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Measuring international students' understanding of concepts related to the use of library-based technology
Research Strategies 19 (2003) 57 – 74
Measuring international students’ understanding of concepts related to the use of library-based technology Philip C. Howzea,* and Dorothy M. Mooreb a
Southern Illinois University, Mailcode 6632, Carbondale, IL 62901-6632, USA Ablah Library, Wichita State University, 1845 Fairmount, Wichita, KS 67260, USA
b
Abstract The ACRL Instruction Section’s Committee on Instruction for Diverse Populations developed a multilingual glossary of terms related to the use of library-based technology. This study is a field test of the glossary. Methodology involved two parts, a survey of international students’ perceived knowledge of the terms, followed by a series of test questions to measure the degree of their actual knowledge. Degrees of knowledge ranged from not understanding enough English to know what a term meant, to knowing what a term meant to the degree of being able to explain it to others. The majority of students believed that such a glossary would be helpful when using the library, as well as other library materials presented in translation. D 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction The ACRL-IS Committee on Instruction for Diverse Populations developed a glossary for the purpose of assisting international students attending institutions of higher education in the US to understand certain terms related to the effective use of library-based technology. As the number of international students continues to grow at universities all over the country, libraries need to look at new ways of responding to the needs of these students. User-friendly guides, handouts, and self-directed tours greatly assist the international student to become familiar with American libraries. Materials that are both culturally and
* Corresponding author. Fax: +1-618-453-2492. E-mail address: [email protected] (P.C. Howze). 0734-3310/$ – see front matter D 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0734-3310(03)00005-3
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linguistically centered are woefully lacking. Few students understand concepts librarians take for granted in this technological boom, such as hyperlink or World Wide Web, to name but two. In order to develop student-centered materials that are effective tools for self-navigation of library-based technology, there is a need to ascertain the degree of understanding that the international student has. To this end, the purpose of this study is to report findings of international student understanding of technological concepts related to library use in academic contexts. While the production of the ACRL-IS glossary was a worthwhile exercise in itself, its usefulness depends on a perceived need for it by the intended user, namely the international student. It may be the case that, aside from linguistic barriers, other influences inhibit international students’ appreciation of the concepts. This study compares international students selfassessed comprehension of glossary terms with how well they actually understood the concepts presented.
2. Review of the literature Glossaries, handouts, translated materials, and tailored orientation sessions for international students, whether they understand English well or not, are all helpful ways to promote comfort for the international student who uses an academic library in America. Sally Wayman (1984) writes that the success or failure of the international student to adapt depends heavily on sensitivity of library staff to such variables as communication, learning styles, and expectations of and previous experiences in libraries. International students have unique obstacles to overcome in order to navigate efficiently in American libraries. Librarians do not often, as a means of communication, write standard terms on paper to help students understand, which is of particular importance to international students. Written glossaries are useful for Asians in particular, whose reading speed and oral comprehension, is one half that of the average American student (Wayman, 1984). Daniel Liestman and Connie Wu (1990) studied the issue of communication by reporting the results of library orientation sessions for international students offered to one group in English and to another group in their native language, Chinese. Pre- and posttest results indicated only a modest increase in scores for the group receiving library instruction in English, while the group receiving library instruction in Chinese increased their posttest scores dramatically. Studies such as this make a strong case for translated materials as a successful means of library orientation and instruction. Mary Beth Allen (1993) reminds us that librarians who work in higher education share an obligation to actively remove barriers to communication and learning. She states, ‘‘As a crucial component of serious scholarship at any level, the library is also responsible . . . for teaching newcomers the strategies and processes by which they can independently maneuver through the increasingly complex variety of bibliographic access systems’’ (p. 323). The introduction of these systems into the library warrants that we begin to isolate the technological terms associated with their use and to provide translations for them. Thus, the
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Committee on Instruction for Diverse Populations took on the task of developing a glossary. Howze was a committee member at that time. Kwasi Sarkodie-Mensah (1992), who chaired the ACRL-IS Committee on Instruction for Diverse Populations and contributed greatly to the conceptualization of the glossary, notes that, beyond developing instruction materials for translation, librarians should begin the process of ‘‘educating ourselves’’ to work effectively with international students by taking classes in the language and culture of another country. Sarkodie-Mensah states, ‘‘If we realized . . . how tiresome speaking in another language is, how much effort is required to use the jargon of a foreign language, librarians would grow more patient with, less frustrated at, and more receptive to patrons who may require more time at the desk, in the classroom, or any setting where requests for information are made’’ (p. 216). Poping Lin (1994), who also chaired the committee (after Sarkodie-Mensah’s term was completed), contributes to the ‘‘educate ourselves’’ notion through her article suggesting a ‘‘comparative approach’’ to library instruction that seeks to find that which is common between diverse cultures and integrate commonalties into library instruction. In other words, successful communication in the library instruction process depends, to a certain extent, on how the international student views the world — including the library. Ziming Liu (1993) also calls for greater efforts at improving communication, viz. translated materials for international students, in a study in which she found that the greatest difficulties international students face include language barriers, not being accustomed to open stacks, self-service, an unfamiliar classification system, the ‘‘idea’’ of reference, and preferring too many results to very few. Among Liu’s recommendations is the need for ‘‘glossaries of library technology and handouts on the library’s basic rules and procedures written in the students’ native languages, as well as in English’’ (p. 29). Allen Natowitz (1995) points out that aside from language barriers, there are cultural barriers as well, such as libraries being perceived as study halls, reluctance to ask for help, and the dynamics of shyness and authority. Nancy Meockel and Jenny Presnell (1995) also discuss cultural barriers, including head nodding — e.g., yes may really mean no, and a reluctance to ask questions so as not to appear ignorant. Donna Gilton (1994) suggests that what are perceived as linguistic and cultural barriers may be culture shock, compounded by library anxiety. Through all of this, however, as the Leistman and Wu study demonstrates, it is the development of translated materials, including the glossary, which may be most helpful in promoting library use and understanding where librarian–student interaction becomes problematic.
3. Methodology For this study, an instrument was developed, entitled The International Student Survey of Library Terms. The instrument was in two parts, a survey of international students perceived knowledge of the terms used in the glossary itself (Items 1–44), and a series of test questions to measure the degree of their actual knowledge (Items 45–87). Both parts are presented as appendices at the end of this article. In addition to the two parts, students were asked to
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provide demographic information and to indicate whether they were interested in certain library services aimed at the international student population (Items 88–112), which were not included for use in the findings. A total of 153 international students in the Intensive English laboratory course at Wichita State University completed the questionnaire. This sample represented the seven sections of incoming international students at Wichita State for whom English was not their native language and who had not yet taken the TOEFL, or who had taken the TOEFL and scored under 600 required to be admitted to the university. Of the 153 respondents, 150 surveys were usable and constituted the actual sample size (N). Moore proctored the instrument in each of the seven laboratory sections that met at different times on the same day. The opportunity to conduct this study resulted from library instruction sessions Moore taught for each lab section. Students were told to read the instruction page and to circle the letter that best described their understanding of the concepts presented in Items 1–44, the self-rating part of the survey. The following choices were given: A. means I know this very well. I understand why it is important when using the library. I would be able to explain this term to another student. B. means I know this term. I think I understand why it is important to know when using the library. I think I would be able to explain this term to another student. C. means I have some knowledge of this term as written. I do not think I would feel comfortable explaining this term to another student. D. means I do not know this term. I do not understand the concept as written and I would not be able to explain it to another student. E. means I do not understand enough English to understand this term. Students were then given Items 45–87, the second part of the instrument to measure actual knowledge of the same terms presented in Items 1–44. Actual knowledge questions were based on concepts specific to Wichita State University Libraries taught during the library instruction sessions, in addition to students’ personal knowledge of terms presented in the glossary. For questions 45–87, students were told to circle the response that best described the terms. Students were also told not to answer any of the questions from 45–87 for which they had no understanding. The intent of this methodology was to measure the difference, if any, between self-reported understanding and actual knowledge of terms listed in the glossary. Individual items were not measured; comparisons were drawn on total group response in both the selfrating and actual knowledge parts of the instrument. Questions for which no response was given in Items 45–87 were defaulted to choice E, because of the proctor’s instruction not to answer items for which students had no understanding. The student self-rating profile for Items 1–44 was established by graphing the frequency of response levels, using A through E. The student self-rating profile (Table 1) was then compared with the actual knowledge group profile for Items 45–87 (Table 2).
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Table 1 Student self-rating profile for Items 1 – 44 N = 150 f (a1) = 27 f (b1) = 36 f (c1) = 42 f (d1) = 35 f (e1) = 10
The actual knowledge profile (Table 2) was identified by graphing the frequency of group scores, expressed as standard proficiency percentages (A = 0.90 correct; B = 0.80 correct; C = 0.70 correct; D = 0.60 correct; and E = 0.50 correct). The basis of comparison was total group performance in each part, and not on the pre- and posttests of individual respondents.
4. Findings The student self-rating profile frequencies are represented in Table 1. The student actual knowledge profile frequencies are represented in Table 2. These frequencies were quantified by taking the 43 questions (Items 45–87) and multiplying them by 2.14 so that the test section was calculated on a 100-point scale for the group. Actual raw scores ranged from 77.04 to 17.12. A 22.96 curve was invoked to accommodate the expression of frequency. It is also important to note that many students scoring in the 90th percentile answered the higher taxonomic questions correctly, while making errors on questions lower on the taxonomic scale. With the exception of the middle of the curve in which perceived knowledge and actual knowledge at taxonomic level C were similar in both profiles, the most important findings of this study were that (1) the frequency of those who self-reported the highest levels of comprehension (A and B) for Items 1–44 decreased significantly when examined in Items 45–87; (2) the frequency of those who self-reported the lowest working level of comprehension (D) for Items 1–44 increased when examined in Items 45–87; and (3) the frequency of those who self-reported no comprehension at all (E) increased when examined in Items
Table 2 Student actual knowledge profile, Items 45 – 87 N = 150 f (a2) = 10 f (b2) = 23 f (c2) = 43 f (d2) = 39 f (e2) = 35
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Fig. 1. Profile comparison, student self-rating, and student actual knowledge.
45–87. This could be a result of the respondents’ selection of choice E to indicate ‘no answer’ as requested by the proctor. The researchers found that there was a significant disparity between student self-reporting of concept understanding and student scores on the taxonomic portion of the instrument (Fig. 1). Strong majority of the respondents agreed, when queried by the proctor, that a multilingual glossary would be helpful to them.
5. Discussion It is important to note that the researchers encountered certain instrument design issues that were not fully resolved at the time of its administration. First, in the matter of whether to present instructions and Items 1–44 in the first or second person, the first person singular was chosen in an attempt to avoid linguistic confusion so often found in well-intentioned library guides for international students. ‘‘I’’ statements are often more easily conjugated, mentally, and thus more easily translated, than ‘‘you’’ statements, where singular and plural usage may not fare as well in cognitive translation. Second, in Items 45–87, the researchers attempted to present a range of taxonomic markers within this cluster similar to the response choices (A) through (E) presented for Items 1–44. For example, (A) was a choice of high understanding, reflected in the ability to explain the concept to another person by way of demonstration and/or illustration, if
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necessary. (B) was a choice of understanding, reflected in the ability to demonstrate concept knowledge. (C) was a choice of learning, reflected in the ability to recall the definition of the term from one’s short-term memory. (D) was a choice of uncertainty, demonstrated by whether one could mentally translate the term effectively from English into one’s native language. (E) was a choice of default provided to prevent guessing which undermines the validity of other choices. All taxonomic levels were determined by aggregating raw scores. Third, the definitions presented in Items 1–44 may lack clarity and accuracy. Why the quest for accuracy by a group of librarians often leads to lack of clarity, or at least simplicity, is unclear, whether designing materials for translation to benefit international students or library instruction materials for freshman seminars. Still, the committee labored with a sincere sympathy for international students, as well as for the complexity of academic libraries in the United States.
6. Implications The disparity between perceived understanding and actual understanding is indicative of a potential perception on the part of the respondents that their understanding must be at a certain level in order not to appear ignorant or less capable to use the library than American students. The findings also suggest the need to integrate both library research and terminology into the Intensive English course. Early exposure to the library and its resources may help to interrupt international student’s misconceptions and/or insecurities about the library and promote comfort with the library research process. No written tool will replace the need for human interaction; library programs specifically geared to international students which take into account cultural and linguistic differences and are empathetic in approach will do much to promote comfort in this population. It is vital that librarians understand how international students see the whole academic experience, as strangers in a foreign country. How these students see our work and us will mean much when we develop materials such as this glossary to respond to their needs as library users.
7. Conclusion This study reports the findings of an instrument designed to measure both perceived and actual understanding of technology-based terms common to the academic library in a sample of international students. There was a significant disparity between self-reported or perceived understanding and actual understanding of the terms presented in the glossary. This disparity suggests the need for further investigation. It may be that librarians need to speak slower, not louder. It also may be that librarians use terminology that the user does not understand. In order to save face, many international students may say they understand, when in truth they may be more confused than ever. In order to develop effective strategies for improving the quality of interaction between librarians and international students in the information-seeking milieu, there is a need to first
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look at whether active communication is taking place. Language is enough of a barrier to the nonnative speaker, without the additional layers of jargon and the vocabulary of technology. Added to linguistic and cultural barriers may be library anxiety. The development of translated materials may be helpful in promoting library use and understanding, including a translated glossary of terms.
Appendix A. International Student Survey of Glossary Terms, taken from the ‘‘Multilingual Glossary of Terms Related to the Use of Library-Based Technology’’ developed by the ACRL-IS Committee on Instruction for Diverse Populations (Questions 1–44) Instructions: Provided below is a list of library terms. Read each term and its definition. Using the following set of responses circle the answer which best describes your understanding of the term. A
means I know this term very well. I understand why it is important when using the library. I would be able to explain this term to another student.
B
means I know this term. I think I understand why it is important to know this term when using the library.
C
means I have some knowledge of this term as written. I do not think I would feel comfortable explaining this term to another student.
D
means I do not know this term. I do not understand the concept as written and I would not be able to explain it to another student.
E
means I do not understand enough English to understand this term.
1. CD-ROM (COMPACT DISK READ ONLY MEMORY). An index or reference work that is stored on a compact disc and accessed through a computer. 2. CIRCULATION. The circulation desk is the place in the library where you check out, renew, and return library materials. You also place holds, or report an item missing from the shelves. 3. CITATION. A reference or footnote to a book, a magazine or journal article, or another source. It contains all the information necessary to identify and locate the work, including the author, title, publisher, date, volume, issue number, and pages. 4. CONTROLLED VOCABULARY. The terms used in searching a specific database.
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5. DATABASE. A collection of information stored in an electronic format that can be searched by a computer. 6. DESCRIPTOR. A word that describes the subject of an article or book; used in many computer databases. 7. DOWNLOAD. 1) To transfer information from a computer to a computer disk. 2) To transfer information from one computer to another computer using a modem. 8. GOPHER. A menu-driven computer system that allows you to access information on the Internet. 9. HOLD. A ‘hold’ guarantees that a book checked out to another will be saved for you when it is returned. Place a ‘hold’ on any regularly circulating library materials through the circulation or check-out desk. 10. HOLDINGS. The materials owned by a library. 11. HYPERLINK. A predefined linkage between associated concepts or chunks of information, such as words or graphics in a document that lead the reader to the related text when they are selected. 12. HYPERMEDIA. The use of various forms of information, such as text, graphics, video and voice, as elements in a hypertext system. 13. HYPERTEXT. The dynamic linking of associated concepts or chunks of information among and within documents, so that the reader can easily move from one concept to another related concept. An example could be indexes, footnotes, margin comments that are created by each reader as a unique path through text materials in a traditionally printed book or and electronic publication. 14. ICON. A small symbol on a computer screen that represents a computer operation or data file. 15. INDEX. 1) A list of names or topics usually found at the end of a publication, which directs you to the pages where the names or topics are discussed. 2) A printed or electronic publication which lists references to periodical articles or books by subject and/or author. 16. INTERLIBRARY LOAN (ILL). A service that allows you to borrow materials from other libraries through your own library.
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17. INTERLIBRARY USE. A service that allows you to borrow materials your library does NOT own by borrowing them from other libraries. 18. INTERNET. The international network of computer networks which provides three basic services; 1) electronic mail or E-mail, and on-line message service between computer users. 2) remote logon which is the ability to connect to and use services on computer at other sites. 3) file transfer protocol or FTP, which allows users to move files from one computer to another. 19. JOURNAL. A publication, issued on a regular basis, which contains scholarly research published as articles, papers, research reports, or technical papers. 20. KEYWORD. A significant or memorable word or term in the title, abstract or text of an item that indicates its subject. 21. LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN). A direct connection of computers by some type of cable. 22. MAGAZINE. A publication, issued on a regular basis, containing popular articles, written and illustrated in a less technical manner than articles found in a journal. 23. MEDIA. The means of communication, as radio and television, newspapers, and magazines that reach or influence people widely. In libraries, the term is used to describe non-print materials such as videos and music. 24. MENU. On computers menu refers to a list of options available to you. 25. MICROFORMS. A greatly reduced in size photographic reproduction of printed material on reel to reel (microfilm) or film cards (microfiche) that can be read with a microform reader/printer. 26. MODEM. Computer hardware that connects our computer to other computers through a telephone line and appropriate software. 27. MOSAIC. The multimedia Internet that hyperlinks information and files. 28. MOUSE. A device that allows you to move and click the cursor on your computer screen for different functions. 29. MULTIMEDIA. A system of computer presentations which allows you to see and hear information through access to videotapes, and videodiscs.
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30. NETWORK. A communications system made up of computers which are connected. This arrangement lets your computer talk to another computer. 31. ONLINE CATALOG. A computerized system which you can search by using search keys such as author, title, subject or call number to find out what a library owns. Online catalogs will display the call number and the location of the material. 32. OPERATOR. A search modifier used to refine the relationship between your search term(s). The three major ones are AND, OR and NOT. 33. PERIODICAL. Material published regularly such as magazines, journals, and newspapers. 34. RECALL. A request for the return of library material before due. 35. RESERVE. A library service that manages the circulation of certain required course readings selected by the instructors or professors. 36. SEARCH STATEMENT/SEARCH QUERY. Terms or phrases with operators that you enter into the online catalog or electronic index to search. 37. SERIAL. A library term for periodicals. 38. STACKS. The area where library collections are shelved. 39. SUBJECT HEADING. A term or phrase used in indexes and library catalogs to group together materials on the same topic. Also called controlled vocabulary, descriptors, or thesaurus terms. 40. TERMINAL. One station that is part of a computer system. 41. THESAURUS. A list of categorized terms, such as synonyms and related words. 42. UPLOAD. To transfer data from your system or microcomputer to a remote computer system or a larger computer system. 43. WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN). Local area networks connected together by using telephones or other types of communications equipment. 44. WORLD WIDE WEB. Network of information, as part of the internet, that includes text, graphic, sound and moving images. Also known as the web or www or w3.
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Appendix B. Actual knowledge items based on glossary terms and library instruction sessions (Questions 45–87) Answer the following. Do not turn back to previous pages. 45. Which of the following are DATABASES? A. LUIS B. COMPENDEX C. PSYCHLIT D. ALL of the Above 46. CIRCULATION is where you would: a. Ask for Reference b. Ask for copies of materials on Reserve c. Check out books d. Ask for Interlibrary Loan (ILL) 47. Does a citation contain the title of the magazine or book? Yes
No
48. Do you use a controlled vocabulary when searching on Compendex? Yes
No
49. An example of a descriptor would be endangered species. Yes
No
50. Are you able to download on the LAN terminals? Yes
No
51. A menu-driven computer system that allows you to access information on the Internet is called: a. World Wide Web b. Gopher c. Internet d. None of the Above
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52. What service guarantees that a book checked out to another will be saved for you when it is returned? a. Reference b. Hold c. Reserve d. Interlibrary Loan (ILL) 53. The materials owned by a library are called holdings. Yes
No
54. What is a predefined linkage between associated concepts or chunks of information that lead a reader to related texts called? a. Hypertext b. Hypermedia c. Hyperlink d. None of the Above 55. Does Hypermedia include such forms as texts, graphics, video and voice elements? Yes
No
56. What is it called when you have a dynamic linking of associated concepts or chunks of information among and within documents, so that the reader can easily move from one concept to another related one? a. Hypermedia b. Hyperlink c. Hypertext d. Indexes 57. Is a small symbol on a computer screen that represents a computer operation or data file called an icon? Yes
No
58. Can an index be in both electronic and print format? Yes
No
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59. What is the service called that allows you to borrow materials from other libraries through WSU? a. Hold b. Reserve c. Recall d. Interlibrary Loan (ILL) 60. Does the Interlibrary Loan (ILL) service allow you to borrow books that your library does not own? Yes
No
61. Does the Internet include e-mail, remote access and file transfer protocol? Yes
No
62. Does a journal contain scholarly research, such as articles, papers, research reports and technical papers? Yes
No
63. Can a keyword be found any place other than in the title, abstract or text of an item? Yes
No
64. Are a bank of computers NOT directly connected by some type of cable called a local area network (LAN)? Yes
No
65. Does a magazine contain scholarly research articles? Yes
No
66. What term is used by libraries to describe non-print recordings and CD’s? a. Microfilm b. Media c. Microfiche d. Videos
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67. Does a menu provide a list of options available to you? Yes
No
68. What are greatly reduced in size photographic reproductions of printed materials called? a. Media b. Microfilm c. Microfiche d. Microforms 69. Is it necessary to have a phone line and appropriate software in order for a modem to work? Yes
No
70. Can mosaic kill information and files? Yes
No
71. What is the device that allows you to move and click the cursor on your computer screen for different functions called? a. Mouse b. Dog c. Cat d. Goldfish 72. Does multimedia provide access to information through videotapes and videodiscs? Yes
No
73. Can a communications system made up of connected computers talk to each other? Yes
No
74. What is the computerized system which you can search by using search keys such as author, title, or call number called? a. Lan b. Wan c. Online Catalog d. Web
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75. Is a search modifier which is used to define the relationship between your search terms called an operator? Yes
No
76. What is the material that is published regularly called? a. Magazine b. Periodicals c. Journals d. Serials 77. A request for the return of library material before the due date is called a recall. Yes
No
78. What is the library service that manages the circulation of certain required course readings selected by instructors or professor called? a. Circulation b. Reference c. Reserve d. None of the Above 79. Terms or phrases with operators that you enter into the online catalog or electronic index to search by are called the search statement or the search query. True
False
80. What is the library term for periodicals? (freebie) a. Serials b. Magazines c. Periodicals d. Journals 81. Is the area where the library collections are shelved called the stacks? Yes
No
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82. A term or phrase used in indexes and library catalogs to group together materials on the same topic are called? a. Controlled Vocabulary b. Descriptors c. Subject Headings d. All of the Above 83. A station that is part of the computer system is called a terminal. Yes
No
84. A list of categorized terms, such as synonyms and related words is called a thesaurus. Yes
No
85. You are uploading when you transfer data from your system or microcomputer to a remote computer or a larger computer system. True
False
86. Are local area networks connected together by using telephones or other types of communications equipment known as wide area networks or WAN? Yes
No
87. A network of information, as part of the Internet, that includes text, graphic, sound and moving images is known as: a. Web b. W3 c. WWW d. All of the Above
References Allen, M. B. (1993, July). International students in academic libraries: a user survey. College & Research Libraries, 54, 323 – 333. Gilton, D. L. (1994, September). A world of difference: preparing for information literacy instruction for diverse groups. Multicultural Review, 3, 54 – 62. Liestman, D., & Wu, C. (1990, Fall). Library orientation for international students in their native language. Research Strategies, 8, 191 – 196. Lin, P. (1994, Summer). Library instruction for culturally diverse populations. Research Strategies, 12, 168 – 173.
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Liu, Z. (1993, January). Difficulties and characteristics of students from developing countries in using American libraries. College & Research Libraries, 54, 25 – 31. Moeckel, N., & Presnell, J. (1995). Recognizing, understanding, and responding: a program model of library instruction services for international students. Reference Librarian, 51/52, 309 – 327. Natowitz, A. (1995, Winter). International students in US academic libraries: recent concerns and trends. Research Strategies, 13, 4 – 16. Sarkodie-Mensah, K. (1992, September). Dealing with international students in a multicultural era. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 18, 214 – 216. Wayman, S. G. (1984, January). The international student in your library: coping with cultural and language barriers. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 9, 336 – 341.
Measuring international students’ understanding of concepts related to the use of library-based technology Philip C. Howzea,* and Dorothy M. Mooreb a
Southern Illinois University, Mailcode 6632, Carbondale, IL 62901-6632, USA Ablah Library, Wichita State University, 1845 Fairmount, Wichita, KS 67260, USA
b
Abstract The ACRL Instruction Section’s Committee on Instruction for Diverse Populations developed a multilingual glossary of terms related to the use of library-based technology. This study is a field test of the glossary. Methodology involved two parts, a survey of international students’ perceived knowledge of the terms, followed by a series of test questions to measure the degree of their actual knowledge. Degrees of knowledge ranged from not understanding enough English to know what a term meant, to knowing what a term meant to the degree of being able to explain it to others. The majority of students believed that such a glossary would be helpful when using the library, as well as other library materials presented in translation. D 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction The ACRL-IS Committee on Instruction for Diverse Populations developed a glossary for the purpose of assisting international students attending institutions of higher education in the US to understand certain terms related to the effective use of library-based technology. As the number of international students continues to grow at universities all over the country, libraries need to look at new ways of responding to the needs of these students. User-friendly guides, handouts, and self-directed tours greatly assist the international student to become familiar with American libraries. Materials that are both culturally and
* Corresponding author. Fax: +1-618-453-2492. E-mail address: [email protected] (P.C. Howze). 0734-3310/$ – see front matter D 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0734-3310(03)00005-3
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linguistically centered are woefully lacking. Few students understand concepts librarians take for granted in this technological boom, such as hyperlink or World Wide Web, to name but two. In order to develop student-centered materials that are effective tools for self-navigation of library-based technology, there is a need to ascertain the degree of understanding that the international student has. To this end, the purpose of this study is to report findings of international student understanding of technological concepts related to library use in academic contexts. While the production of the ACRL-IS glossary was a worthwhile exercise in itself, its usefulness depends on a perceived need for it by the intended user, namely the international student. It may be the case that, aside from linguistic barriers, other influences inhibit international students’ appreciation of the concepts. This study compares international students selfassessed comprehension of glossary terms with how well they actually understood the concepts presented.
2. Review of the literature Glossaries, handouts, translated materials, and tailored orientation sessions for international students, whether they understand English well or not, are all helpful ways to promote comfort for the international student who uses an academic library in America. Sally Wayman (1984) writes that the success or failure of the international student to adapt depends heavily on sensitivity of library staff to such variables as communication, learning styles, and expectations of and previous experiences in libraries. International students have unique obstacles to overcome in order to navigate efficiently in American libraries. Librarians do not often, as a means of communication, write standard terms on paper to help students understand, which is of particular importance to international students. Written glossaries are useful for Asians in particular, whose reading speed and oral comprehension, is one half that of the average American student (Wayman, 1984). Daniel Liestman and Connie Wu (1990) studied the issue of communication by reporting the results of library orientation sessions for international students offered to one group in English and to another group in their native language, Chinese. Pre- and posttest results indicated only a modest increase in scores for the group receiving library instruction in English, while the group receiving library instruction in Chinese increased their posttest scores dramatically. Studies such as this make a strong case for translated materials as a successful means of library orientation and instruction. Mary Beth Allen (1993) reminds us that librarians who work in higher education share an obligation to actively remove barriers to communication and learning. She states, ‘‘As a crucial component of serious scholarship at any level, the library is also responsible . . . for teaching newcomers the strategies and processes by which they can independently maneuver through the increasingly complex variety of bibliographic access systems’’ (p. 323). The introduction of these systems into the library warrants that we begin to isolate the technological terms associated with their use and to provide translations for them. Thus, the
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Committee on Instruction for Diverse Populations took on the task of developing a glossary. Howze was a committee member at that time. Kwasi Sarkodie-Mensah (1992), who chaired the ACRL-IS Committee on Instruction for Diverse Populations and contributed greatly to the conceptualization of the glossary, notes that, beyond developing instruction materials for translation, librarians should begin the process of ‘‘educating ourselves’’ to work effectively with international students by taking classes in the language and culture of another country. Sarkodie-Mensah states, ‘‘If we realized . . . how tiresome speaking in another language is, how much effort is required to use the jargon of a foreign language, librarians would grow more patient with, less frustrated at, and more receptive to patrons who may require more time at the desk, in the classroom, or any setting where requests for information are made’’ (p. 216). Poping Lin (1994), who also chaired the committee (after Sarkodie-Mensah’s term was completed), contributes to the ‘‘educate ourselves’’ notion through her article suggesting a ‘‘comparative approach’’ to library instruction that seeks to find that which is common between diverse cultures and integrate commonalties into library instruction. In other words, successful communication in the library instruction process depends, to a certain extent, on how the international student views the world — including the library. Ziming Liu (1993) also calls for greater efforts at improving communication, viz. translated materials for international students, in a study in which she found that the greatest difficulties international students face include language barriers, not being accustomed to open stacks, self-service, an unfamiliar classification system, the ‘‘idea’’ of reference, and preferring too many results to very few. Among Liu’s recommendations is the need for ‘‘glossaries of library technology and handouts on the library’s basic rules and procedures written in the students’ native languages, as well as in English’’ (p. 29). Allen Natowitz (1995) points out that aside from language barriers, there are cultural barriers as well, such as libraries being perceived as study halls, reluctance to ask for help, and the dynamics of shyness and authority. Nancy Meockel and Jenny Presnell (1995) also discuss cultural barriers, including head nodding — e.g., yes may really mean no, and a reluctance to ask questions so as not to appear ignorant. Donna Gilton (1994) suggests that what are perceived as linguistic and cultural barriers may be culture shock, compounded by library anxiety. Through all of this, however, as the Leistman and Wu study demonstrates, it is the development of translated materials, including the glossary, which may be most helpful in promoting library use and understanding where librarian–student interaction becomes problematic.
3. Methodology For this study, an instrument was developed, entitled The International Student Survey of Library Terms. The instrument was in two parts, a survey of international students perceived knowledge of the terms used in the glossary itself (Items 1–44), and a series of test questions to measure the degree of their actual knowledge (Items 45–87). Both parts are presented as appendices at the end of this article. In addition to the two parts, students were asked to
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provide demographic information and to indicate whether they were interested in certain library services aimed at the international student population (Items 88–112), which were not included for use in the findings. A total of 153 international students in the Intensive English laboratory course at Wichita State University completed the questionnaire. This sample represented the seven sections of incoming international students at Wichita State for whom English was not their native language and who had not yet taken the TOEFL, or who had taken the TOEFL and scored under 600 required to be admitted to the university. Of the 153 respondents, 150 surveys were usable and constituted the actual sample size (N). Moore proctored the instrument in each of the seven laboratory sections that met at different times on the same day. The opportunity to conduct this study resulted from library instruction sessions Moore taught for each lab section. Students were told to read the instruction page and to circle the letter that best described their understanding of the concepts presented in Items 1–44, the self-rating part of the survey. The following choices were given: A. means I know this very well. I understand why it is important when using the library. I would be able to explain this term to another student. B. means I know this term. I think I understand why it is important to know when using the library. I think I would be able to explain this term to another student. C. means I have some knowledge of this term as written. I do not think I would feel comfortable explaining this term to another student. D. means I do not know this term. I do not understand the concept as written and I would not be able to explain it to another student. E. means I do not understand enough English to understand this term. Students were then given Items 45–87, the second part of the instrument to measure actual knowledge of the same terms presented in Items 1–44. Actual knowledge questions were based on concepts specific to Wichita State University Libraries taught during the library instruction sessions, in addition to students’ personal knowledge of terms presented in the glossary. For questions 45–87, students were told to circle the response that best described the terms. Students were also told not to answer any of the questions from 45–87 for which they had no understanding. The intent of this methodology was to measure the difference, if any, between self-reported understanding and actual knowledge of terms listed in the glossary. Individual items were not measured; comparisons were drawn on total group response in both the selfrating and actual knowledge parts of the instrument. Questions for which no response was given in Items 45–87 were defaulted to choice E, because of the proctor’s instruction not to answer items for which students had no understanding. The student self-rating profile for Items 1–44 was established by graphing the frequency of response levels, using A through E. The student self-rating profile (Table 1) was then compared with the actual knowledge group profile for Items 45–87 (Table 2).
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Table 1 Student self-rating profile for Items 1 – 44 N = 150 f (a1) = 27 f (b1) = 36 f (c1) = 42 f (d1) = 35 f (e1) = 10
The actual knowledge profile (Table 2) was identified by graphing the frequency of group scores, expressed as standard proficiency percentages (A = 0.90 correct; B = 0.80 correct; C = 0.70 correct; D = 0.60 correct; and E = 0.50 correct). The basis of comparison was total group performance in each part, and not on the pre- and posttests of individual respondents.
4. Findings The student self-rating profile frequencies are represented in Table 1. The student actual knowledge profile frequencies are represented in Table 2. These frequencies were quantified by taking the 43 questions (Items 45–87) and multiplying them by 2.14 so that the test section was calculated on a 100-point scale for the group. Actual raw scores ranged from 77.04 to 17.12. A 22.96 curve was invoked to accommodate the expression of frequency. It is also important to note that many students scoring in the 90th percentile answered the higher taxonomic questions correctly, while making errors on questions lower on the taxonomic scale. With the exception of the middle of the curve in which perceived knowledge and actual knowledge at taxonomic level C were similar in both profiles, the most important findings of this study were that (1) the frequency of those who self-reported the highest levels of comprehension (A and B) for Items 1–44 decreased significantly when examined in Items 45–87; (2) the frequency of those who self-reported the lowest working level of comprehension (D) for Items 1–44 increased when examined in Items 45–87; and (3) the frequency of those who self-reported no comprehension at all (E) increased when examined in Items
Table 2 Student actual knowledge profile, Items 45 – 87 N = 150 f (a2) = 10 f (b2) = 23 f (c2) = 43 f (d2) = 39 f (e2) = 35
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Fig. 1. Profile comparison, student self-rating, and student actual knowledge.
45–87. This could be a result of the respondents’ selection of choice E to indicate ‘no answer’ as requested by the proctor. The researchers found that there was a significant disparity between student self-reporting of concept understanding and student scores on the taxonomic portion of the instrument (Fig. 1). Strong majority of the respondents agreed, when queried by the proctor, that a multilingual glossary would be helpful to them.
5. Discussion It is important to note that the researchers encountered certain instrument design issues that were not fully resolved at the time of its administration. First, in the matter of whether to present instructions and Items 1–44 in the first or second person, the first person singular was chosen in an attempt to avoid linguistic confusion so often found in well-intentioned library guides for international students. ‘‘I’’ statements are often more easily conjugated, mentally, and thus more easily translated, than ‘‘you’’ statements, where singular and plural usage may not fare as well in cognitive translation. Second, in Items 45–87, the researchers attempted to present a range of taxonomic markers within this cluster similar to the response choices (A) through (E) presented for Items 1–44. For example, (A) was a choice of high understanding, reflected in the ability to explain the concept to another person by way of demonstration and/or illustration, if
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necessary. (B) was a choice of understanding, reflected in the ability to demonstrate concept knowledge. (C) was a choice of learning, reflected in the ability to recall the definition of the term from one’s short-term memory. (D) was a choice of uncertainty, demonstrated by whether one could mentally translate the term effectively from English into one’s native language. (E) was a choice of default provided to prevent guessing which undermines the validity of other choices. All taxonomic levels were determined by aggregating raw scores. Third, the definitions presented in Items 1–44 may lack clarity and accuracy. Why the quest for accuracy by a group of librarians often leads to lack of clarity, or at least simplicity, is unclear, whether designing materials for translation to benefit international students or library instruction materials for freshman seminars. Still, the committee labored with a sincere sympathy for international students, as well as for the complexity of academic libraries in the United States.
6. Implications The disparity between perceived understanding and actual understanding is indicative of a potential perception on the part of the respondents that their understanding must be at a certain level in order not to appear ignorant or less capable to use the library than American students. The findings also suggest the need to integrate both library research and terminology into the Intensive English course. Early exposure to the library and its resources may help to interrupt international student’s misconceptions and/or insecurities about the library and promote comfort with the library research process. No written tool will replace the need for human interaction; library programs specifically geared to international students which take into account cultural and linguistic differences and are empathetic in approach will do much to promote comfort in this population. It is vital that librarians understand how international students see the whole academic experience, as strangers in a foreign country. How these students see our work and us will mean much when we develop materials such as this glossary to respond to their needs as library users.
7. Conclusion This study reports the findings of an instrument designed to measure both perceived and actual understanding of technology-based terms common to the academic library in a sample of international students. There was a significant disparity between self-reported or perceived understanding and actual understanding of the terms presented in the glossary. This disparity suggests the need for further investigation. It may be that librarians need to speak slower, not louder. It also may be that librarians use terminology that the user does not understand. In order to save face, many international students may say they understand, when in truth they may be more confused than ever. In order to develop effective strategies for improving the quality of interaction between librarians and international students in the information-seeking milieu, there is a need to first
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look at whether active communication is taking place. Language is enough of a barrier to the nonnative speaker, without the additional layers of jargon and the vocabulary of technology. Added to linguistic and cultural barriers may be library anxiety. The development of translated materials may be helpful in promoting library use and understanding, including a translated glossary of terms.
Appendix A. International Student Survey of Glossary Terms, taken from the ‘‘Multilingual Glossary of Terms Related to the Use of Library-Based Technology’’ developed by the ACRL-IS Committee on Instruction for Diverse Populations (Questions 1–44) Instructions: Provided below is a list of library terms. Read each term and its definition. Using the following set of responses circle the answer which best describes your understanding of the term. A
means I know this term very well. I understand why it is important when using the library. I would be able to explain this term to another student.
B
means I know this term. I think I understand why it is important to know this term when using the library.
C
means I have some knowledge of this term as written. I do not think I would feel comfortable explaining this term to another student.
D
means I do not know this term. I do not understand the concept as written and I would not be able to explain it to another student.
E
means I do not understand enough English to understand this term.
1. CD-ROM (COMPACT DISK READ ONLY MEMORY). An index or reference work that is stored on a compact disc and accessed through a computer. 2. CIRCULATION. The circulation desk is the place in the library where you check out, renew, and return library materials. You also place holds, or report an item missing from the shelves. 3. CITATION. A reference or footnote to a book, a magazine or journal article, or another source. It contains all the information necessary to identify and locate the work, including the author, title, publisher, date, volume, issue number, and pages. 4. CONTROLLED VOCABULARY. The terms used in searching a specific database.
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5. DATABASE. A collection of information stored in an electronic format that can be searched by a computer. 6. DESCRIPTOR. A word that describes the subject of an article or book; used in many computer databases. 7. DOWNLOAD. 1) To transfer information from a computer to a computer disk. 2) To transfer information from one computer to another computer using a modem. 8. GOPHER. A menu-driven computer system that allows you to access information on the Internet. 9. HOLD. A ‘hold’ guarantees that a book checked out to another will be saved for you when it is returned. Place a ‘hold’ on any regularly circulating library materials through the circulation or check-out desk. 10. HOLDINGS. The materials owned by a library. 11. HYPERLINK. A predefined linkage between associated concepts or chunks of information, such as words or graphics in a document that lead the reader to the related text when they are selected. 12. HYPERMEDIA. The use of various forms of information, such as text, graphics, video and voice, as elements in a hypertext system. 13. HYPERTEXT. The dynamic linking of associated concepts or chunks of information among and within documents, so that the reader can easily move from one concept to another related concept. An example could be indexes, footnotes, margin comments that are created by each reader as a unique path through text materials in a traditionally printed book or and electronic publication. 14. ICON. A small symbol on a computer screen that represents a computer operation or data file. 15. INDEX. 1) A list of names or topics usually found at the end of a publication, which directs you to the pages where the names or topics are discussed. 2) A printed or electronic publication which lists references to periodical articles or books by subject and/or author. 16. INTERLIBRARY LOAN (ILL). A service that allows you to borrow materials from other libraries through your own library.
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17. INTERLIBRARY USE. A service that allows you to borrow materials your library does NOT own by borrowing them from other libraries. 18. INTERNET. The international network of computer networks which provides three basic services; 1) electronic mail or E-mail, and on-line message service between computer users. 2) remote logon which is the ability to connect to and use services on computer at other sites. 3) file transfer protocol or FTP, which allows users to move files from one computer to another. 19. JOURNAL. A publication, issued on a regular basis, which contains scholarly research published as articles, papers, research reports, or technical papers. 20. KEYWORD. A significant or memorable word or term in the title, abstract or text of an item that indicates its subject. 21. LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN). A direct connection of computers by some type of cable. 22. MAGAZINE. A publication, issued on a regular basis, containing popular articles, written and illustrated in a less technical manner than articles found in a journal. 23. MEDIA. The means of communication, as radio and television, newspapers, and magazines that reach or influence people widely. In libraries, the term is used to describe non-print materials such as videos and music. 24. MENU. On computers menu refers to a list of options available to you. 25. MICROFORMS. A greatly reduced in size photographic reproduction of printed material on reel to reel (microfilm) or film cards (microfiche) that can be read with a microform reader/printer. 26. MODEM. Computer hardware that connects our computer to other computers through a telephone line and appropriate software. 27. MOSAIC. The multimedia Internet that hyperlinks information and files. 28. MOUSE. A device that allows you to move and click the cursor on your computer screen for different functions. 29. MULTIMEDIA. A system of computer presentations which allows you to see and hear information through access to videotapes, and videodiscs.
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30. NETWORK. A communications system made up of computers which are connected. This arrangement lets your computer talk to another computer. 31. ONLINE CATALOG. A computerized system which you can search by using search keys such as author, title, subject or call number to find out what a library owns. Online catalogs will display the call number and the location of the material. 32. OPERATOR. A search modifier used to refine the relationship between your search term(s). The three major ones are AND, OR and NOT. 33. PERIODICAL. Material published regularly such as magazines, journals, and newspapers. 34. RECALL. A request for the return of library material before due. 35. RESERVE. A library service that manages the circulation of certain required course readings selected by the instructors or professors. 36. SEARCH STATEMENT/SEARCH QUERY. Terms or phrases with operators that you enter into the online catalog or electronic index to search. 37. SERIAL. A library term for periodicals. 38. STACKS. The area where library collections are shelved. 39. SUBJECT HEADING. A term or phrase used in indexes and library catalogs to group together materials on the same topic. Also called controlled vocabulary, descriptors, or thesaurus terms. 40. TERMINAL. One station that is part of a computer system. 41. THESAURUS. A list of categorized terms, such as synonyms and related words. 42. UPLOAD. To transfer data from your system or microcomputer to a remote computer system or a larger computer system. 43. WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN). Local area networks connected together by using telephones or other types of communications equipment. 44. WORLD WIDE WEB. Network of information, as part of the internet, that includes text, graphic, sound and moving images. Also known as the web or www or w3.
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Appendix B. Actual knowledge items based on glossary terms and library instruction sessions (Questions 45–87) Answer the following. Do not turn back to previous pages. 45. Which of the following are DATABASES? A. LUIS B. COMPENDEX C. PSYCHLIT D. ALL of the Above 46. CIRCULATION is where you would: a. Ask for Reference b. Ask for copies of materials on Reserve c. Check out books d. Ask for Interlibrary Loan (ILL) 47. Does a citation contain the title of the magazine or book? Yes
No
48. Do you use a controlled vocabulary when searching on Compendex? Yes
No
49. An example of a descriptor would be endangered species. Yes
No
50. Are you able to download on the LAN terminals? Yes
No
51. A menu-driven computer system that allows you to access information on the Internet is called: a. World Wide Web b. Gopher c. Internet d. None of the Above
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52. What service guarantees that a book checked out to another will be saved for you when it is returned? a. Reference b. Hold c. Reserve d. Interlibrary Loan (ILL) 53. The materials owned by a library are called holdings. Yes
No
54. What is a predefined linkage between associated concepts or chunks of information that lead a reader to related texts called? a. Hypertext b. Hypermedia c. Hyperlink d. None of the Above 55. Does Hypermedia include such forms as texts, graphics, video and voice elements? Yes
No
56. What is it called when you have a dynamic linking of associated concepts or chunks of information among and within documents, so that the reader can easily move from one concept to another related one? a. Hypermedia b. Hyperlink c. Hypertext d. Indexes 57. Is a small symbol on a computer screen that represents a computer operation or data file called an icon? Yes
No
58. Can an index be in both electronic and print format? Yes
No
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59. What is the service called that allows you to borrow materials from other libraries through WSU? a. Hold b. Reserve c. Recall d. Interlibrary Loan (ILL) 60. Does the Interlibrary Loan (ILL) service allow you to borrow books that your library does not own? Yes
No
61. Does the Internet include e-mail, remote access and file transfer protocol? Yes
No
62. Does a journal contain scholarly research, such as articles, papers, research reports and technical papers? Yes
No
63. Can a keyword be found any place other than in the title, abstract or text of an item? Yes
No
64. Are a bank of computers NOT directly connected by some type of cable called a local area network (LAN)? Yes
No
65. Does a magazine contain scholarly research articles? Yes
No
66. What term is used by libraries to describe non-print recordings and CD’s? a. Microfilm b. Media c. Microfiche d. Videos
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67. Does a menu provide a list of options available to you? Yes
No
68. What are greatly reduced in size photographic reproductions of printed materials called? a. Media b. Microfilm c. Microfiche d. Microforms 69. Is it necessary to have a phone line and appropriate software in order for a modem to work? Yes
No
70. Can mosaic kill information and files? Yes
No
71. What is the device that allows you to move and click the cursor on your computer screen for different functions called? a. Mouse b. Dog c. Cat d. Goldfish 72. Does multimedia provide access to information through videotapes and videodiscs? Yes
No
73. Can a communications system made up of connected computers talk to each other? Yes
No
74. What is the computerized system which you can search by using search keys such as author, title, or call number called? a. Lan b. Wan c. Online Catalog d. Web
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75. Is a search modifier which is used to define the relationship between your search terms called an operator? Yes
No
76. What is the material that is published regularly called? a. Magazine b. Periodicals c. Journals d. Serials 77. A request for the return of library material before the due date is called a recall. Yes
No
78. What is the library service that manages the circulation of certain required course readings selected by instructors or professor called? a. Circulation b. Reference c. Reserve d. None of the Above 79. Terms or phrases with operators that you enter into the online catalog or electronic index to search by are called the search statement or the search query. True
False
80. What is the library term for periodicals? (freebie) a. Serials b. Magazines c. Periodicals d. Journals 81. Is the area where the library collections are shelved called the stacks? Yes
No
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82. A term or phrase used in indexes and library catalogs to group together materials on the same topic are called? a. Controlled Vocabulary b. Descriptors c. Subject Headings d. All of the Above 83. A station that is part of the computer system is called a terminal. Yes
No
84. A list of categorized terms, such as synonyms and related words is called a thesaurus. Yes
No
85. You are uploading when you transfer data from your system or microcomputer to a remote computer or a larger computer system. True
False
86. Are local area networks connected together by using telephones or other types of communications equipment known as wide area networks or WAN? Yes
No
87. A network of information, as part of the Internet, that includes text, graphic, sound and moving images is known as: a. Web b. W3 c. WWW d. All of the Above
References Allen, M. B. (1993, July). International students in academic libraries: a user survey. College & Research Libraries, 54, 323 – 333. Gilton, D. L. (1994, September). A world of difference: preparing for information literacy instruction for diverse groups. Multicultural Review, 3, 54 – 62. Liestman, D., & Wu, C. (1990, Fall). Library orientation for international students in their native language. Research Strategies, 8, 191 – 196. Lin, P. (1994, Summer). Library instruction for culturally diverse populations. Research Strategies, 12, 168 – 173.
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Liu, Z. (1993, January). Difficulties and characteristics of students from developing countries in using American libraries. College & Research Libraries, 54, 25 – 31. Moeckel, N., & Presnell, J. (1995). Recognizing, understanding, and responding: a program model of library instruction services for international students. Reference Librarian, 51/52, 309 – 327. Natowitz, A. (1995, Winter). International students in US academic libraries: recent concerns and trends. Research Strategies, 13, 4 – 16. Sarkodie-Mensah, K. (1992, September). Dealing with international students in a multicultural era. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 18, 214 – 216. Wayman, S. G. (1984, January). The international student in your library: coping with cultural and language barriers. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 9, 336 – 341.