Measurement of exercise orientation in normalsubjects: gender and age differences

PERGAMON

Personality and Individual Differences 27 (1999) 199±209

Measurement of exercise orientation in normal subjects: gender and age di€erences Alayne Yates *, Jeanne D. Edman, Marjorie Crago, Douglas Crowell, Ross Zimmerman Department of Psychiatry, John A. Burns School of Medicine, Kapiolani Medical Center for Women and Children, 1319 Punahou Street, Honolulu, HI 96826-9931, U.S.A.

Received 20 October 1997

Abstract

This study describes the development and evaluation of a questionnaire to measure exercise attitudes and behavior including those associated with psychopathology. A 49-item Exercise Orientation Questionnaire (EOQ) was administered to the following groups: 103 undergraduate college students, 40 attendees at two professional conferences, and 111 members of a jury pool. Factor analysis yielded 6 clearly interpretable factors which accounted for 44.6% of the total variance: (1) Self-control, (2) Orientation to Exercise, (3) Self Loathing, (4) Weight Reduction, (5) Competition, and (6) Identity. Twenty-two items were eliminated on the basis of the factor analysis for a ®nal total of 27 items. Alpha coecients for the factors ranged from 0.74 to 0.87, with 0.92 for the total score, suggesting excellent reliability. Good concurrent validity was indicated by signi®cant correlations between EOQ scores and ratings of exercise investment, frequency, and duration. The two largest groups, university students and jury pool members, were compared on the basis of age and sex. Females scored higher on Weight Reduction while Males scored higher on Identity. Young males scored higher than older males on Self Control, Self Loathing, Competition, and total EOQ score. Findings suggest that, when compared to older men, young men in this culture are under greater stress and have a more negative sense of body and self. 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

#

Keywords: Exercise; Measurement; Eating disorders; Compulsive behavior; Sport

* To whom all correspondence should be addressed. 0191-8869/99/$ - see front matter PII: S 0 1 9 1 - 8 8 6 9 ( 9 8 ) 0 0 1 2 1 - 4

# 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

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1. Introduction

Western nations tend to be concerned about exercise. Individuals are motivated to exercise for various reasons such as the desire for greater muscular strength, endurance, weight loss, improved health, appearance, emotional stability, and tension relief. Perceptions of exercise range from viewing it as an onerous task to viewing it as the high point of the day's activities. Exercise appears to be bene®cial for most individuals but there are concerns that (1) many persons are overweight and do not exercise enough; and (2) some individuals exercise excessively, becoming overcommitted or ``addicted''. The Exercise Orientation Questionnaire (EOQ) was developed to assess exercise motivation and perception in a normal population. Items selected were cross checked with a group of eating disordered patients to make certain that they would ®nd the instrument acceptable and would endorse at least some of the items. The intent was to eventually employ the same instrument to identify di€erent patterns of motivation and perception among obese, eating disordered, and highly trained athletic groups of individuals. If successful, this could help determine patterns of risk prior to the emergence of problematic behavior. The Commitment to Exercise Scale (CES), developed by Davis et al. (1993) is the instrument closest in design and intent to the instrument described in this paper. The CES is a brief (9 item) scale based on attitudinal and behavioral aspects of exercise. It is designed to assess the extent of psychological commitment to exercise. It measures the degree to which feelings of well being are in¯uenced by exercise; the degree to which exercise is continued under adverse circumstances such as illness or injury; and the extent to which the exercise regimen interferes with social commitments. The CES was standardized on male and female intense and less intense or recreational exercisers recruited through health facilities. Subjects were interviewed to determine frequency and duration of exercise and the extent of their commitment. Percent body fat, weight preoccupation, addictive tendencies, and a self rating scale of obsessive-compulsive traits were measured concurrently using standardized instruments. Two factors emerged: an obligatory aspect or the extent to which well-being was dependent upon adherence to an exercise regimen and a pathological aspect, de®ned as continued exercise in the face of adverse circumstances. Weight preoccupation was the strongest predictor of extent of exercise for both sexes while obsessive-compulsiveness was positively related to the extent of exercise in males. The CES ®ndings indicate that exercise commitment and (pathological) overcommitment are distinct but related phenomena. An eating disordered sample was not employed in the initial validation of the CES. However, a later study (Davis et al., 1995) compared a sample of high level exercisers from the original study with a sample of consecutively admitted, hospitalized patients with Anorexia Nervosa. There were no di€erences between the patients and the high level exercisers on the CES. Both groups had higher scores than the moderate level exercisers. Obsessive compulsive traits, weight preoccupation and pathological aspects of exercise were signi®cantly related to the level of activity in eating disordered patients. Findings from the CES illustrate the diculty in distinguishing high level exercisers from a more pathological population. Factors that distinguish these populations have not yet been identi®ed.

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An instrument designed to predict risk in a normal population of exercisers might also discriminate at risk athletes from healthy athletes when both groups are training just as vigorously and have achieved the same low percent body fat. It could be used with groups of athletes who already present heightened weight concern to assess the extent to which internal pressures such as body or self dissatisfaction, the need to exert self control, the need to compete with others, or maintain independence are associated with progression toward subclinical and clinical eating disorders. Athletes could be followed over time to assess protective as well as risk factors. The EOQ described below will be developed in three stages. In the ®rst stage, reported here, it is applied to several large, non-pathological samples composed of males and females of various ages, some of whom exercise. The second stage, now in progress, will target eating disordered and obese groups of patients. The third stage will target groups of highly trained athletes.

2. Method

2.1. Subjects

The three samples were composed of 103 undergraduate college students (mean age 24; 37 males, 66 females) enrolled in psychology courses, 111 prospective jurors (mean age 43; 53 males, 58 females), and 40 attendees at a professional conference (mean age 40; 28 females, 12 males), resulting in a total of 254 subjects. Sample selection was based on convenience. The total sample of college students was 105, however the scales of two students had missing data and therefore were omitted from the analyses. Subjects were not asked to identify themselves by name on the questionnaire. Subjects were assured that the questionnaire could be taken anonymously and that the answers would be kept con®dential. Subjects were asked to indicate agreement or disagreement with statements such as ``I am a serious athlete'' and ``I exercise to get rid of frustration''. Subjects checked responses on a 5 point Likert scale. The undergraduate college students were enrolled in a Community College introductory Psychology course. They were asked to complete the questionnaire immediately after class. For doing so, they received a small amount of extra credit that could be applied to their ®nal grade. Almost all the students completed the questionnaire. The prospective jurors were volunteers from a group of two separate jury pools that had been called at random for jury duty. Members were approached as they waited in a large room before being apprised of their assignments. Jurors were considered representative of the larger community. Ninety percent completed the questionnaire. Conference attendees, largely social workers, were approached as they waited to register at two Continuing Education Conferences. Approximately 50% completed the questionnaire and no subject complained about the length or content of the instrument.

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2.2. Instrument development

The Exercise Orientation Questionnaire (Appendix A) was constructed speci®cally for use with individuals who exercise, including athletes. The intent of the scale was to assess the gamut of commonly expressed attitudes toward exercise, including those that might be associated with psychopathology. The initial 50 items were derived from (1) common statements made by athletes about their sports endeavors; and (2) statements made by eating disordered patients about their investment in sports and exercise activities. Selection was based on (1) collaborative e€ort of three of the authors based on their extensive clinical experience with compulsive and non-compulsive exercisers; and (2) review of the existing literature on subclinical/clinical eating disorders and on exercise dependence/compulsivity. Items selected for the original instrument sorted into 4 content areas: Diet/Appearance (11 items); Persistence (22 items); Identity (7 items); and Coping (7 items). Participants rated each item on a scale from 1 ``strongly disagree'' to 5 ``strongly agree''. The questionnaire was well received by participants and took approximately 15 min to complete. The questionnaire included demographic information and questions about exercise intensity, regularity, and exercise investment. Exercise regularity ranged from 0 ``rarely'' to 2 ``regularly''; intensity ranged from 1 ``mild'' to 3 ``strenuous''; and exercise investment ranged from 1 ``couldn't care less'' to 10 ``totally invested''. This tri-dimensional assessment of the extent of physical activity di€ers from most previously reported studies in that it did not rely upon a calculation of the number of hours per week of reported exercise but banked instead on subjects' estimate of regularity and intensity. Time that individuals spend exercising may not be a true indicator of commitment in that the chief limiting factor for many individuals is the time they have available for exercise. An exerciser who has very little free time might spend every free moment in intense exercise and yet not appear unusually committed on a simple measure of hours spent. A third dimension, not usually included in other studies, was subjects' estimate of emotional investment in exercise. This was added because some individuals exercise for health reasons and readily state that the exercise itself has a neutral or negative value, even though they devote considerable time to it. Authors hypothesized that regularity, intensity, and investment would be the most valid indicators of commitment to exercise.

3. Results

Analysis was conducted through principal component analysis with varimax rotation. To qualify, factors must contain at least three items with loadings of 0.40 or higher subscores, based on actual values for each item divided by the number of items. ANOVA Student t-tests were used to assess di€erence between groups. 3.1. Factor structure

Item-total correlations ranged from ÿ0.02 to 0.69. A total of nine out of the 50 items failed to meet the criterion of Nunnally (1978) of correlation values of 0.30 or higher, and were eliminated. The remaining 41 items were subjected to principal component analysis with

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Table 1. Promax rotated solution, exercise orientation questionnaire (n = 254) Factors 1 Factor 1 Ð Self Control (SC) Eigen Value Ð 21.75 #38 am active #39 exercise puts me in control #44 gets rid of frustration #45 feel better after exercise #46 exercise gives me a high #47 organize thoughts better

0.41 0.50 0.69 0.76 0.80 0.95

Factor 2 Ð Orientation to Exercise (OR) Eigen Value Ð 7.62 #3 exercise instead of snack #12 exercise comes ®rst #13 buy state of art equipment #14 want to measure performance #15 control training regimen #21 follow exercise routine #28 rather exercise than socialize

17 15 ÿ7 1 ÿ9 20 ÿ5

Factor 3 Ð Self Loathing (SL) Eigen Value Ð 4.27 #6 dislike body before exercise #27 dissatis®ed with performance #32 hate body if won't cooperate #33 if don't reach goals feel like failure

10 3 ÿ1 6

Factor 4 Ð Weight Reduction (WR) Eigen Value Ð 4.06 #4 want to control weight #5 keeps me from feeling bloated #9 like to lower body fat

ÿ1

15 ÿ7

Factor 5 Ð Identity (I) Eigen Value Ð 2.92 #34 am serious athlete #35 am good athlete #36 best friends are athletes

ÿ1

Factor 6 Ð Competition (C) Eigen Value Ð 2.07 #22 strive for personal best #24 need goal to shoot for #25 shoot harder for goal #26 important to measure perform.

ÿ1

10 ÿ1 18

10 ÿ6

2

3

4

5

6

1 32 2 ÿ3 ÿ9 ÿ2

ÿ 20

ÿ4 ÿ5

26

ÿ3

1 13 ÿ3 ÿ5

ÿ2

4 ÿ3 9 ÿ7

8 3 1 7 ÿ5

27 6 7 4 ÿ5 13 0

ÿ 12

ÿ6 ÿ 10

27 7 0 ÿ 19

ÿ9 ÿ 11

0.39 0.74 0.43 0.47 0.79 0.56 0.65

8

ÿ 13 12 27

13 12 ÿ 10 24

ÿ 14 9

23

ÿ9 4 45

4 13 ÿ4 4 13

ÿ5 ÿ3

13 13 9 ÿ 21 19

0.41 0.67 0.70 0.68

0

ÿ 12 10

2

ÿ7 26

ÿ 16 23 2 ÿ1

0.71 0.55

3 10 0 2 2 ÿ7

12 9

5

ÿ9

0.76

6

2

0.67

ÿ4 13

2 13 0 ÿ 14

0.82 0.63

10

ÿ6

8 ÿ3

6 23 5 5 ÿ1

ÿ3 26

ÿ5 ÿ3 2

ÿ3 10

0 8 ÿ7

0.42 0.69 0.71 0.55

Variance explained (eliminating other factors): Factor 1, 16.16; Factor 2, 3.97; Factor 3, 3.53; Factor 4, 2.88; Factor 5, 3.04; Factor 6, 3.23.

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varimax rotation, in order to estimate the number of factors and reduce the number of variables (Tabachnick and Fidell, 1983). A total of 9 factors emerged based on the criterion of eigenvalues greater than 1.0. However, two factors were composed of only two items each, so these items were eliminated from further analyses (Zwick and Velicer, 1986). Seven additional items failed to load 0.40 or higher on any of the remaining factors and were also excluded resulting in a total of 30 items. In order to determine whether this seven factor solution was the appropriate structure for our sample, a maximum likelihood factor analysis was employed, followed by a promax oblique rotation to a ®nal solution. The resulting seven factor structure was nearly identical to the principal component solutions. However, factor seven consisted of only three items, one of which had a low factor loading, so items in this factor were also eliminated, leaving a total of 27 items (see Appendix A). As shown in Table 1, the six factor solution was very clean as no item loaded on more than one factor and our ®nal solution resulted in six clearly interpretable factors. The solution was very clean as no item loaded on more than one factor. The six factor solution accounted for 44.6% of the total variance. Factors were easily interpreted and include ``Self Control'', ``Orientation to Exercise'', ``Self Loathing'', ``Weight Reduction'', ``Identity'', and ``Competition''. All factors had obvious face validity and moderate to moderately high internal consistency (alpha values were 0.87 for Self Control, 0.82 for Orientation to Exercise, 0.74 for Self Loathing, 0.75 for Weight Reduction, 0.78 for Identity, 0.76 for Competition). The alpha value for the total score was 0.92. Concurrent validity was indicated by the high correlation between the total EOQ score and ratings of regular exercise (0.39; p < 0.0001), strenuous exercise (0.34; p < 0.0001), and exercise investment (0.57; p < 0.0001). The total EOQ was calculated by taking the mean of scores for the 27 items. These ratings were highly correlated to individual factor scores for ®ve of the six factors, thus supporting the validity of this scale. The individual factor scores were calculated by taking the mean of scores of the items that loaded highly on the same factor. As described above, no item had a high loading on more than one factor, so each item was included in only one factor score, based on the factor solutions shown in Table 1. Only the score for Factor 3 ``Self Loathing'' was not related to any of the exercise measures. Highest factor scores were obtained for Factor 4 ``Weight Reduction'' (mean = 3.82) and Factor 1 ``Self Control'' (mean = 3.65), and Factor 2 ``Orientation'' and Factor 3 ``Self Loathing'' had the lowest ratings (Table 2). EOQ total responses and individual factor responses were compared between the two largest groups, college students and members of the jury pool. The student group was much younger (mean age = 24) as compared to a mean age of 43 for the jurors. Seventy-six percent of the student group, compared to 9% of the jurors, were either in late adolescence or early adulthood (24 years or younger). EOQ ratings were examined separately for each sex. Only one signi®cant di€erence was found among females, with students scoring higher on Factor 5 ``Identity'' [t(116) = 1.94; p < 0.05] (Table 3). Several di€erences were found among males, as male students rated themselves higher on ``Self Control'' [t(84) = 2.56; p < 0.01], ``Self Loathing'' [t(71) = 3.52; p < 0.001], ``Competition'' [t(88) = 3.90; p < 0.0001] and total EOQ score [t(87) = 2.88; p < 0.01] than male jurors. Sex di€erences were found for two factors, as females scored higher on ``Weight Reduction'' [t(212) = 3.9; p < 0.001] and males scored higher on Identity [T(212) = 3.0; p < 0.01].

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Table 2. Correlations of the 6 Factors of the EOQ with levels of exercise regularity, exercise intensity, and exercise investment levels

Factor 1 Self Control Factor 2 Orientation Factor 3 Self-Loathing Factor 4 Weight Reduction Factor 5 Identity Factor 6 Competition

Exercise regularity, N = 249

Exercise intensity, N = 221

Exercise investment, N = 226

0.491***

0.400***

0.604***

0.461***

0.282***

0.605***

ÿ 0.118

ÿ 0.060

ÿ 0.061

0.165**

0.0145*

0.256***

0.290***

0.340***

0.441***

0.166**

0.265***

0.332***

* Indicates the correlation is signi®cant at 0.05 level; ** Indicates the correlation is signi®cant at the 0.01 level; *** Indicates the correlation is signi®cant at the 0.0001 level. 4. Discussion

The results of our analyses suggest that the EOQ is a reliable measure. Construct validity was indicated, as each of the six factors was clearly interpretable, and no individual item loaded on more than one factor. Based on the exercise literature and the author's clinical experiences, each factor also measures important dimensions of exercise orientation. Concurrent validity was established for the EOQ, as the total score, as well as ®ve individual factor scores, correlate signi®cantly with ratings of level of regular exercise, strenuous exercise, and exercise investment. Factor 3, ``Self Loathing'' was the only factor for which concurrent validity was not established. This may be related to the fact that there were very few individuals who rated themselves as heavy exercisers. ``Self Loathing'' may attain signi®cance in a sample of heavy exercisers, perhaps functioning as a motivational force. Interestingly, age did not appear to be related to EOQ scores for females, with the exception of the younger group (college students) rating themselves higher in ``Identity''. Male students rated themselves higher than male jurors on 50% of the factors including ``Self Loathing''. That young men dislike themselves more than older men dislike themselves could re¯ect di€ering life circumstance or cultural pressure. This ®nding is consistent with recent data indicating an increase in eating disorders, body consciousness, concern about physical attractiveness, and use of plastic surgery and weight loss programs among males (Mishkind et al., 1986; Moore, 1993; Sykora et al., 1993; Striegel-Moore and Kearney-Cooke, 1994; Zerbe, 1996). These concerns have been endemic among women for at least two decades, so that older women in our sample would have been less likely to di€er from younger women. This is an important ®nding that warrants further investigation. Our data represent a non-clinical population (students, attendees of a professional conference, and members of a jury pool). It is not surprising that we did not ®nd a relationship between levels of exercise and self loathing as frequent exercise is commonly viewed as

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Table 3. Mean EOQ Factor Score comparisons between Students (N = 66) and Members of Jury Pool (58) by sex Mean Females: Students N = 66; Jurors N = 58 #1 Self control Students 3.69 Jurors 3.55 #2 Orientation Students 2.52 Jurors 2.54 # 3 Self Loathing Students 2.70 Jurors 2.43 # 4 Weight reduction Students 4.10 Jurors 4.01 # 5 Identity Students 2.65 Jurors 2.33 #6 Competition Students 3.25 Jurors 3.09 Males: Students N = 37; Jurors N = 53 #1 Self control Students 3.89 Jurors 3.41 #2 Orientation Students 2.60 Jurors 2.50 # 3 Self Loathing Students 2.90 Jurors 2.55 # 4 Weight reduction Students 3.61 Jurors 3.60 # 5 Identity Students 3.13 Jurors 2.72 #6 Competition Students 3.56 Jurors 2.87

Std.

T

df

0.88 0.89

0.85

120

0.75 0.86

0.15

114

0.90 0.90

1.6

118

0.67 0.93

0.30

102

0.87 0.95

1.94*

116

0.83 0.92

0.98

116

0.81 0.95

2.56**

85

0.76 0.81

0.58

81

0.90 0.90

3.52***

71

0.92 1.04

0.04

83

0.94 1.00

1.94

81

0.68 1.0

3.90***

88

Signi®cant at 0.05 = *; Signi®cant at 0.01 = **; Signi®cant at 0.001 = ***.

bene®cial in the general population. Obtaining data from a clinical sample and a sample of intensely trained athletes would be especially important for validating Factor 3, Self Loathing. The Self Loathing factor items contain self dissatisfaction as well as body dissatisfaction. Self dissatisfaction may resemble the neurotic perfectionism described by Eysenck and Eysenck (1991) and applied to the eating disorders by Mitzman et al. (1994) and Davis et al. (1993),

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Davis (in press). Body dissatisfaction is present to some degree in the majority of young women (Klemchuck et al., 1990) but when body dissatisfaction interacts with neurotic perfectionism, the clinical picture is that of an individual who rigidly adheres to impossibly high goals and who is greatly afraid of personal failure (Davis, in press). This complex has been associated with sub-clinical and clinical disorders such as anorexia nervosa and anorexia athletica (Beals and Manore, 1994) as well as obsessive-compulsive disorder. The results of this study are promising but further substantiation of the reliability and validity of the EOQ is needed. Test±retest reliability should be evaluated. The EOQ scores of eating disordered and obese individuals in treatment could demonstrate di€erences in total EOQ score and in the individual factors associated with pathology. Further validation could come from administering the EOQ to groups of athletes such as runners, cyclists, and paddlers. Those with high scores on the EOQ could be interviewed to determine personality characteristics and to evaluate the e€ect that exercising has had on the individual's social, work, and interpersonal relationships, as well as possible detrimental e€ects on the body. 5. Conclusion

The EOQ was found to be a reliable and valid measure of exercise orientation for a nonclinical sample. The total EOQ score, as well as ®ve of six factors, were found to be related to measure of exercise regularity, levels of strenuous exercise and exercise investment. While age did not seem to be a factor on EOQ ratings among females, male students presented higher EOQ ratings than jurors. This was so for the Self Loathing factor also. Future studies need to be completed with clinical samples and samples of elite athletes, to further investigate the psychometric properties of this scale and its usefulness in predicting clinical risk.

Appendix A. Exercise orientation questionnaire

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