
Chew flower.
Put leaf on head.
Boil the vine. Drink.
Put cod liver oil on leaf. Wrap limb. Crush leaf. Place on affected area. Put juice from leaf in ear.
Preparation/administration
Cultivated for medicinal purposes.
quickly.
It relieves itching
The name bay sore has passed into Spanish from Creole. Bark probably contains tannins which shrink swelling.
Remarks
Very bitter.
Cultivated.
Leaf is downy and soothes pain
Remarks
Cu i!u (M)
Mano lagarto (Sp) Jackass bitters (Cr) Kabayim (M) P'oop'o~ (M)
9. 17233
Pic!i (M) Guayaba (Sp)
14. Not collected
t F or abbreviations see Table 1.
12. 17235 13. 17014
Achiote (Sp) ISu ~u (M) Cic! pu'ut (M) Bocut (M)
11. 17914
10. 17217
7. 17971
8. 17925
(M)
Oop i!uhum (M) Custard apple Toom pa'ap (M)
o kutl:
6. 17120
5. 17762
Psidium guajava L.
Carica papaya L. Cassiagrandis L.
Tragia yucataneneis Millsp. Bixa orellana L.
Solanum erianthum D.Don. Annona cherimola Mill. Solanum torvum Swartz Solanum mammosum L. Neurolaena lobata L. R.Br.
Rash on babies, chiggers Corns on feet Vitiligo and skin problems Athlete's foot
Burns
Skin afflictions
Athlete's foot, chiggers Athlete's foot
Planter's wart
Warts
Boil bark and bathe feet with liquid.
Crush leaf and apply to affected area. Boil leaf and use the liq uid for washing Soften with juice from stem. Rub leaf on afflicted area.
Crush fruit and rub juice into afflicted area. Crush fruit and apply to afflicted area Boil leaves and bath patient in infusion.
Rub leaf on wart.
Crush leaf and apply to wart.
Cultivated for medicinal purposes.
0l>-
eo
co
K'uu¢ (M) Tobacco (Cr) On(M) Aguacate (Sp) Pear (Cr) Limon (Sp) Lime (Cr) Ta man (M) Algodon (Sp) Cotton (Cr) Achiote (Sp)
17147
17716
Not collected
17890
17914
17783
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
t F o r abbreviations see Table 1.
Orosus (M)
Ku~u
Local name t
CCO No.
TABLE 3 Colds
Sore throat and swollen glands Cough
Spilanthes americana (Mutis) Hieron,
To help expel sputum Cough
Colds, sinus problems Cough
Use
Bixa orellana L .
Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle Gossypium hirsutum L.
Persea americana Mill.
Nicotiana tabacum L.
Botanical name
Mix urine with the fruit. Rub some of mixture on skin and take some internally. Prepare a tea from the leaves and drink.
Prepare a tea from the leaves and drink.
Chew the fruit.
Apply a small amount of oil to the leaf and place on forehead. Prepare a tea with the leaves and drink.
Pre paration!adm inistration
a "hot" medicine.
Cultivated.
Many escaped limes in the bush. Cultivated.
Cultivated.
Cultivated.
Remarks
0
CI1
w
Sapote bobo (M) Pachira aquatica Santa Domingo (Sp) Aubl. Provision tree (Cr)
17044
4.
tFor abbreviations see Table 1.
Zea mays L.
Mais (Sp) Him (M)
17837
3.
Gonorrhea, diffi· culty in passing water Gonorrhea, difflculty in passing water Kidney pain
Gynerium sagitta tum (Aubl.) Beauv.
Caiia brava (Sp)
17573
2.
Gonorrhea
Spondias purpurea L.
Kening (M)
Not collected
Use
Botanical name
Local namet
l.
CCO No.
TABLE 4 Urinary problems
Cut a seed from the large fruit into four quarters. Boil. Drink the water.
Cook silk of black corn with grasshopper legs and drink.
Chew succulent leaf.
Eat plum-like fruit.
Preparation/administration
Four is a special number. It represents the 4 chacs of compass points in Maya mythology.
Remarks
t.)
I:Il ....
Yook mukuy (M)
Not collected
17609
2.
3.
tFor abbreviations see Table 1.
Albahaca simaron (Sp) Chili (Sp) Iik (M)
17519
Local namet
1.
CCONo.
TABLE 5 Eye problems
Euphorbia hyssopifolia (L.) Small
Ocimum micranthum Willd. Capiscum annuum L.
Botanical name
Sore eyes
Burns of the eye
To cleanse the eye
Use
Put resin in eye.
Put small seed into the eye. Irritation induces tears. Put juice in the eye.
Preparation/administration
Fighting fire with fire? An old farmer at Indian Church developed cataracts by this "cure". Urine is the more usual cure. Name means "its foot a turtle dove".
Remarks
c,)
CIt t-:l
17014
5.
tFor abbreviations see Table 1.
Bocut (M) Stinking toe (Cr)
(M)
17509
4.
~i'iu
18188
3.
Pas mo
Parthenium hystero-
Corriente ~i'iu (Sp & M) hi skutC (M)
17822
2.
Cassiagrandis L.
Croton Schiedeanus Schlecht Capraria biflora L.
phorus L.
Momordica charantia L.
Condiamor (Sp)
17216
1.
Botanical name
Local namet
CCONo.
Tonics
TABLE 6
Tonic to build the blood Tonic to build the blood Tonic to build the blood Tonic to build the blood
Tonic to build the blood
Use
Boil the leaves and bathe in the liquid. Boil the leaves and bathe in the liquid. Boil the leaves and bathe in the liquid. Soak the fruit in water to dissolve the dark resin between the seeds. This concoction is drunk.
Prepare a tea from the leaves and drink.
Preparation/administration
The fruit is a very large, foul-smelling pod which truly deserves its Creole name.
Probably the best known herbal remedy in Belize of Creole origin. Bitter taste is said to be evidence of effectiveness.
Remarks
en to)
Co)
Pluchea odorata
Caal ce (M)
17213
17825
18155
1.
2.
3.
17061
2.
Intestinal parasites
Chenopodium ambrosiodes L. Stemmadenia donnellsmithii (Rose) Woodson
Aposote (Sp) Wormwood (Cr) Chac Ie King (M) Hueve cabaillo (Sp)
Preparation/administration
Boil leaves in a bucket to produce healing vapors. The woman wraps herself in a blanket and absorbs the vapors by standing over the steaming liquid. Boil leaf and wash in liquid. Boil leaf and wash in liquid.
Preparation/administration
Grind leaves and stem. Take one spoonful of this medicine. Human bots (sub- Soak a piece of cloth in the cutaneous fly larva) resin. Seal the breathing hole of the larva.
Use
Botanical name
Following childbirth "Women's problems"
Following childbirth
Use
Local namet
t F or abbreviations see Table 1.
17602
l.
CCONo.
TABLE 8 Parasites
t F or abbreviations see Table 1.
Pinto (Sp) Solanum sp. Arepa ~i'iu (Sp & M) Grenadillo (Sp) Punica granatum L.
(L.) Casso
Botanical name
Local namet
CCONo.
TABLE 7 Women's problems
Treatment suffocates the larva and allows it to be squeezed out.
Very aromatic.
Remarks
Remarks
....
Cl1
(j)
S kotC (M)
2. 17980
Chanico (Sp)
6. 17817
12 . 17788
11. 17787
10 . 17779
9. 17820
8. 17818
7. 17009
Cacah (M) Gumbo limbo (Cr) Frijolillo (Sp) Yama bush (Cr) tu1/uk (M) Ruda de monte (Sp) Wild ruda (Cr) Sinquin colorado (Sp) Stupuh amarillo (M & Sp) Achiote (Sp) Ku ~u (M)
v
Oop ~ uhum (M) Annona (Sp) Custard apple Tah (M)
4. Not collected
5. 17232
Zacate limon (M) Fever grass (Cr)
3. Not collected
F ever in infants Fever in infants Fever in infants
Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L .) Swartz Tagetes erecta L.
Bixa orellana L.
Put leaves in baby's bed.
Rub leaves on he ad and chest of infant. Rub leaf on skin of infant.
Warm a leaf and rub with a little oil on af fected area. Boil leaf and bathe infant.
Chills Fever in infan ts
Place leaves on forehead.
Prepare infusion with leaves. Bathe in it three times. Put oil on leaf. Rub on affected area.
Place leaf on forehead .
Prepare a tea and drink.
Put a little oil on leaf. Place on forehead . Place leaf on forehead.
Preparation/administra t ion
Fever
Diphvsa carthagenensis Jacq.
Bursera simaruba (L .) Sarg . Cassia occidentalis L.
Fever in the night
Viguiera dentata (Cav.) Spreng Datura stramonium L. Chills
Fever
Annona cherimola L.
(D .C.) Stopf.
Fever
Fever
HBK. Cecropia peltata. Ric inis communis.
Cymbopogon citratus
Fever
*Erythrina rubrineruia
Pito (M)
1. 17161
Iguerra (Sp)
Use
Botanical name
CCO No .
Local name"!"
TABLE 9 Fevers and chills
(continued ooerleaf]
Leaf is "cool".
Leaf is " cool".
Leaf is "very warm ". Leaf is " cool".
Introduced plant. Cultivated as medicine.
Leaf is " cold". This remedy is used in North Belize and Mexico. Leaf is "cold". In troduced plant from Old World . Leaf is "cold".
Remarks
c.:l C1l C1l
Chicoloro (Sp)
17062
17214 18075
3.
4.
tFor abbreviations see Table 1.
room pa'ap (M) S haaq (M)
Cordonsillo (Sp) Cedro (Sp)
17049 17401
1. 2.
5.
Local namet
CCO No.
TABLE 10 Snake bite
Snake bite
Strychnos panamensis
Solanum torvum Swartz Eupatorium sp,
Seem. Snake bite Snake bite
Snake bite Snake bite
Piper amalago L. Cedrela mexicana
M. Roem.
Use
Fever
Botanical name
*Not recorded in the "Flora of Guatemala".
t F or abbreviations see Table 1.
Parthenium hysterophorus L.
Silantro ~i 'iu (M)
14. 17810
Fever
Euphorbia sp.
Use
Botanical name
Hobon cokoh (M)
Local namet
13 . 17956
CCONo.
TABLE 9 (continued)
Boil leaf and wash bite. Boll leaf and wash bite.
Boil root and drink.
Boil root and drink.} Boil root and drink.
Preparation/administration
Prepare infusion of leaves and bathe. Prepare a tea. Drink it or wash in it.
Preparation/administration
Usually all three of these remedies (Nos. 1 ·3) are used together.
Remarks
Leaf is "hot".
Remarks
C)
til
w
Passac (M) Negrito (Sp)
10. 17059
Cook inner bark. Eat. Soak bark and drink liquid. This induces vomiting of bad bile. Crush root. Boil and drink liquid.
"Bad bile"
Dysentery
Simarouba glauca D.C.
Boil bitter bark. Drink.
Crush bark. Boil and drink.
Pound seed. Boil and drink.
Pound seed. Boil and drink.
"Bad bile"
Diarrhea, indigestion Stomach-ache (biJios - Sp ; "bad bile" - Cr)
Dysentery
Dysentery
Pound seed. Boil and drink.
Pound seed. Boil and drink.}
Crush root. Boil and drink.
Preparation/administration
Aspidosperma megalocarpon Muell Arg. *Trichilia glabra L.
Sweetia Panamensis Benth
Dysentery (blood in feces) Dystentery
Aristolochia trilobata L. Pimenta dioica (L.) Merrill Manilkara achras (MilL) Fosberg Pouteria mammosa Cronquist Byrsonima crassifolia (L .) HBK. Psidium guajaua L. Dystentery
Use
Botanical name
tFor abbreviations see Table l. *Not recorded in the "Flora of Guatemala".
9 . 17067
Pic!md (M) ~alereo (Sp) Cabon ~e (M)
Ci (M) Nance (Sp) Pi~i (M) Guayaba (Sp) Billy Webb (Cr)
v
Pimienta (Sp) Naba kook (M) Ya(M) Chico sapote (Sp) Sapote Mamee (Sp)
Contrebo (Sp)
Local namet
8. 17005
6. Not collected 7. Not collected
5. 17010
4 . 17417
3. 17002
1. Not collected 2. 17048
CCO No.
TABLE 11 Digestive problems
"Bad bile" is characterized by yellow color of stools and bitter taste in mouth.
Cut seed into four.
Nos. 2 and 3 are often used together.
Remarks
-3
C11
CI)
Copal (Sp) Pom (M)
Shaa" (M)
18156 17785
17213
17053
18075 17787 Not collected
3.
5.
6.
7. 8. 9.
Pluchea odorata (L.)
Caal ce (M)
Stupuh amarillo (M) Naranja (Sp) Paak'al (M)
v
Mal viento
Not identified
Mal viento Malojo Espantajo
(Schlecht & Cham) Engler Eupatorium sp. Tagetes erecta L.
Citrus sinesis
Osbeck
Espaniajo
Protium copal
Casso
Malojo Mal viento
Annona squamosa (L.)
Saramuya (Sp) Sina'an ~i'iu (M)
tFor abbreviations see Table 1.
4.
Malojo
Caesalpina pulcherrima
(L.) Swartz
Sinquin (Sp)
18154
2.
Cook leaf and wash with it. Rub leaf on baby 's skin. Nine leaves are placed on wrists and forehead
Bum resin under baby's crib.
Boil leaf and wash face. Make an infusion of leaves and bathe. Soak leaves and bathe.
Mild cure: boil leaf and wash baby's face. Total cure: put juice of leaves in baby's eye for nine Fridays Boil leaf and wash face.
for explanation)
Malojo (see text
Diphysa carthaginensis Jacq.
Ruda (Sp) tlu tluk (M)
17820
Preparation/administration
Use
1.
Botanical name
Local name"!"
CCO No.
TABLE 12 "Maya illnesses"
Nine is a magic number.
Use with ruda. "Scorpion leaf". A "hot" medicine.
Use with ruda.
The most celebrated of Maya herbal medicines.
Remarks
c,)
C/1
00
17601
17181 17009
4.
5.
*For abbreviations' see Table 1.
Holop (M) Cacah (Sp)
Solanum nudum HBK.
Hoja de puojillo (Sp) Sorillo (Sp)
17813
3.
6.
Dewormer
Hvptis verticulata Jacq.
Hierba martina (Sp)
17802
2.
Bursera simaruba L. Sarg ,
Polyp odium sp,
Petiueria alliacea L.
Dewormer
Dorstenia contrajerua L.
Contrayerba (Sp)
17714
1.
To rid animals of lice To improve a dog's ability to follow a scent Colds in dogs To prevent bees from leaving the hive
Use
Botanical name
Local name*
CCONo.
Veterinary medicine
TABLE 13
Tie vine around the dog's neck. Tie leaves to poles near hives.
Cut root into small pieces and mix into animal feed . Cut root into small pieces and mix into animal feed. Spread leaves on floor of chicken coop. Crush leaf and place on dog's nose. It acts as a stimulant.
Preparation/administration
Leaf has the strong odour of a skunk.
Remarks
C11
co
c.:>
Paak'al (M) Naranja (Sp) Condiamor (Sp) Sorrow see (Cr)
17733
17406
17529
Not collected 17216
4.
5.
6.
7.
Escoba (Sp)
Ski'i~(M)
Suelda con Suelda (Sp)
t F or abbreviations see Table 1.
8.
Top tuc (M) '" "bursts belly button")
17599
3.
Diabetes
Momordica charantia
L.
Nausea/hangover
Bleeding belly button in babies
To stop bleeding
Citrus sinesis Osbeck
L.
Physalis pubescens
Bartlett
Cryosophylla argentic
gonolobium (Jacq.) Sprag. & Sandw.
Ceratophytum tetra-
Not identified
To stop bleeding
"Encordla", a sympathetic pain or swelling arising from pain or injury elsewhere Plaster for cast
Juss.
Passiflora coriaceae
v
17812
2.
Sik'soO¢' (M) Ala de murcielago (Sp)
17795 To induce sleep
Use
Mimosa pudica L.
Botanical name
Smue'ic (M) Duermidillo (Sp)
v
Local namet
1.
CCO No.
TABLE 14 Miscellaneous
Make a tea from leaves and drink frequently
Boil leaf and drink liquid.
White pappus in leaf axil is applied to cut. Cook leaf and place on navel.
Dig tuber. Crush and cook in pan. Wrap limb with cloth covered with preparation. Chew leaf and place on cut.
Soak leaf in castor oil and place on affected area.
Place leaf on head.
Preparation/administration
Belly button is essential to good digestion in Maya belief.
Hardens to form a very durable cast.
Mimosa's leaves fold up or "go to sleep" when touched. Both names mean "bat wing".
Remarks
0
0'>
0)
361
The local names used in Succotz are indicated in the tables. Frequently Spanish names only are used for the more common plants (indicated in the tables with the abbreviation Sp) even when Maya is being spoken. Conversely, the rarer plants are often named only in Maya (abbreviation M). However, we know of at least one plant, Billy Webb, that is known by its Creole English name only in the village. Because there is considerable interest in medicinal plants among the Creole population in Belize we have included some Creole names in the tables (abbreviation Cr) although they are only occasionally used in Succotz. The Maya names were transcribed by Barbara Macleod of the University of Texas, Austin, who is fluent in Maya. Most of the letters are pronounced as in English with the following special symbols: similar to sh in English similar to ch in English ~ similar to tz in English , indicates a glottal stop
§
~
The lists may not contain every remedy known to the village but do represent most of the major medicinal plants and the range of treatments attempted. Most of the ailments treated need no further explanation, except those listed as Maya illnesses. These are traditional concepts which are different from those of modem medicine. More emphasis is placed on the cause of illness than on the sickness itself. Thus the herbal remedy is also more concerned with the cause than the symptoms. Two of these ailments concern infants. The first is espantajo, an illness which is peculiar to babies. It is caused by a sudden surprise or shock, hence the Spanish name, espantajo. The baby shows various signs of upset. The second is mal ojo (literally, the evil eye), which is thought to be the most common and the most serious cause of illness in infants. A baby can contract mal oio if a stranger passes and looks at the child. Usually the person means the child no harm. It is merely an unfortunate circumstance. A baby with mal ojo becomes fretful and suffers from diarrhea and fever. The child may be cured immediately by being touched by the person who has caused the problem. Thus to avoid mal ojo mothers in Succotz usually handtheir infants to visitors to hold. If a baby contracts mal ojo and the person responsible cannot be found, the herbal cure is used. First, the mild cure is used since the total cure (see table) leads to the person in later years becoming a giver of mal oio to others. In Succotz, and throughout the Maya areas of Belize, mal oio and its celebrated cure Ruda de Monte were prominent in any discussion of herbal medicine. Many serious Maya illnesses, ranging from loss of muscular control in a limb to distortion of facial features, are accredited to mal viento or mal aire. They are literally evil wind and bad air. The victim may be struck by an evil wind at any time, although he usually encounters it when moving from a hot to a cold environment quickly. In addition, mal aire is frequently encountered near the Maya ruins especially when underground storage reservoirs (chultuns) are opened. On
362
these occasions, the mal aire can escape and cause severe weakness in any part of the body which it might strike. Some discussion of the Maya concept of temperature is necessary to appreciate fully the herbal remedies used for combatting fever and chills. In Succotz, maintaining thermal equilibrium is thought to be most important in avoiding illness. We have already seen this concept at work in the discussion of mal uiento. Another example is to be seen in the case of a man who is extremely hot from work and who bathes immediately in a cold lake or river. The extreme temperature change could result in serious illness. Instead, a cooling leaf such as ~acah (Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg.) might be used to restore thermal equilibrium gradually before bathing. We observed that the majority of archeological workers at Lamanai, who come from Succotz, refused to bathe during their noon break, preferring instead to wait until temperatures had moderated later in the day. The temperature concept may be regarded as abstract. For example, a person's house is always "hot" and outside his house is "cool". Certain foods are hot such as coffee and others are "cool" such as tea and rice. The medicinal plants are categorized according to temperature without any recognizable system to the classification. The importance of the temperature concept is reflected in the large number of herbal remedies listed for fever and chills. These concepts from Succotz are in many ways similar to those of northern Yucatan and can be compared with the description of Redfield and Villa Rojas (1934). However, except for fever and chills, most of the other "Maya illnesses" are only superficially treated in Roys' Ethnobotany of the Maya. Discussion There is a tradition of magic and ritual in the herbal medicine of Succotz. The use of sacred copal smoke to cure espantajo in infants has its origins in the ancient Maya religion. The ritual of cutting seeds into four may represent the four Chacs or compass points or the Christian cross. The repetition of the cure for mal ojo for nine Fridays is probably derived from the Nine First Fridays of Roman Catholicism. Some of the practices involve sympathetic magic which may be defined as "like acts produce like results". Thus the sensitive plant mimosa which folds up, or is said to go to sleep, is used as a cure for insomnia. Similarly, by producing pain, pain is cured. Thus stinging nettles and thorns are used to irritate the forehead to cure headache. Poisonwood bums in the eye which are extremely painful are cured with hot chilies. Many other remedies undoubtedly employ natural plant products which have potent physiological effects. Some of the active compounds are well-known, such as atropine from Datura, and nicotine from tobacco. In addition, one of us (T.A.) is currently testing several plants, used to treat
363
infections and skin ailments, for their toxicity to the human pathogen Candida. The study will be presented in a separate paper but preliminary results indicate that most of these plants are phototoxic. These plants are members of the family Asteraceae (Compositae) and the active components have been identified as polyacetylenic compounds. These compounds are toxic to a wide variety of micro-organisms at very low concentrations (Towers and Wat, 1978). Their occurrence is probably a natural defence mechanism for the plant, which the Maya have adapted to kill human pathogens. This example demonstrates how ethnobotany can point the way towards biochemical research. Comparison of the data collected at Succotz with those from two hundred miles north in the Yucatan, allows us to see how knowledge of the local plants is retained as a cultural tradition throughout the Maya lowland area. Although there are substantial differences in the flora of the two regions, 49 of the 59 species listed here for human ailments also appear in Roys' Ethnobotany of the Maya. Comparison of the Maya names for 63 species found both in Belize and Yucatan gave agreement on 46 names. On the other hand, of the 101 remedies listed in this paper, only 20 show any similarity at all to those in Roys. In fact, the best known cure in the Maya areas of Belize, the Ruda cure for mal ojo, does not appear in the Ethnobotany of the Maya. While the Maya of Succotz share some aspects of the Yucatecan language and culture, generally, the Maya of Belize and the Peten (i.e. the people of the Succotz area) are sufficiently different from those of northern Yucatan to be described as a cultural subgroup, called the "Chan Maya" by Thompson (1977). Thompson also observed a diversity of cultural influences within the Chan Maya area itself. The different herbal traditions of Succotz and Yucatan illustrate the cultural differences in these two areas. During our collection of medicinal plants at Succotz there was always good agreement among our informants. However, in other areas of Belize, still within the Chan Maya area, we observed considerable diversity in the herbal cures. Collection of medicinal plants throughout the entire area is a necessary step in understanding the traditional knowledge and culture of the lowland Maya. Acknowledgements This study would not have been possible without Dr. David Pendergast, the archeologist at Lamanai, Belize, who brought us together, provided facilities, and who with his colleague H. S. Loten, encouraged the project. We thank Dr. J. D. Dwyer of the Missouri Botanical Gardens who identified many specimens. Barbara Macleod assisted with the transcription of Maya names and Dr. Neil Towers made the phototoxicity study possible. We wish to thank Mrs. E. W. Craig, Alejandro Torres, Timothy Johns, Wade Davis and Carol Amason who assisted in many ways. Finally, we extend a special note of appreciation to the people of Succotz and in particular the workmen
364
of the Lamanai project who shared their knowledge of plants with us. Financial support for this work was provided by the Canada Council (Lambert, Grant No. 876-1238). References Berlin, B., Breedlove, D. E. and Raven, P., Principles of Tzeltal Plant Classification, Academic Press, New York, 1974. Hill, A. F., Ethnobotany in Latin America. In F. Verdoon (ed.), Plants and Plant Science in Latin America, Cronica Botanica Co., Waltham, MA, 1945, pp. 176·180. Lambert, J. D. H. and Arnason, T., Distribution of vegetation on Maya ruins and its relation to ancient land use at Lamanai, Belize. Turrialba, 28 (1978) 33 - 41. Pendergast, D. M., The practice of "Principias" in San Jos~ Succotz. Ethnos, 37 (1972) 88·96. Redfield, R. and Villa Rojas, A., Chan Kom: A Maya Village. Publication No. 448, Carnegie Institute of Washington, Washington, D.C., 1934. Roys, R., The Ethnobotany of the Maya, [Middle America Research Series No.2, New Orleans), Tulane University, 1931. Standley, P. C., and Record, S., Forests and flora of British Honduras. Fieldiana Bot., 12 (1936). Standley, P. C. and Steyermark, J., Forests and flora of Guatemala. Fieldiana Bot., 24 (1958). Towers, G. H. N. and Wat, C. K., Biological activity of polyacetylenes. Revista Latinoamericana de Quimica, 9 (1978) 162 -170. Thompson, J. E. S., Ethnology of the Maya of Central and Southern British Honduras. Fieldiana Anthropology, No. 274(1930). Thompson, J. E. S., A proposal for constituting a Maya subgroup, cultural and linguistic in the Peten and adjacent regions. In G. D. Jones (ed.), Anthropology and History in Yucatan, University of Texas Press, Austin, TX, 1977.
345
MAYA MEDICINAL PLANTS OF SAN JOSE SUCCOTZ, BELIZE THOR ARNASONa, FELIZ UCKb , JOHN LAMBERTc and RICHARD HEBDA d
aBiology Department, University of Ottawa, Ottawa (Canada), b San Jose Succotz; Belize ~Central America), CBiology Department, Carleton University, Ottawa (Canada) and Biology Department, University of Waterloo, Waterloo (Canada) (Received October 12,1979; accepted November 9,1979)
Summary The traditional use of plants for medicine was studied in the Maya village of San Jose Succotz, Belize. Sixty-four species were collected and 106 remedies are described. The ethnobotany of Succotz is discussed in relation to traditional concepts of medicine, ritual and magic in treatment of illnesses, and biochemically active constituents of the plants. Use of plants in Belize and the Yucatan is compared.
Introduction The tropical forests of Central America have provided the Maya people with their most varied and abundant resource. It is not surprising that an elaborate tradition developed in the area, in the use of plants for medicine. The medicinal plants described here were collected during a two-year period, from May 1976 to May 1978, while working with the Royal Ontario Museum archeological project at Lamanai, Belize, and later with a Canadian International Development Agency project in the same area (Lambert and Amason, 1978). This paper is the first of two articles describing the ethnobotany of the village of San Jose Succotz, Belize. The second article will deal with non-medical use of plants. No article devoted to ethnobotany has yet been published from Belize, although scattered notes appear in Forests and Flora of British Honduras by Standley and Record (1936) and the Forests and Flora of Guatemala by Standley and Steyermark (1958). Mention of the importance of herbal remedies at Succotz has been made by Pendergast (1972) who suggested the present study. In addition, Thompson (1930) has included a list of cultivated plants in an ethnology describing the area around Succotz. There are, of course, several other ethnobotanical studies from the Maya area (see Hill (1945) for a review, and Berlin et al. (1974) for a more recent approach), the most relevant of which is Roys' (1931) extensive Ethnobotany of the Maya on Yucatan medicinal plants. However, the flora of that area and the
346
s~ S UCCO tl,
Belize
~
Fig. 1. Location of San Jose Succotz in Belize, Central America .
names and uses of the plants listed are substantially different from those of our collection. The Maya village of Succotz has a population of about one thousand and lies on the western border of Belize near Guatemala (see Fig. 1). The people are of Maya origin and speak a dialect of Yucatec as well as Spanish, but many of the younger people leam only Spanish and English, the official language of Belize. At the same time as the language is being lost, much of the traditional culture is disappearing. Ten or twenty years ago the herbal remedies were heavily relied upon. They are less frequently used now with the advent of modem medical clinics. One of us (F.U.), a Maya from Succotz, felt that it was imperative to record the traditional names and uses of the plants now, before they are forgotten. In this article, we have attempted to report only those plants and remedies that are or were widely used in Succotz. We have, then, not drawn on the more-specialized knowledge of one or two professional herbalists (called Yerbateros) who live in the district. We have eliminated all unverified material and herbal remedies collected from people outside of the village. As we have focused on one village, we are able to record not only a collection of medicinal plants but also a distinct cultural tradition. Herbal remedies and Maya concepts of illness in Succotz The herbal remedies and medicinal plants are presented in Tables 1 - 14. The CCO No. represents the specimen number of voucher specimens which have been collected for deposit in the Carleton University Herbarium, Ottawa, Canada, the Missouri Botanical Garden Herbarium, St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A., and the National Herbarium, Belmopan, Belize. Nomenclature follows that of the Flora of Guatemala (Standley and Steyermark, 1958), except where new additions are concerned. These are marked with an asterisk.
San Diego (Sp)
~ordonsillo (Sp)
9. 17798
10. 17049 11. 18075
14. 17218
13 . 17979
12. 17009
Siempre viva (Sp)
8. 18157
S'ok rnaal (M) Carreton (Sp) P'oop'os (M)
v
Cacah (M)
v
ShaM (M)
SAnal (M)
7. 17615
6. 17829
v
Ortiga (Sp) Copal (Sp) Pom (M) Mano Lagarto (Sp) Jackass Bitters (Cr) Kayabim (M) Tab (M)
3. 17113 4. 17053
5. 17821
Palik'al (M) Naranja (Sp) Lial (M) Ortiga (Sp)
Local namet
1. Not collected 2. 17915
CCO No .
TABLE 1 Pain
1. Headache 2. Backache 3. Ear-ache
Same as above Severe toothache, tooth removal Bee sting
Bee sting
Eleurya aestuans (L.) Gaud.
Jatropha sp. Protium copal (Schlecht Cham.) Engler Neurolaena lobata (L.) R.Br.
Viguiera dentata (Cav) Spreng Psychotria carthaginensis Jacq. Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam .) Kurz Piper peltatum L.
Tragia yucatanensis Millsp.
Bursera simaruba (L .) Sarg . Not identified
Piper amalgo L. Eupatorium sp.
Pain in the heart
Citrus sinesis L. Osbeck
Rheumatism
Rheumatism
Stomach-ache Headache Toothache Muscle pains or spasms Headache
Bruises, swellings
Toothache
Use
Botanical name
Warm leaf. Place on affected area Wrap leaf around affected area.
Crush leaf. Place on affected area. Warm large leaves. Place on affected area. Chew root to freeze tooth. Boil leaf in water. Wash in preparation and drink some. Wrap forehead with leaves .
Warm leaves. Place in mouth.
Used with Neurolaena.
Leaves are cool.
Cultivated.
Leaf has stinging hairs.
Remarks
Leaf has downy covering of hairs. Leaf has stinging hairs. (continued overleaf)
1. Put mature leaf on forehead. 2. Rub juice from leaf on back. 3. Heat leaf and squeeze juice into ear. Same as above. Put resin into cavity. It swells and breaks tooth apart. Heat leaf over cooking fire . Place on sting.
Make a tea from leaves. Drink.
Preparation/administration
-::I
""
w
S kot~ (M) Iguerra (Sp) Oro sus (M) Blake Toothache
Wedelia poruiceps
S k'anang (M)
Mirabilla (Sp)
4. 17949
v
Cacah (M)
v
Mirabilis jalapa L.
Hamelia patens Jacq.
(L.) Sarg.
Bursera simaruba
Vitex gaumeri (Greenm.) Tropical ulcer
YaSnik (M)
Dermatitis from local poison woods, Metopium and Sebastiana Insect bites, various skin irritations (granos) Vitiligo (white patches on skin)
(bay sore)
Botanical name Use
Headache
Ricinus communis L.
Stomach spasms
Ear-ache
Bruise
Rheumatism
Use
Local namet
3. 17224
2. 17009
1. 17069
CCO No.
TABLE 2 Skin afflictions
tM = Maya; Sp = Spanish; Cr
20. 17203
19. 17980
Seem.
Strychnos panamensis
(Pers.) Safford
Datura candida
(L'her.) Han.
Rhoeo discolor
Cervantes
Castilla elastica
Botanical name
= Creole; 'indicates glottal stop.
Chicoloro (Sp)
18. 17062
v
Chanico (Sp)
17. 17817
16. 17187
tns (Sp) Rubber tree (Cr) Pabana (Sp)
Local namet
15. 17015
CCONo.
TABLE 1 (continued)
Rub flowers on afflicted area.
Warm leaf over fire. Rub juice on affected area.
Soak bark in water. Bathe affected skin area with this preparation.
Inner white bark is applied to sore.
Preparation/administration
Chew flower.
Put leaf on head.
Boil the vine. Drink.
Put cod liver oil on leaf. Wrap limb. Crush leaf. Place on affected area. Put juice from leaf in ear.
Preparation/administration
Cultivated for medicinal purposes.
quickly.
It relieves itching
The name bay sore has passed into Spanish from Creole. Bark probably contains tannins which shrink swelling.
Remarks
Very bitter.
Cultivated.
Leaf is downy and soothes pain
Remarks
Cu i!u (M)
Mano lagarto (Sp) Jackass bitters (Cr) Kabayim (M) P'oop'o~ (M)
9. 17233
Pic!i (M) Guayaba (Sp)
14. Not collected
t F or abbreviations see Table 1.
12. 17235 13. 17014
Achiote (Sp) ISu ~u (M) Cic! pu'ut (M) Bocut (M)
11. 17914
10. 17217
7. 17971
8. 17925
(M)
Oop i!uhum (M) Custard apple Toom pa'ap (M)
o kutl:
6. 17120
5. 17762
Psidium guajava L.
Carica papaya L. Cassiagrandis L.
Tragia yucataneneis Millsp. Bixa orellana L.
Solanum erianthum D.Don. Annona cherimola Mill. Solanum torvum Swartz Solanum mammosum L. Neurolaena lobata L. R.Br.
Rash on babies, chiggers Corns on feet Vitiligo and skin problems Athlete's foot
Burns
Skin afflictions
Athlete's foot, chiggers Athlete's foot
Planter's wart
Warts
Boil bark and bathe feet with liquid.
Crush leaf and apply to affected area. Boil leaf and use the liq uid for washing Soften with juice from stem. Rub leaf on afflicted area.
Crush fruit and rub juice into afflicted area. Crush fruit and apply to afflicted area Boil leaves and bath patient in infusion.
Rub leaf on wart.
Crush leaf and apply to wart.
Cultivated for medicinal purposes.
0l>-
eo
co
K'uu¢ (M) Tobacco (Cr) On(M) Aguacate (Sp) Pear (Cr) Limon (Sp) Lime (Cr) Ta man (M) Algodon (Sp) Cotton (Cr) Achiote (Sp)
17147
17716
Not collected
17890
17914
17783
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
t F o r abbreviations see Table 1.
Orosus (M)
Ku~u
Local name t
CCO No.
TABLE 3 Colds
Sore throat and swollen glands Cough
Spilanthes americana (Mutis) Hieron,
To help expel sputum Cough
Colds, sinus problems Cough
Use
Bixa orellana L .
Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle Gossypium hirsutum L.
Persea americana Mill.
Nicotiana tabacum L.
Botanical name
Mix urine with the fruit. Rub some of mixture on skin and take some internally. Prepare a tea from the leaves and drink.
Prepare a tea from the leaves and drink.
Chew the fruit.
Apply a small amount of oil to the leaf and place on forehead. Prepare a tea with the leaves and drink.
Pre paration!adm inistration
a "hot" medicine.
Cultivated.
Many escaped limes in the bush. Cultivated.
Cultivated.
Cultivated.
Remarks
0
CI1
w
Sapote bobo (M) Pachira aquatica Santa Domingo (Sp) Aubl. Provision tree (Cr)
17044
4.
tFor abbreviations see Table 1.
Zea mays L.
Mais (Sp) Him (M)
17837
3.
Gonorrhea, diffi· culty in passing water Gonorrhea, difflculty in passing water Kidney pain
Gynerium sagitta tum (Aubl.) Beauv.
Caiia brava (Sp)
17573
2.
Gonorrhea
Spondias purpurea L.
Kening (M)
Not collected
Use
Botanical name
Local namet
l.
CCO No.
TABLE 4 Urinary problems
Cut a seed from the large fruit into four quarters. Boil. Drink the water.
Cook silk of black corn with grasshopper legs and drink.
Chew succulent leaf.
Eat plum-like fruit.
Preparation/administration
Four is a special number. It represents the 4 chacs of compass points in Maya mythology.
Remarks
t.)
I:Il ....
Yook mukuy (M)
Not collected
17609
2.
3.
tFor abbreviations see Table 1.
Albahaca simaron (Sp) Chili (Sp) Iik (M)
17519
Local namet
1.
CCONo.
TABLE 5 Eye problems
Euphorbia hyssopifolia (L.) Small
Ocimum micranthum Willd. Capiscum annuum L.
Botanical name
Sore eyes
Burns of the eye
To cleanse the eye
Use
Put resin in eye.
Put small seed into the eye. Irritation induces tears. Put juice in the eye.
Preparation/administration
Fighting fire with fire? An old farmer at Indian Church developed cataracts by this "cure". Urine is the more usual cure. Name means "its foot a turtle dove".
Remarks
c,)
CIt t-:l
17014
5.
tFor abbreviations see Table 1.
Bocut (M) Stinking toe (Cr)
(M)
17509
4.
~i'iu
18188
3.
Pas mo
Parthenium hystero-
Corriente ~i'iu (Sp & M) hi skutC (M)
17822
2.
Cassiagrandis L.
Croton Schiedeanus Schlecht Capraria biflora L.
phorus L.
Momordica charantia L.
Condiamor (Sp)
17216
1.
Botanical name
Local namet
CCONo.
Tonics
TABLE 6
Tonic to build the blood Tonic to build the blood Tonic to build the blood Tonic to build the blood
Tonic to build the blood
Use
Boil the leaves and bathe in the liquid. Boil the leaves and bathe in the liquid. Boil the leaves and bathe in the liquid. Soak the fruit in water to dissolve the dark resin between the seeds. This concoction is drunk.
Prepare a tea from the leaves and drink.
Preparation/administration
The fruit is a very large, foul-smelling pod which truly deserves its Creole name.
Probably the best known herbal remedy in Belize of Creole origin. Bitter taste is said to be evidence of effectiveness.
Remarks
en to)
Co)
Pluchea odorata
Caal ce (M)
17213
17825
18155
1.
2.
3.
17061
2.
Intestinal parasites
Chenopodium ambrosiodes L. Stemmadenia donnellsmithii (Rose) Woodson
Aposote (Sp) Wormwood (Cr) Chac Ie King (M) Hueve cabaillo (Sp)
Preparation/administration
Boil leaves in a bucket to produce healing vapors. The woman wraps herself in a blanket and absorbs the vapors by standing over the steaming liquid. Boil leaf and wash in liquid. Boil leaf and wash in liquid.
Preparation/administration
Grind leaves and stem. Take one spoonful of this medicine. Human bots (sub- Soak a piece of cloth in the cutaneous fly larva) resin. Seal the breathing hole of the larva.
Use
Botanical name
Following childbirth "Women's problems"
Following childbirth
Use
Local namet
t F or abbreviations see Table 1.
17602
l.
CCONo.
TABLE 8 Parasites
t F or abbreviations see Table 1.
Pinto (Sp) Solanum sp. Arepa ~i'iu (Sp & M) Grenadillo (Sp) Punica granatum L.
(L.) Casso
Botanical name
Local namet
CCONo.
TABLE 7 Women's problems
Treatment suffocates the larva and allows it to be squeezed out.
Very aromatic.
Remarks
Remarks
....
Cl1
(j)
S kotC (M)
2. 17980
Chanico (Sp)
6. 17817
12 . 17788
11. 17787
10 . 17779
9. 17820
8. 17818
7. 17009
Cacah (M) Gumbo limbo (Cr) Frijolillo (Sp) Yama bush (Cr) tu1/uk (M) Ruda de monte (Sp) Wild ruda (Cr) Sinquin colorado (Sp) Stupuh amarillo (M & Sp) Achiote (Sp) Ku ~u (M)
v
Oop ~ uhum (M) Annona (Sp) Custard apple Tah (M)
4. Not collected
5. 17232
Zacate limon (M) Fever grass (Cr)
3. Not collected
F ever in infants Fever in infants Fever in infants
Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L .) Swartz Tagetes erecta L.
Bixa orellana L.
Put leaves in baby's bed.
Rub leaves on he ad and chest of infant. Rub leaf on skin of infant.
Warm a leaf and rub with a little oil on af fected area. Boil leaf and bathe infant.
Chills Fever in infan ts
Place leaves on forehead.
Prepare infusion with leaves. Bathe in it three times. Put oil on leaf. Rub on affected area.
Place leaf on forehead .
Prepare a tea and drink.
Put a little oil on leaf. Place on forehead . Place leaf on forehead.
Preparation/administra t ion
Fever
Diphvsa carthagenensis Jacq.
Bursera simaruba (L .) Sarg . Cassia occidentalis L.
Fever in the night
Viguiera dentata (Cav.) Spreng Datura stramonium L. Chills
Fever
Annona cherimola L.
(D .C.) Stopf.
Fever
Fever
HBK. Cecropia peltata. Ric inis communis.
Cymbopogon citratus
Fever
*Erythrina rubrineruia
Pito (M)
1. 17161
Iguerra (Sp)
Use
Botanical name
CCO No .
Local name"!"
TABLE 9 Fevers and chills
(continued ooerleaf]
Leaf is "cool".
Leaf is " cool".
Leaf is "very warm ". Leaf is " cool".
Introduced plant. Cultivated as medicine.
Leaf is " cold". This remedy is used in North Belize and Mexico. Leaf is "cold". In troduced plant from Old World . Leaf is "cold".
Remarks
c.:l C1l C1l
Chicoloro (Sp)
17062
17214 18075
3.
4.
tFor abbreviations see Table 1.
room pa'ap (M) S haaq (M)
Cordonsillo (Sp) Cedro (Sp)
17049 17401
1. 2.
5.
Local namet
CCO No.
TABLE 10 Snake bite
Snake bite
Strychnos panamensis
Solanum torvum Swartz Eupatorium sp,
Seem. Snake bite Snake bite
Snake bite Snake bite
Piper amalago L. Cedrela mexicana
M. Roem.
Use
Fever
Botanical name
*Not recorded in the "Flora of Guatemala".
t F or abbreviations see Table 1.
Parthenium hysterophorus L.
Silantro ~i 'iu (M)
14. 17810
Fever
Euphorbia sp.
Use
Botanical name
Hobon cokoh (M)
Local namet
13 . 17956
CCONo.
TABLE 9 (continued)
Boil leaf and wash bite. Boll leaf and wash bite.
Boil root and drink.
Boil root and drink.} Boil root and drink.
Preparation/administration
Prepare infusion of leaves and bathe. Prepare a tea. Drink it or wash in it.
Preparation/administration
Usually all three of these remedies (Nos. 1 ·3) are used together.
Remarks
Leaf is "hot".
Remarks
C)
til
w
Passac (M) Negrito (Sp)
10. 17059
Cook inner bark. Eat. Soak bark and drink liquid. This induces vomiting of bad bile. Crush root. Boil and drink liquid.
"Bad bile"
Dysentery
Simarouba glauca D.C.
Boil bitter bark. Drink.
Crush bark. Boil and drink.
Pound seed. Boil and drink.
Pound seed. Boil and drink.
"Bad bile"
Diarrhea, indigestion Stomach-ache (biJios - Sp ; "bad bile" - Cr)
Dysentery
Dysentery
Pound seed. Boil and drink.
Pound seed. Boil and drink.}
Crush root. Boil and drink.
Preparation/administration
Aspidosperma megalocarpon Muell Arg. *Trichilia glabra L.
Sweetia Panamensis Benth
Dysentery (blood in feces) Dystentery
Aristolochia trilobata L. Pimenta dioica (L.) Merrill Manilkara achras (MilL) Fosberg Pouteria mammosa Cronquist Byrsonima crassifolia (L .) HBK. Psidium guajaua L. Dystentery
Use
Botanical name
tFor abbreviations see Table l. *Not recorded in the "Flora of Guatemala".
9 . 17067
Pic!md (M) ~alereo (Sp) Cabon ~e (M)
Ci (M) Nance (Sp) Pi~i (M) Guayaba (Sp) Billy Webb (Cr)
v
Pimienta (Sp) Naba kook (M) Ya(M) Chico sapote (Sp) Sapote Mamee (Sp)
Contrebo (Sp)
Local namet
8. 17005
6. Not collected 7. Not collected
5. 17010
4 . 17417
3. 17002
1. Not collected 2. 17048
CCO No.
TABLE 11 Digestive problems
"Bad bile" is characterized by yellow color of stools and bitter taste in mouth.
Cut seed into four.
Nos. 2 and 3 are often used together.
Remarks
-3
C11
CI)
Copal (Sp) Pom (M)
Shaa" (M)
18156 17785
17213
17053
18075 17787 Not collected
3.
5.
6.
7. 8. 9.
Pluchea odorata (L.)
Caal ce (M)
Stupuh amarillo (M) Naranja (Sp) Paak'al (M)
v
Mal viento
Not identified
Mal viento Malojo Espantajo
(Schlecht & Cham) Engler Eupatorium sp. Tagetes erecta L.
Citrus sinesis
Osbeck
Espaniajo
Protium copal
Casso
Malojo Mal viento
Annona squamosa (L.)
Saramuya (Sp) Sina'an ~i'iu (M)
tFor abbreviations see Table 1.
4.
Malojo
Caesalpina pulcherrima
(L.) Swartz
Sinquin (Sp)
18154
2.
Cook leaf and wash with it. Rub leaf on baby 's skin. Nine leaves are placed on wrists and forehead
Bum resin under baby's crib.
Boil leaf and wash face. Make an infusion of leaves and bathe. Soak leaves and bathe.
Mild cure: boil leaf and wash baby's face. Total cure: put juice of leaves in baby's eye for nine Fridays Boil leaf and wash face.
for explanation)
Malojo (see text
Diphysa carthaginensis Jacq.
Ruda (Sp) tlu tluk (M)
17820
Preparation/administration
Use
1.
Botanical name
Local name"!"
CCO No.
TABLE 12 "Maya illnesses"
Nine is a magic number.
Use with ruda. "Scorpion leaf". A "hot" medicine.
Use with ruda.
The most celebrated of Maya herbal medicines.
Remarks
c,)
C/1
00
17601
17181 17009
4.
5.
*For abbreviations' see Table 1.
Holop (M) Cacah (Sp)
Solanum nudum HBK.
Hoja de puojillo (Sp) Sorillo (Sp)
17813
3.
6.
Dewormer
Hvptis verticulata Jacq.
Hierba martina (Sp)
17802
2.
Bursera simaruba L. Sarg ,
Polyp odium sp,
Petiueria alliacea L.
Dewormer
Dorstenia contrajerua L.
Contrayerba (Sp)
17714
1.
To rid animals of lice To improve a dog's ability to follow a scent Colds in dogs To prevent bees from leaving the hive
Use
Botanical name
Local name*
CCONo.
Veterinary medicine
TABLE 13
Tie vine around the dog's neck. Tie leaves to poles near hives.
Cut root into small pieces and mix into animal feed . Cut root into small pieces and mix into animal feed. Spread leaves on floor of chicken coop. Crush leaf and place on dog's nose. It acts as a stimulant.
Preparation/administration
Leaf has the strong odour of a skunk.
Remarks
C11
co
c.:>
Paak'al (M) Naranja (Sp) Condiamor (Sp) Sorrow see (Cr)
17733
17406
17529
Not collected 17216
4.
5.
6.
7.
Escoba (Sp)
Ski'i~(M)
Suelda con Suelda (Sp)
t F or abbreviations see Table 1.
8.
Top tuc (M) '" "bursts belly button")
17599
3.
Diabetes
Momordica charantia
L.
Nausea/hangover
Bleeding belly button in babies
To stop bleeding
Citrus sinesis Osbeck
L.
Physalis pubescens
Bartlett
Cryosophylla argentic
gonolobium (Jacq.) Sprag. & Sandw.
Ceratophytum tetra-
Not identified
To stop bleeding
"Encordla", a sympathetic pain or swelling arising from pain or injury elsewhere Plaster for cast
Juss.
Passiflora coriaceae
v
17812
2.
Sik'soO¢' (M) Ala de murcielago (Sp)
17795 To induce sleep
Use
Mimosa pudica L.
Botanical name
Smue'ic (M) Duermidillo (Sp)
v
Local namet
1.
CCO No.
TABLE 14 Miscellaneous
Make a tea from leaves and drink frequently
Boil leaf and drink liquid.
White pappus in leaf axil is applied to cut. Cook leaf and place on navel.
Dig tuber. Crush and cook in pan. Wrap limb with cloth covered with preparation. Chew leaf and place on cut.
Soak leaf in castor oil and place on affected area.
Place leaf on head.
Preparation/administration
Belly button is essential to good digestion in Maya belief.
Hardens to form a very durable cast.
Mimosa's leaves fold up or "go to sleep" when touched. Both names mean "bat wing".
Remarks
0
0'>
0)
361
The local names used in Succotz are indicated in the tables. Frequently Spanish names only are used for the more common plants (indicated in the tables with the abbreviation Sp) even when Maya is being spoken. Conversely, the rarer plants are often named only in Maya (abbreviation M). However, we know of at least one plant, Billy Webb, that is known by its Creole English name only in the village. Because there is considerable interest in medicinal plants among the Creole population in Belize we have included some Creole names in the tables (abbreviation Cr) although they are only occasionally used in Succotz. The Maya names were transcribed by Barbara Macleod of the University of Texas, Austin, who is fluent in Maya. Most of the letters are pronounced as in English with the following special symbols: similar to sh in English similar to ch in English ~ similar to tz in English , indicates a glottal stop
§
~
The lists may not contain every remedy known to the village but do represent most of the major medicinal plants and the range of treatments attempted. Most of the ailments treated need no further explanation, except those listed as Maya illnesses. These are traditional concepts which are different from those of modem medicine. More emphasis is placed on the cause of illness than on the sickness itself. Thus the herbal remedy is also more concerned with the cause than the symptoms. Two of these ailments concern infants. The first is espantajo, an illness which is peculiar to babies. It is caused by a sudden surprise or shock, hence the Spanish name, espantajo. The baby shows various signs of upset. The second is mal ojo (literally, the evil eye), which is thought to be the most common and the most serious cause of illness in infants. A baby can contract mal oio if a stranger passes and looks at the child. Usually the person means the child no harm. It is merely an unfortunate circumstance. A baby with mal ojo becomes fretful and suffers from diarrhea and fever. The child may be cured immediately by being touched by the person who has caused the problem. Thus to avoid mal ojo mothers in Succotz usually handtheir infants to visitors to hold. If a baby contracts mal ojo and the person responsible cannot be found, the herbal cure is used. First, the mild cure is used since the total cure (see table) leads to the person in later years becoming a giver of mal oio to others. In Succotz, and throughout the Maya areas of Belize, mal oio and its celebrated cure Ruda de Monte were prominent in any discussion of herbal medicine. Many serious Maya illnesses, ranging from loss of muscular control in a limb to distortion of facial features, are accredited to mal viento or mal aire. They are literally evil wind and bad air. The victim may be struck by an evil wind at any time, although he usually encounters it when moving from a hot to a cold environment quickly. In addition, mal aire is frequently encountered near the Maya ruins especially when underground storage reservoirs (chultuns) are opened. On
362
these occasions, the mal aire can escape and cause severe weakness in any part of the body which it might strike. Some discussion of the Maya concept of temperature is necessary to appreciate fully the herbal remedies used for combatting fever and chills. In Succotz, maintaining thermal equilibrium is thought to be most important in avoiding illness. We have already seen this concept at work in the discussion of mal uiento. Another example is to be seen in the case of a man who is extremely hot from work and who bathes immediately in a cold lake or river. The extreme temperature change could result in serious illness. Instead, a cooling leaf such as ~acah (Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg.) might be used to restore thermal equilibrium gradually before bathing. We observed that the majority of archeological workers at Lamanai, who come from Succotz, refused to bathe during their noon break, preferring instead to wait until temperatures had moderated later in the day. The temperature concept may be regarded as abstract. For example, a person's house is always "hot" and outside his house is "cool". Certain foods are hot such as coffee and others are "cool" such as tea and rice. The medicinal plants are categorized according to temperature without any recognizable system to the classification. The importance of the temperature concept is reflected in the large number of herbal remedies listed for fever and chills. These concepts from Succotz are in many ways similar to those of northern Yucatan and can be compared with the description of Redfield and Villa Rojas (1934). However, except for fever and chills, most of the other "Maya illnesses" are only superficially treated in Roys' Ethnobotany of the Maya. Discussion There is a tradition of magic and ritual in the herbal medicine of Succotz. The use of sacred copal smoke to cure espantajo in infants has its origins in the ancient Maya religion. The ritual of cutting seeds into four may represent the four Chacs or compass points or the Christian cross. The repetition of the cure for mal ojo for nine Fridays is probably derived from the Nine First Fridays of Roman Catholicism. Some of the practices involve sympathetic magic which may be defined as "like acts produce like results". Thus the sensitive plant mimosa which folds up, or is said to go to sleep, is used as a cure for insomnia. Similarly, by producing pain, pain is cured. Thus stinging nettles and thorns are used to irritate the forehead to cure headache. Poisonwood bums in the eye which are extremely painful are cured with hot chilies. Many other remedies undoubtedly employ natural plant products which have potent physiological effects. Some of the active compounds are well-known, such as atropine from Datura, and nicotine from tobacco. In addition, one of us (T.A.) is currently testing several plants, used to treat
363
infections and skin ailments, for their toxicity to the human pathogen Candida. The study will be presented in a separate paper but preliminary results indicate that most of these plants are phototoxic. These plants are members of the family Asteraceae (Compositae) and the active components have been identified as polyacetylenic compounds. These compounds are toxic to a wide variety of micro-organisms at very low concentrations (Towers and Wat, 1978). Their occurrence is probably a natural defence mechanism for the plant, which the Maya have adapted to kill human pathogens. This example demonstrates how ethnobotany can point the way towards biochemical research. Comparison of the data collected at Succotz with those from two hundred miles north in the Yucatan, allows us to see how knowledge of the local plants is retained as a cultural tradition throughout the Maya lowland area. Although there are substantial differences in the flora of the two regions, 49 of the 59 species listed here for human ailments also appear in Roys' Ethnobotany of the Maya. Comparison of the Maya names for 63 species found both in Belize and Yucatan gave agreement on 46 names. On the other hand, of the 101 remedies listed in this paper, only 20 show any similarity at all to those in Roys. In fact, the best known cure in the Maya areas of Belize, the Ruda cure for mal ojo, does not appear in the Ethnobotany of the Maya. While the Maya of Succotz share some aspects of the Yucatecan language and culture, generally, the Maya of Belize and the Peten (i.e. the people of the Succotz area) are sufficiently different from those of northern Yucatan to be described as a cultural subgroup, called the "Chan Maya" by Thompson (1977). Thompson also observed a diversity of cultural influences within the Chan Maya area itself. The different herbal traditions of Succotz and Yucatan illustrate the cultural differences in these two areas. During our collection of medicinal plants at Succotz there was always good agreement among our informants. However, in other areas of Belize, still within the Chan Maya area, we observed considerable diversity in the herbal cures. Collection of medicinal plants throughout the entire area is a necessary step in understanding the traditional knowledge and culture of the lowland Maya. Acknowledgements This study would not have been possible without Dr. David Pendergast, the archeologist at Lamanai, Belize, who brought us together, provided facilities, and who with his colleague H. S. Loten, encouraged the project. We thank Dr. J. D. Dwyer of the Missouri Botanical Gardens who identified many specimens. Barbara Macleod assisted with the transcription of Maya names and Dr. Neil Towers made the phototoxicity study possible. We wish to thank Mrs. E. W. Craig, Alejandro Torres, Timothy Johns, Wade Davis and Carol Amason who assisted in many ways. Finally, we extend a special note of appreciation to the people of Succotz and in particular the workmen
364
of the Lamanai project who shared their knowledge of plants with us. Financial support for this work was provided by the Canada Council (Lambert, Grant No. 876-1238). References Berlin, B., Breedlove, D. E. and Raven, P., Principles of Tzeltal Plant Classification, Academic Press, New York, 1974. Hill, A. F., Ethnobotany in Latin America. In F. Verdoon (ed.), Plants and Plant Science in Latin America, Cronica Botanica Co., Waltham, MA, 1945, pp. 176·180. Lambert, J. D. H. and Arnason, T., Distribution of vegetation on Maya ruins and its relation to ancient land use at Lamanai, Belize. Turrialba, 28 (1978) 33 - 41. Pendergast, D. M., The practice of "Principias" in San Jos~ Succotz. Ethnos, 37 (1972) 88·96. Redfield, R. and Villa Rojas, A., Chan Kom: A Maya Village. Publication No. 448, Carnegie Institute of Washington, Washington, D.C., 1934. Roys, R., The Ethnobotany of the Maya, [Middle America Research Series No.2, New Orleans), Tulane University, 1931. Standley, P. C., and Record, S., Forests and flora of British Honduras. Fieldiana Bot., 12 (1936). Standley, P. C. and Steyermark, J., Forests and flora of Guatemala. Fieldiana Bot., 24 (1958). Towers, G. H. N. and Wat, C. K., Biological activity of polyacetylenes. Revista Latinoamericana de Quimica, 9 (1978) 162 -170. Thompson, J. E. S., Ethnology of the Maya of Central and Southern British Honduras. Fieldiana Anthropology, No. 274(1930). Thompson, J. E. S., A proposal for constituting a Maya subgroup, cultural and linguistic in the Peten and adjacent regions. In G. D. Jones (ed.), Anthropology and History in Yucatan, University of Texas Press, Austin, TX, 1977.