Measuring the developmental appropriateness of kindergarten teachers' beliefs and practices

Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 8, 255-276 (1993)

Measuring the Developmental Appropriateness of Kindergarten Teachers"Beliefs and Practices Rosalind Charlesworth Weber State University

Craig H. Hart Brigham Young University

Diane C. Burrs Renee H. Thomasson Louisiana State University

Jean Mosley Oral Roberts University

Pamela 0. Fleege University of South Florida A questionnaire measure of kindergarten teachers' beliefs and practices based on the guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice of the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) was administered to 204 kindergarten teachers. A principal components analysis of the questionnaire responses produced six reliable beliefs factors and eight reliable practices factors. Observations in 20 kindergarten classrooms confirmed that a composite score derived from the responses to the items on the strongest beliefs factor (Developmentally Inappropriate Activities and Materials) could be used to identify teachers who use more developmentally appropriate than inappropriate practices and those who use more developmentally inappropriate than developmentally appropriate instructional practices. The results provide support that the instruments developed hold promise for utilization in future research on kindergarten teachers' beliefs and practices. Appreciation is extended to the East Baton Rouge Parish Kindergarten teachers who participated in this research project and to Michele DeWoif for her work on the statistical analysis. Lisa Kirk and Sue Hernandez provided invaluable assistance in the initial development of the questionnaire and checklist. Copies of the questionnaire and the checklist used in this study are available from the authors upon request. Correspondence and requests for reprints should be sent to Rosalind Charlesworth, Child & Family Studies, College of Education, Weber State University, Ogden, UT 84408-1301. • Received August 31, 1992; Revision recei~'ed January 29, 1993; Accepted April 6, 1993. 255

256

Charlesworth et al.

There is widespread concern among early childhood educators regarding developmentally inappropriate instructional practices and possible negative effects on young children (e.g., Bredekamp & Shepard, 1989; Charlesworth, 1989). These concerns are focused primarily on kindergarten. Based on informal classroom observations, talks with teachers, teacher and parent interviews, and retrospective interviews and questionnaires, early childhood educators perceive an increasing emphasis on inappropriate academic instruction using workbook/worksheet and drill and practice activities (e.g., Bredekamp & Shepard, 1989; Charlesworth, 1989; Elkind, 1986; Graue, 1993; Hatch & Freeman, 1988; Hitz & Wright, 1988). Simultaneously, there appears to be a reduction in the use of appropriate practices such as providing time for play; using whole language approaches to literacy instruction; and including opportunities for concrete mathematics, science, and social studies experiences (e.g., Bredekamp & Shepard, 1989; Charlesworth, 1989; Elkind, 1986; Hatch & Freeman, 1988; Hitz & Wright, 1988). In addition, inappropriate practices have been observed to be associated with higher levels of student stress behaviors in kindergarten classrooms (Burts, Hart, Charlesworth, Fleege, Mosley, & Thommason, 1992; Burts, Hart, Charlesworth, & Kirk, 1990). Recently teachers' implicit theories and beliefs about teaching have been of particular research interest (Clark & Peterson, 1986; Feeney & Chun, 1985; Isenberg, 1990; Pajares, 1992; Spodek, 1988). Implicit theories are the ideas about instruction that teachers develop from their personal experience and practical knowledge. Implicit theories differ from the explicit theories that are taught in college courses and are included in college texts and other professional literature. To understand the guiding theory that determines teachers' decisions in planning, teaching, and assessing we need to understand what teachers believe to be important and what they believe not to be important. These beliefs can then be compared with classroom practice to determine the relationship between beliefs and practice. The results of an initial study (Charlesworth, Hart, Burts, & Hernandez, 1991) indicated that a teacher questionnaire appeared to be a promising instrument for identifying the degree to which kindergarten teachers valued various classroom practices (both developmentally appropriate and developmentally inappropriate) and the frequency with which these activities were available in classrooms. Charlesworth et al. (1991) also constructed an observational checklist for rating the degree of developmental appropriateness or inappropriateness of practices observed in kindergarten classrooms. The study presented here, using a larger sample of kindergarten teachers from one school system, was undertaken to provide further data regarding the validity of the questionnaire and additional support for some of the trends identified in the earlier study.

Measuring Teachers' Beliefs and Practices

257

PREVIOUS RESEARCH Three strands of research serve as the foundation for this study: (a) assessment of teachers' beliefs and practices, (b) the construct of developmentally appropriate/inappropriate beliefs and practices, and (c) the measurement of teachers' beliefs about developmentally appropriate/inappropriate practices as well as the frequency with which they provide developmentally appropriate and/or developmentally inappropriate classroom activities.

The Importance of Assessing Teachers' Beliefs and Practices Conventional research on teaching has focused on practice, ignoring the thought processes of teachers (Isenberg, 1990). Isenberg believes that an important task for researchers is to collaborate with practitioners to identify their beliefs and translate them into standards of practice. She points out that the research on teacher thinking indicates that there are inconsistencies between teachers' beliefs and practices that need to be identified so teachers can be supported in reflecting upon and analyzing their beliefs as they relate to practice. Isenberg concludes, after reviewing the research, that it is imperative to focus more research on teachers' beliefs as they relate to teaching practice. Information is needed not only on reported practice; it is also important to observe teachers in their classrooms to note how reported beliefs relate to actual practice (Pajares, 1992).

Developmentally Appropriate and Inappropriate Practices The profession has responded to the increasing concern regarding the pressure for using developmentally inappropriate instructional practices as first-grade curriculum is pushed down into kindergarten and kindergarten curriculum is pushed down into prekindergarten (Charlesworth, 1989; HirshPasek, 1991; Hyson, 1991). A number of national professional organizations have agreed on definitions of developmentally appropriate early childhood educational practices (e.g., Bredekamp, 1987; International Reading Association, 1986; Moyer, Egerston, & Isenberg, 1987; National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education, 1987; National Association of Elementary School Principals, 1990; Schultz & Lombardi, 1989; Southern Association On Children Under Six, 1984). The common position held by these groups is that appropriate practices are those that fit young children's stages of development both relative to their age and to their individual developmental level and their family and cultural backgrounds. Appropriate practice provides an environment for young children where knowledge can be constructed through the children's own actions during concrete, authentic experiences in contrast to inappropriate practice

258

Charlesworth et al.

that relies on paper and pencil workbook or worksheet, lecture, and other abstract experiences. With the advent of the Education 2000 Goal 1 that all children should enter school ready to learn, early childhood educators have expressed fear that, rather than schools being ready for children, children will be pressured to be ready for a developmentally inappropriate curriculum (Kagan, 1990). A current trend in early education research is to try to determine to what extent the perceived pressure for formal academic instruction from higher grades is affecting early childhood classroom practice. Various instruments have been developed and used in order to obtain information regarding the kind of instruction valued by kindergarten teachers and the kinds of activities actually provided for their students. Some researchers have used only a questionnaire but most have also conducted some type of classroom observation, usually using a questionnaire to assess beliefs and values, and observational schemes to look at actual classroom practice. The following section is a brief review of the types of measurement used in these studies. The Measurement of Developmentally Appropriate and Inappropriate Beliefs and Practices Although the publication of the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) developmentally appropriate practice guidelines provided a needed framework for early childhood instruction, the supporire literature included no empirical studies. Simultaneously, a number of researchers, including the authors of this article, independently sought to develop measures that could be used as the basis for documenting the nature of early childhood instructional practice as it might fit the NAEYC guidelines. Hitz and Wright (1988) constructed a survey instrument containing two parts. The first part asked respondents to rate the degree of change they perceived in academic emphasis comparing previous years with the emphasis at the time the survey was administered. The second part of the survey consisted of 12 statements (6 describing formal activities and 6 developmental activities). The survey was sent to all kindergarten teachers, to all principals with kindergartens in their schools, and to a randomly selected sample of firstgrade teachers in the state of Oregon. Oakes and Caruso (1990) had kindergarten teachers respond to problem vignettes that measured the degree to which the teachers were willing to share authority and related the teachers' responses to classroom observations using a teaching strategies checklist containing seven pairs of appropriate-inappropriate teaching strategies extracted from the NAEYC 4- and 5-year-old guidelines. Each pair of items consisted of a developmentally appropriate descriptor and its inappropriate opposite. Every 5 min observers checked off which of the 14 items were descriptive of the classroom activity at that specific time. Bryant, Clifford, and Peisner (1991) developed an observational checklist of kindergarten activities also based on the NAEYC guidelines. The

Measuring Teachers' Beliefs and Practices

259

observational checklist consisted of 53 yes/no items, 32 describing teaching activities and 21 listing specific materials that might be present in the classroom. Bryant et al. (1991) also designed a questionnaire to obtain information regarding kindergarten teachers' knowledge and attitudes about developmentally appropriate practice. Respondents rated 28 statements (describing both appropriate and inappropriate practices) on a 5-point scale from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). Bryant et al. (1991) also evaluated the classroom environments using the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale (ECERS; Harms & Clifford, 1980). Stipek, Daniels, Galluzzo, and Milburn (1992) observed in preschools and kindergartens. They developed an observation protocol focused on social-emotional and academic effects of instructional practices. Observers made 27 judgements about each teacher-planned activity that took place. Thirty-six summary judgements were made at the end of the observation day. The observational information was supplemented with teacher interview questions. For comparison, the ECERS and the Classroom Practices Inventory (Hyson, Hirsh-Pasek, & Rescorla, 1990) were also used. Teachers also responded to a 9-item questionnaire designed to measure their beliefs regarding the value of teacher-directed, formal instruction that emphasizes performance. Responses were on a 5-point scale indicating level of agreement. Spidell-Rusher, McGrevin, and Lambiotte (1992) constructed a 56-item, two-part questionnaire. The first part contained demographic questions. The second part included 35 belief statements culled from a search of early childhood education literature. Respondents rated each statement on a 5point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). One hundred and seventy-eight kindergarten teachers and 51 principals responded. These investigations produced a number of findings that shed light on kindergarten teachers' (and principals') beliefs and practices. For example, Hitz & Wright (1988) found that kindergarten teachers perceived an increasing emphasis on academic skill development which was forcing them to teach in a manner that they believed was developmentally inappropriate. Principals were much less supportive of developmentally appropriate practice than were teachers. This finding was congruent with the findings of Hatch & Freeman (1988) and Spiedell-Rusher et al. (1992). Oakes & Caruso (1990) found that teachers with a more authority-sharing attitude provided more developmentally appropriate activities in their classrooms. However, no teacher they observed spent more than 50°7o of classroom time on developmentally appropriate activities. The results of the Bryant et al. (1991) study also showed a low level of developmentally appropriate practice. Only 20~70 of classes observed met their criteria for developmental appropriateness. The level of teachers' and principals' knowledge and belief in developmentally appropriate practice showed a positive relationship with degree of implementation. Stipek et aI. (1992) discovered that kindergartens fell into

260

Charlesworth et al.

three types. Programs that they labeled "didactic" were those "in which academic skills were stressed in a relatively negative social context"; "child centered" programs were those that "deemphasized academic skills and offered a positive social context"; and a third group, the "intermediates" fell within the two extremes (p. 1). Stipek et al. (1992) also found a positive relationship between teachers' beliefs and the type of program in which they taught. As will be seen, although all of us independently developed or adopted different measures, we have come up with similar supportive findings. Two questions led us to design our measures. The first question was to find out through a survey of kindergarten teachers their beliefs and practices regarding the NAEYC guidelines for instruction. Our second question was finding a means to identify kindergarten teachers who valued and exemplified both developmentally appropriate and inappropriate practices (Charlesworth et al., 1991) in order to investigate whether inappropriate practices were significantly more stressful for young children as believed by some early childhood educators but which, at that time, had not as yet been empirically verified (e.g., Elkind, 1989; Gallagher & Coch~, 1987; McCracken, 1986; Swick, 1987). The results of this aspect of our research are reported in Butts et al., (1990) and in Burts et al., (1992). Whereas some investigators (e.g., Hatch & Freeman, 1988; Smith & Shepard, 1988) had documented the relationships between kindergarten teachers' beliefs and practices using ethnographic methods, others developed questionnaire and/or observational instruments. For large-scale studies the more in-depth ethnographic methodology is not practical. Further, in order to examine the psychometric properties of measures a relatively large sample is desirable. The questionnaire and classroom checklist (to be described later) that we developed differ from other instruments in both the breadth of scope and adherence to the items in the NAEYC guidelines (Bredekamp, 1987). The Teacher Beliefs Scale (TBS) asked teachers to rate belief statements as to their relative importance whereas other instruments were designed to determine agreement and disagreement on similar Likert-type scales. In contrast with other instruments an Instructional Activities Scale (IAS) was also included. This scale provided a teacher-reported estimate of not only which activities were offered but also of how frequently they were perceived to be offered, thus allowing for those teachers who use both developmentally appropriate and inappropriate activities with differing frequencies. A major problem with a questionnaire is, of course, the accuracy of self-report. Our classroom observation measure was constructed as a validity check for the perceived beliefs and practices self-reports obtained from the questionnaire. The observation measure we designed provides for a continuum of ratings between the appropriate and inappropriate extremes defined by NAEYC (Bredekamp, 1987). This is in contrast with the yes/no or presence/absence

Measuring Teachers' Beliefs and Practices

261

coding used in the other studies described here which do not provide continuous data in specific domains (e.g., Curriculum Goals, Teaching Strategies, etc.) Our observational ratings thus accounted for classrooms where both developmentally appropriate and inappropriate materials and activities were provided with varying frequencies within domains. The observation checklist thus serves as a suitable instrument for substantiating (or not substantiating) teacher questionnaire responses.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The principal objective of this study was to obtain a larger sample of kindergarten teachers' responses using a slightly revised version of the teacher beliefs and practices questionnaire used in our initial study (Charlesworth et al., 1991). We also attempted to determine the questionnaire's validity through more extensive classroom observation than was done for the initial study. Finally, we wished to see if the same relationships would emerge from the questionnaire data as were obtained in our initial study.

METHOD Initial Development of the Questionnaire and Checklist The initial version of the questionnaire was designed following the NAEYC guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice for 4- and 5-year-olds as first published in Young Children (NAEYC, 1986). A description of the original version of the questionnaire and the findings from the first investigation using the questionnaire are reported elsewhere (Charlesworth et al., 1991). For this study the questionnaire was revised slightly. A few items that did not load on any factor in the first factor analysis were dropped and some modifications were made relative to the NAEYC 5- to 8-year-old guidelines (Bredekamp, 1987) that had become available. The previously devised classroom observation checklist (Charlesworth et al., 1991) based on the 1987 developmentally appropriate practice guidelines was also used. The following is a description of the current questionnaire, the observational checklist, and the administration of these instruments. The Questionnaire The questionnaire, as used in this study, is an instrument that consists of the 36-item TBS and the 34-item IAS. The items included represent several areas of kindergarten instruction as specified in the NAEYC guidelines (Bredekamp, 1987): curriculum goals, teaching strategies, guidance of socioemotional development, language development and literacy, cognitive development, physical development, aesthetic development, motivation, and assessment.

262

Charlesworth et ah

Each TBS item is a statement (e.g., It is ~ f o r children to work silently and alone on seatwork) that the respondent rates on a 5-point Likert scale from not important at all (1) to extremely important (5). IAS items describe an activity (e.g., participating in dramatic play; coloring and/or cutting predrawn forms). The respondent rates the frequency of availability of each activity in his or her classroom along a 5-point scale from almost never (1; less than monthly) to very often (5; daily). A cover sheet contains demographic questions.

Administration of the Questionnaire. Sixty elementary school principals in a medium sized southern city agreed to have their kindergarten teachers participate in our study. The questionnaires were hand delivered to the principals in each of the schools along with a self-addressed stamped envelope. The principals distributed the questionnaires to the kindergarten teachers. The completed questionnaires were then returned to the school secretaries in a sealed envelope and forwarded to the researchers. Of the 219 questionnaires distributed, 204 (93°/0) were returned. The responding teachers had a range of teaching experience from 1 to 30 years (M= 10.76). All the teachers had college degrees with 50.5°7o having a bachelors; 27.9o70, a masters; 18.6°70 a masters plus 30 hr; 2.5070, an Education Specialist, and lo70, a masters plus 60 hr. Selecting Classrooms for Observation. To select classrooms for observation, separate principal components analyses were conducted on the TBS and IAS responses. As presented in Tables 1 and 2 (pp. 264-267), these analyses produced six reliable TBS factors (four appropriate and two inappropriate) and eight reliable IAS factors (four appropriate and four inappropriate). A detailed description of the analyses is presented later. Factor scores were created by summing across items composing each factor (cf. Tabachnick & Fidell, 1983). The composite factor score for TBS Factor I, Developmentally Inappropriate Activities and Materials (see Table 1), was then used to identify teachers one standard deviation above the mean (inappropriate) and one standard deviation below the mean (appropriate) who could be observed in their classrooms to ascertain the validity of using Factor I composite scores as a means for identifying the degree to which classrooms were developmentally appropriate and/or inappropriate. Observational Checklist The Checklist for Rating Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Kindergarten Classrooms is a 24-item observation instrument developed to rate areas of classroom practice and procedure. Items were constructed corresponding to the NAEYC guidelines for children ages 5 though 8 (Bredekamp, 1987). Table 3 (p. 258) contains five sample items. Areas included were Curriculum Goals, Teaching Strategies, Integrated Curriculum, Guidance of SocialEmotional Development, Motivation, Evaluation, and Transitions. Each

Measurin 8 Teachers' Beliefs and Practices

263

item on the checklist is rated on a 5-point Likert scale, from most appropriate (5) descriptors to most inappropriate (1), corresponding to the extremes in the NAEYC guidelines (Bredekamp, 1987). Observers were instructed to rate a score of 5 if the practice was close to 100% appropriate on the item, 4 if the practice was more appropriate (75%) than inappropriate (25%), 3 if the split was fairly even (500/0/50%), 2 if more inappropriate (75%) than appropriate (25%), and 1 if close to 100% inappropriate. Ratings could also be made at the midpoints if the rater believed this to provide a more accurate estimate. Twenty teachers, 8 identified from their questionnaire responses as placing a high value on developmentally inappropriate practices and 12 identified from their questionnaire responses as placing a relatively low value on developmentally inappropriate practices, agreed to be observed. Four of the 204 teachers had noted on their questionnaires that they did not wish to participate any further in the study. Of the 4, only 1 (developmentally inappropriate) was in the range that would have potentially been a possible selection for observation. Two teachers who, according to their questionnaire responses, were identified as developmentally appropriate declined to be observed when contacted regarding further participation in the study. Following two observer training sessions, each of the 20 classrooms was rated by two or more independent observers who were unaware of the teacher responses to the questionnaire. Observers, independently, spent at least 3 hr in each classroom observing on different days. Observational periods beyond 3 hr were sometimes necessary in order for the observers to make complete ratings. During the observation periods the observers wrote descriptive notes for each item on the checklist for which evidence appeared. Following the observations, the observers independently rated the corresponding items for each of the checklist practices observed. In classrooms where one or more observers felt somewhat unsure of their ratings, a third, and in one case, a fourth observer, independently observed the classroom. Care was taken so that observers did not discuss their ratings of any classroom prior to the time at which their ratings were compared and a consensus reached on any disagreement. Prior to discussion regarding a consensus rating, interrater agreement was calculated on an item-by-item basis on all items that were rated by at least two observers for each classroom. Because the checklist was intended to be a consensus instrument, agreement for an item meant that both observers of a particular class rated the item within 1 point on the 5-point scale. Overall, 81% o f the items were rated by at least two observers for all the classrooms. Some items were not rated by both observers in a particular class due to nonoccurrence of the item in question during both o f their observational periods. Such items were not included in the calculation o f agreement for that particular class. The number of items on which there was agreement were summed and then divided by the number o f items rated to yield a percentage agreement score for each classroom and for the overall total. The

~

¢g

. . ~~ . m ~ ~

.

~

~

~.° ~.

~

~

¢g

111 ¢,1

° 0~ o~ ¢,1

cl IU

IU

~g

m_

~.

I II .0 I:

.o ¢g 111 I: ~g

L~ "a= m ,.

-.~ ~ r~

.~

~

o'~: •. . - ~ . . . o u ~ . . . o ~ 0~ o ..~ .~ ~. ,.'~

m .Q

264

-a

o

~:~'~

~ ' ~ ~ o "

"~'~ ~.~ "~

~

0

~"~ ~

,-'~ ~ 0~ ~ ~

~ ~

u~ ° 0~-,~

m ~ ~~ ~uu ~o ' ~

*" ,.

_~ o

' ~

:

°

~..~

~" 0

~.o

~ ~ ~= ~

o

~.~

oi: 3 o ~ , - ~

~,~

~ =~

~.~

~

o~,~

oo

~..~

~°

cu

J

265

|

"i

)

:lm )

I,I

r~

i

o~

~o ~4

266

~

"~3 . . . . . . h i :

o ~ ~~o=~'o~ ~

~ ' ~~

N

"~

0.~

~

N

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

~

eel

~.~ ¢~

o~

°

"0

==

"~ o

=='=

0

~4 m

267

Table 3.

Sample Checklist Items

Appropriate ($) 3. View of Growth and Development • Work is individualized • Children move at their own pace

5. Organization of the Curriculum • Activities center on topics such as in science and social studies. • Topic activities include story writing and story telling, drawing, discussion, hearing stories and informational books, and cooperative activities • Skills are taught as they are needed to complete a task

Inappropriate (1) • Work is evaluated against a group norm • Everyone is expected to achieve the same narrowly define skills • Everyone does the same thing at the same time • Teacher directed reading groups • Lecturing to the whole group • Paper and pencil exercises, workbooks, worksheets • Projects, learning centers, and play are offered if time permits or as a reward for completing work

6. Teacher Preparation and Organization of Instruction • Learning centers are set up which provide opportunities for writing, reading, math and language games, dramatic play • Children are encouraged to critique their own work • Errors are viewed as normal and something from which children can learn

• Little time for enrichment activities • May be interest centers available for children who finish their seatwork early • May be centers where children complete a prescribed sequence of teacher-directed activities within a controlled time period

16. Outdoor Activity • Planned daily so children can develop large muscle skills, learn about outdoor environments, and express themselves freely on a well designed playground

• Limited because it interferes with instructional time, or • Provided as a time for recess to use up excess energy

17. Prosocial Behavior, Perseverance, and Industry • Stimulating, motivating activities are provided that promote student involvement • Individual choices are encouraged • Enough time is allowed to complete work • Private time with friends or teacher is provided

268

• Lectures about the importance of appropriate social behavior • Punishes children who become bored and restless with seatwork and whisper, talk or wander around • Punishes children who dawdle and do not finish work in allotted time • No time for private conversations • Only the most able children finish their work in time for special interests or interaction with other students

Measuring Teachers' Beliefs and Practices

269

overall total percentage agreement score across all 20 classrooms was 91 070 with a range for individual pairs of observers from 46070 to 100070. For 7 classrooms agreement was 100070, for 8 of the classrooms the rater agreement was between 90 and 95070, for 3 agreement was between 80 and 89070, and for 2 agreement was below 80070. After calculating interrater agreement, observers for each classroom discussed any disagreements on individual items and arrived at consensus ratings that were used for determining an overall score for each classroom. Because not all items were observed by all observers for each classroom, a missing item was given a score--the mean o f the completed items within the category (e.g., curriculum goals, teaching strategies, etc.). Finally, scores for all of the items within each category were averaged to yield category-average scores. These category-average scores were then averaged to yield an overall classroom score which could range from 1 to 5. Category average scores were used because each category included a different number o f items.

RESULTS The results will be described in the following sequence: psychometric properties of the questionnaire (factorial validity), a comparison o f the questionnaire responses and the classroom observation ratings, and the relationships between appropriate/inappropriate beliefs and practices.

Psychometric Properties o f the Questionnaire Teacher Beliefs Scale. The TBS had item means that ranged from 2.03 to 4.74 (average SD= .79). The principal components analysis produced six reliable factors with eigenvalues greater than 1 accounting for 52.3070 o f the item variance which, when rotated (varimax) to simple structure, yielded moderate to high item loadings (ranging from .35 to .82) on the designated factors and no substantial cross loadings. Two of the factors were inappropriate beliefs and four were appropriate beliefs. See Table 1 for the contents of each factor. Subscale reliability was assessed by Cronbach's alpha. Moderate to low levels of internal consistency were obtained for items comprising these six factors (.84, .77, .70, .60, .66, and .58, respectively). ' We included the two-item factors because, as Tabachnick and Fidell (1983) point out, in cases where two items are highly correlated with each other (r >1.70)and relativelyuncorrelated with others (as is the case here), then the factor may be reliable (see p. 407). The relativelylow alphas for these factors are likely due to the smaller number of items comprising the factors.

270

Charlesworth et al.

Table 4. Teacher Beliefs Scale Factor I (Developmentally Inappropriate Activities and Materials), Z Scores, and Mean Classroom Ratings More Appropriate Teachers

More Inappropriate Teachers

Teacher IDs

182 132 15 111 110 108 37 72

Z Scores Questionnaire Responses

-

2.13 1.84 1.70 1.56 1.56 1.56 1.56 1.41

Consensus Ratings Classroom Observations

2.00 1.71 1.15 2.75 2.96 2.40 2.77 2.25

Teacher IDs

Z Scores Questionnaire Responses

Consensus Ratings Classroom Observations

94 123 105 2 1 41 102 171 179 86 93 107

1.59 1.59 1.45 1.45 1.45 1.45 1.45 1.31 1.31 1.31 1.02 1.02

4.25 3.91 4.11 4.64 2.58 3.81 3.48 4.10 3.41 3.20 4.26 4.90

Note. The range for classroom observation was (1) through (5). Five= almost 100°70developmentally appropriate; 4 = more appropriate than inappropriate; 3 = about equally appropriate and inappropriate; 2 = more inappropriate than appropriate; 1= almost 100% inappropriate. Z scores were reversed (negative to positive and positive to negative) to facilitate ease in interpretation because higher scores on the questionnaire were indicative of more inappropriate beliefs and practices whereas higher scores on classroom ratings were indicative of more appropriate practice. Instructional Activities Scale. Similar analyses were c o n d u c t e d for the IAS. Results are s u m m a r i z e d in Table 2. M e a n s r a n g e d f r o m 1.90 to 4.73 (average SD = 1.03). T h e factor analysis p r o d u c e d seven factors c o n t a i n i n g eigenvalues f r o m 1.11 to 5.34 a c c o u n t i n g for 57.9°7o o f the item variance which, after r o t a t i o n , yielded item loadings r a n g i n g f r o m .39 to .84 o n the designated factors a n d n o s u b s t a n t i a l cross loadings (see Table 2). Three factors i n c l u d e d d e v e l o p m e n t a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e activities a n d four i n c l u d e d d e v e l o p m e n t a l l y i n a p p r o p r i a t e activities. M o d e r a t e to low levels o f i n t e r n a l consistency were o b t a i n e d for items c o m p r i s i n g these seven factors as measured b y C r o n b a c h ' s alpha (.79, .79, .72, .62, .66, .56, a n d .60, respectively). Comparison o f Questionnaire Results and Classroom Observations T h e classroom o b s e r v a t i o n s indicated that 19 out o f the 20 teachers had average ratings that were c o n g r u e n t with their Z-score p l a c e m e n t o n the TBS (see Table 4). T h a t is, all 8 teachers who were above one standard deviation o n beliefs in the i m p o r t a n c e o f i n a p p r o p r i a t e activities a n d materials also h a d composite o b s e r v a t i o n scores below 3. Eleven o u t o f 12 teachers

Measuring Teachers' Beliefs and Practices

271

who were below one standard deviation on beliefs in the importance of inappropriate activities and materials had composite observation scores above 3. It should be noted that one teacher, whose scores are not congruent, was on a team in a departmentalized kindergarten with another teacher and apparently copied the responses on that teacher's questionnaire.

Relationships of Beliefs and Reported Practices Developmentally appropriate factor scores were combined by summing across the developmentally appropriate factors (e.g., developmentally appropriate social, individualization, etc.) separately for the beliefs and instructional practices questionnaire factors. Developmentally inappropriate factor scores (e.g., developmentally inappropriate activities and materials, structure, etc.) were combined in the same manner. This procedure yielded four summary measures (appropriate and inappropriate beliefs and appropriate and inappropriate activities or practices). A correlational analysis using the summary scores from all 204 teacher respondents indicated that reported developmentally appropriate beliefs were moderately correlated with reported developmentally appropriate practices (r = .53, p = .01). A somewhat stronger relationship was found between teachers' developmentally inappropriate beliefs and inappropriate practices (r= .66, p = .01). The difference in the size of the correlations is accounted for by the skewness of each of the distributions. The distributions for the appropriate beliefs and activities were more skewed ( - .888 and -.838, respectively) than those for the developmentally inappropriate beliefs and activities scores (. 14 and - .230, respectively) which reflect a more normal distribution of scores. That is, more teachers rated the appropriate beliefs as having some degree of importance (M rating = 4.32) than rated the inappropriate beliefs as having some degree of importance (M rating = 2.91). Similarly, more teachers reported providing appropriate activities more frequently (M rating = 4.06) than reported providing inappropriate activities more frequently (M rating = 3.19).

DISCUSSION Psychometric Properties of the Questionnaire The beliefs and practices questionnaire demonstrated good psychometric properties. The factors that emerged from this sample of kindergarten teachers were fairly strong and independent and were conceptually logical. That is, the item clusters fit the NAEYC guidelines (Bredekamp, 1987). However, the factors had a different configuration from those obtained in our previous study. The strong beliefs regarding the degree of importance/nonimportance of developmentally inappropriate practices evidenced in TBS Factor 1 may

272

Charlesworth et al.

reflect the fact that at about the same time the questionnaires were distributed, the kindergarten teachers were all called to a meeting where they were told by the school administration that they were expected to use developmentally appropriate instruction. However, "developmentally appropriate" was not defined, nor was any explanation provided as to how to implement it. Funding for inservice was not provided. Past research has indicated that mandates from supervisors and/or administrators are not generally very effective as a means for changing teacher beliefs and practice (e.g., McDonald, 1989; Waugh & Punch, 1987). The validity of the questionnaire responses was supported by the results of the classroom observations. With one exception, teachers selected from the TBS Factor 1 questionnaire responses as believing that developmentally inappropriate practices were very important versus those who believed such practices were not as important taught in a manner congruent with their beliefs. That is, all the observed teachers identified from the questionnaire as putting relatively high values on developmentally inappropriate practice received overall classroom observation ratings of less than 3 (more than 50°7o inappropriate practice observed) whereas 11 out of 12 teachers who placed less importance on developmentally inappropriate practice received overall average classroom observation ratings greater than 3 (less than 50070 inappropriate practice observed).

Comparison of Beliefs and Practices Consistent with the results of the previous study (Charlesworth et al., 1991) there was a moderate, statistically significant positive correlation between reported beliefs and practices concerning developmentally appropriate teaching that reflects the skewed nature of the distribution. That is, most teachers viewed the appropriate beliefs as having some degree of importance even though they might not include developmentally appropriate activities frequently and may use more inappropriate activities on a regular basis. Also consistent with the previous study, there was a stronger relationship between the inappropriate beliefs and inappropriate practices. This may indicate that when it comes to inappropriate practices these teachers were more likely to teach in line with their beliefs. This may be especially true of this group of teachers as reflected in the largest (11 items) and strongest (eigenvalue = 7.40) beliefs factor, Inappropriate Activities and Materials. This may reflect more consistency with regard to the degree of importance/nonimportance of the inappropriate beliefs than is the case with the appropriate beliefs. It may be recalled that developmentally appropriate beliefs fell into several more factors with fewer items in each than did inappropriate beliefs. The practice (activities and materials) factor clusters were all smaller groups. These clusters may reflect the kinds of practices that were most likely to be observed or not observed in specific classrooms. Note that only one of the

Measuring Teachers' Beliefs and Practices

273

developmentally inappropriate teachers was rated close to 100% inappropriate and only one of the developmentally appropriate teachers was rated close to 10007o appropriate (see Table 4). Most classes had mixed ratings with teachers using a combination of appropriate and inappropriate materials and activities. Oakes and Caruso (1990) found a significant relative relationship between willingness to share authority and degree of developmentally appropriate practice observed in the classrooms. Although none of the kindergarten teachers in their sample were observed to have more than 50°70 developmentally appropriate practices, wide variation existed between teachers. These results and the relatively normal distribution of the global inappropriate beliefs and practices scores from the questionnaires, along with the findings from Stipek et al. (1992), support the existence of a developmentally appropriate-inappropriate practice continuum as suggested by Bredekamp and Rosegrant 0992). CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The results of this study support the value of the questionnaire as an instrument for providing a picture of the beliefs and practices of kindergarten teachers by using a degree-of-importance rating scale rather than a disagree/ agree scale or a yes/no format, thus providing an indication of relative value of the importance of beliefs about practice. As with the initial version of the questionnaire, the responses factored into logical groupings that provided a unique profile of the reported beliefs and practices of these teachers. The factor scores for individual teachers can be used to identify kindergarten teachers who appear to be more or less developmentally appropriate in their classroom practice. Further, the classroom observation checklist appears to be a useful instrument for rating the degree of developmentally appropriate/ inappropriate practice in kindergarten classrooms through firsthand examination of the classroom environment and activities. Readers are reminded that the instruments have been used only as research tools and not for individual teacher diagnosis. The information obtained from the questionnaire responses indicates that the kindergarten teachers in this school system used instruction that was at least moderately related to their reported beliefs, especially relative to beliefs regarding inappropriate practices. However, as in previous studies, teachers' professed importance of developmentally appropriate practices was stronger than what was reflected in their reported classroom activities and materials (e.g., Hatch & Freeman, 1988; Hitz & Wright, 1988) or observed in their classroom behavior (Bryant et al., 1991; Oakes & Caruso, 1990). The degree of importance of developmentally appropriate beliefs was also stronger than the degree of importance ascribed to most developmentally

274

Charlesworth et al.

inappropriate beliefs (see M column, Table 1). There is still a need to understand why there is this discrepancy in order to find the key to helping teachers teach in line with their professed developmentally appropriate beliefs. It may be that other policies counter the impetus for developmental appropriateness. The requirement at the state level that Chapter 1 kindergarten students be given a nationally standardized test and, at the local level, that all kindergarten teachers are required to administer the California Achievement Test to their students may impede the implementation of developmentally appropriate practice. It is well documented that standardized testing promotes developmentally inappropriate instruction (e.g., Fleege, Charlesworth, Buns, & Hart, 1993; Kamii, 1990; Madaus, 1988; Smith, 1991). It is also important to keep in mind that the question of defining developmentally appropriate practice is open for debate. Although we believe it is a viable and measurable construct (see Charlesworth, Hart, Butts, & DeWolf, in press), others in the field question its applicability to all children in our diverse culture (e.g., Jipson, 1991; Walsh, 1991). Our belief is that the basic tenet of individual appropriateness includes considerations of diverse factors such as gender and culture as well as development. Further, we realize that global measures such as ours may mask specific aspects of instruction (e.g., scaffolding, guidance procedures, classroom organization, treatment of children relative to gender and culture, etc.). Certainly our measures, as well as those developed by other researchers, should be used with caution. In the future, a multi-site validation study of teachers' beliefs and practices could be conductedusing the measures developed for this study. Future studies could also include observations of classrooms that fall in the middle distribution on beliefs and practices. Additionally, further work needs to be done to refine the checklist rating procedures. We believe, after using these instrumonts, that they are promising tools for future research designed to clarify the beliefs-practices relationship.

REFERENCES Bredekamp, S. (Ed.). (1987). Developmentally appropriate practice in programs serving children from birth through age eight. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Bredekamp, S., & Rosegrant, T. (1992). Reaching potentials: Appropriate curriculum and assessment for young children. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Bredekamp, S., & Shepard, L. (1989). How best to protect children from inappropriate school expectations, practices and policies. Young Children, 44(3), 14-24. Bryant, D.M., Clifford, R.M., & Peisner, E.S. (1991). Best practices for beginners: Developmental appropriateness in kindergarten. American Educational Research Journal, 28, 783-803.

Measuring Teachers' Beliefs and Practices

275

Burts, D.C., Hart, C.H., Charlesworth, R., & Kirk, L. (1990). A comparison of frequencies of stress behaviors observed in kindergarten children in classrooms with developmentally appropriate vs. developmentally inappropriate practices. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 5, 407--423. Burts, D.C., Hart, C.H., Charlesworth, R.C., Fleege, P.O., Mosl~, J., & Thommason, R. (1992). Observed activities and stress behaviors of children from developmentally appropriate and inappropriate kindergarten classrooms. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 7, 297-318. Charlesworth, R. (1989). Behind before they start: How to deal with the risk of kindergarten 'failure'. Young Children, 44(3), 5-14. Charlesworth, R., Hart, C.H., Burts, D.C., & DcWolf, M. (in press). The LSU studies: Building a research base for developmentally appropriate practice. In S. Reifel fed.), Advances in day care and early education, Vol. V. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Charlesworth, R., Hart, C.H., Burts, D.C., & Hernandez, S. (1991). Kindergarten teachers beliefs and practices. Early Child Development and Care, 70, 17-35. Clark, C.M., & Peterson, P.L. (1986). Teachers' thought processes. In M.C. Whitrock fed.), Handbook of research on teaching (pp. 255-296). New York: MacMillan. Elkind, D. (1986). Formal education and early childhood education: An essential difference. Phi Delta Kappan, 67, 631-636. Elkind, D. (1989). Miseducation: Preschoolers at risk. New York: Knopf. Feeney, S., & Chun, R. (1985). Research in review. Effective teachers of young children. Young Children, 41, 47-52. Fleege, P.O., Charlesworth, R., Burts, D.C., & Hart, C.H. (1993). Stress begins in kindergarten: A look at behavior during standardized testing. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 7, 20-26. Gallagher, J.M., & Coche, J.H. (1987). Hothousing: The clinical and educational concerns over pressuring young children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 2, 203-210. Graue, M.E. (1993). Expectations and ideas coming to school. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 8, 53-75. Harms, T., & Clifford, R.M. (1980). Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale. New York: Teachers College Press. Hatch, J.A., & Freeman, E.B. (1988). Kindergarten philosophies and practices: Perspectives of teachers, principals, and supervisors. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 3, 151-166. Hirsh-Pasek, K. (1991). Pressure or challenge in preschool? How academic environments affect children. In L. Rescorla, M.C. Hyson, & K. Hirsh-Pasek fEds.), New Directions in child development. Academic instruction in early childhood: Challenge or pressure? (No. 53, pp. 39--46). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Hitz, R., & Wright, D. (1988). Kindergarten issues: A practitioners' survey. Principal, 67(5), 28-30. Hyson, M.C. (1991). The characteristics and origins of the academic preschool. In L. Rescorla, M.C. Hyson, & K. Hirsh-Pasek (Eds.), New directions in child development. Academic instruction in early childhood: Challenge or pressure? (No. 53, pp. 21-29). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Hyson, M.C., Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Rescorla, L. (1990). The classroom practices inventory: An observational instrument based on NAEYC's guidelines for developmentally appropriate practices for 4- and 5-year-old children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 5, 475--494. International Reading Association. (1986). Literacy development and pre-first grade. Young Children, 41(4), 10-13. Isenberg, J.P. (1990). Teachers' thinking and beliefs and classroom practice. Childhood Education, 66, 322-327.

276

Charlesworth et al.

Jipson, J. (1991). Developmentally appropriate practice: Culture, curriculum, connections. Early Education and Development, 2, 120-136. Kagan, S.L. (1990). Readiness 2000: Rethinking readiness and responsibility. Phi Delta Kappan, 72, 272-279. Kamii, C. (Ed.). (1990). Achievement testing in the early grades. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Madaus, G.F. (1988). The influence of testing on the curriculum. In L.N. Tanner (Ed.), Critical issues in the curriculum (pp. 83-121). Chicago, IL: National Society for the Study of Education. McCracken, J.B. (1986). Reducing stress in young children's lives. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. McDonald, J.P. (1989). When outsiders try to change schools from the inside. Phi Delta Kappan, 71, 206-212. Moyer, J., Egerston, H., & Isenberg, J. (1987). The child-centered kindergarten. Childhood Education, 63, 235-242. National Association for the Education of Young Children. (1986). NAEYC position statement on developmentally appropriate practice in programs for 4- and 5-year-olds. Young Children, 41(6), 20-29. National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education. (1987). Unacceptable trends in kindergarten entrance and placement. Lincoln, NE: Author. National Association of Elementary School Principals. (1990). Standards for quality for programs for young children. Washington, DC: Author. Oakes, P.B., & Caruso, D.A. (1990). Kindergarten teachers' use of developmentally appropriate practices and attitudes about authority. Early Education and Development, 1, 445-457. Pajares, M.F. (1992). Teachers' beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Review of educational research, 62, 307-332. Schultz, T., & Lombardi, J. (1989). Right from the start: A report on the NASBE taskforce on Early Childhood Education: Young Children, 44(2), 6-10. Smith, M.L. (1991). Put to the test: The effects of external testing on teachers. Educational Researcher, 20(5), 8-11. Smith, M.L., & Shepard, L.A. (1988). Kindergarten readiness and retention: A qualitative study of teachers' beliefs and practices. American Educational Research Journal, 25, 307-333. Southern Association On Children Under Six. (1984). Position statement on developmentally appropriate educational experiences for kindergarten. Little Rock, AR: Author. Spidell-Rusher, A., McGrevin, C.Z., & Lambiotte, J.G. (1992). Belief systems of early childhood teachers and their principals regarding early childhood education. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 7, 277-296. Spodek, B. 0988). Implicit theories of early childhood teachers: Foundations for professional behavior. In B. Spodek, O.N. Saracho, & D.L. Peters (Eds.), Professionalism and the early childhood practitioner (pp. 161-172). New York: Teachers College Press. Stipek, D., Daniels, D., Galluzzo, D., & Milburn, S. (1992). Characterizing early childhood education programs for poor and middle-class children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 7, 1-19. Swick, K. (1987). Managing classroom stress. Dimensions, 15(4), 9-11. Tabachnick, B.G., & Fidell, L.S. (1983). Using multivariate statistics. New York: Harper & Row. Walsh, D.J. (1991). Extending the discourse on developmentally appropriateness: A developmental perspective. Early Education and Development, 2, 109-119. Waugh, R.F., & Punch, K.F. (1987). Teacher receptivity to systemwide change in the implementation stage. Review of Educational Research, 57, 237-254.