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Medical technology: a viable source of criminalists
0Forensic Science Society
COMMENTARY
1987
Medical technology: a viable source of criminalists R PFAU Forensic Sciences Bureau, Division of Police, 520 King Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43201, USA
Abstract A presentation is given of the preprofessional curriculum requirements necessary to earn the degree Bachelor of Science in Allied Health Professions, coupled with an in-depth look into the pre-requisite skills of an entry-level forensic scientist. A strong case can be made for the consideration of Medical Technology as highly desirable education and work experience in the employment requirements of the general forensic laboratory. The results of a 5-year teaching program comprised of upper-classmen from vastly dissimilar major-course backgrounds to include Forensic Chemistry, Criminology, Criminal Justice and Medical Technology are presented. Key Words: Criminalistics; Medical technologists; Education; Utilization; Careers. Journal of the Forensic Science Society 1987; 27: 199-205 Received 14 January 1987
Introduction Developing manpower for any highly specialized field in expansion is difficult and costly. Developing manpower for the field of criminalistics is no exception. Professor James Hooker of Virginia Commonwealth University called attention to this problem in 1984 when he noted, "that as far back as 1977 at the 28th Annual Meeting of this Academy, emphasis was placed, by Joe Peterson and Pete DeForest, on the fact that Forensic Science faces no problem more pressing than the education and training of the scientists who staff the nation's forensic science laboratories" [I]. The lack of adequate numbers of criminalists is compounded by the fact that the number of crime laboratories in the United States has increased from about 100 in 1968 to well over 250 by the beginning of this decade. This expansion has been fueled by at least three major forces. First, creation of the Law Enforcement Assistance administration, funded at the multi-million dollar level, contributed to either the creation or expansion of crime laboratories in every state in the union. The tremendous increase in drug
evidence and drug-related crime was a second major driving force in the increasing number of criminalistics laboratories. Finally, police officers have demonstrated an increased interest in the forensic sciences. This latter increase is no doubt due to United States Supreme Court decisions which have forced police officers to abandon interrogation type methods and rely more heavily on physical evidence and the analysis thereof. In the face of this continued expansion, manpower needs have become critical. Various studies indicate nationwide vacancies in the USA annually ranging from 50 to 300. There exists a very real need for a reliable source of competent forensic scientists both now and in the foreseeable future.
Current Manpower Resources At present, there are a small number of universities graduating individuals at the baccalaureate, master's, and doctoral levels with an emphasis in criminalistics. Crime laboratory professionals seem to agree that graduates of these forensic sciences programs are clearly superior to graduates of general science programs. Career-entry forensic scientists must enter the field with a strong background in the physical and biological sciences, a demonstrated knowledge of organic chemistry, instrumental analyses, and microscopy. In general, the bachelor's degree level includes the basic scientific skills which can then be expanded to the diverse and specialized investigations required by the nature of physical evidence. Skills development for baccalaureate-predisposed individuals from either the physical sciences or biological sciences areas is not without difficulty, however. Among the physical scientists, there appears an inherent reluctance to place credence in what the eye beholds; and among the biological scientists, an equivalent distrust of charts and graphs produced by somewhat impersonal analytical instruments. Consequently, these individuals most often gravitate to the area of the forensic sciences laboratory in which they feel most comfortable. This tendency would not be disadvantageous if all laboratories were of sufficient size to warrant assigned specialists in each area. The tendency is counter-productive, however, for the full-service crime laboratories which must employ criminalists who are generalists. Over the last ten years, the author's laboratory has participated in both the didactic course-work and field-work preparation of future criminalists. (See Table 1 for types of educational experience provided and number of students.) An introductory course in forensic sciences has been taught and internships coordinated for students from a variety of backgrounds and at different academic levels. The undergraduate students were mainly Criminology/Criminal Justice or Medical Technology majors. The graduate students were all from either Forensic Science, Toxicology, or Medical Technology. The undergraduate students majoring in Criminology/Criminal 200
Justice, while having the best intentions and great interest in forensic science, were hampered by the absence of an adequate scientific background. With the possible exception of handwriting or firearms analyses, the impression is that these individuals have limited career potential in forensic science. By contrast, through the educational experiences offered, it became readily apparent that the Medical Technology majors already had in their possession numerous viable assets and investigative skills.
TABLE 1 Educational experiences provided for future criminalists by the author's laboratory 10 week internship (Summer quarter, 20 hr/wk training-20 hr/wk research) At Northeastern University: 2 Master's candidates, majoring in Forensic Science (research provided Master's theses). At Ohio University: 6 Bachelor's candidates, majoring in Forensic Chemistry (research provided paper for which 12 hours credit was awarded). 30 week internship (Autumn, Winter and Spring quarters, 8 hr/wk training) At The Ohio State University: 2 Bachelor's candidates, majoring in Criminology/Criminal Justice; 1 Bachelor's candidate, majoring in Analytical Chemistry; 1 Bachelor's candidate, majoring in Medical Technology. Formal course (through 1985) At The Ohio State University: 67 candidates, majoring in Criminology/Criminal Justice; 32 candidates, majoring in School of Allied Medical Professions; 9 candidates, in Continuing Education; 4 candidates, in Graduate School; 4 candidates, major area undeclared; 2 candidates, in Law School.
Medical technologists: an alternative manpower resource Developing the manpower resources needed to meet expansion of criminalistics laboratories is contingent upon finding students whose academic backgrounds include strengths in both the physical and biological sciences. The baccalaureate-degree medical technologist appears to have this unique, balanced blend of scientific and analytical skills. The following information details both the academic background and nature of medical technologists' education. * While the training and education of medical technologists is not new (a certification examination has existed since 1929), their services have been largely cloistered in hospital and commercial clinical laboratories. Prior to 1962, the medical technologist in the USA entered the workforce with 2 years of college and one year of a hospital internship. Today, medical technologists enter their careers with a baccalaureate degree and clinical practicum. Like most of the health care professions, the academic preparation is highly structured and career-entry quality is controlled by national 20 1
certification. It has only been in the last five years that the supply of medical technologists has begun to meet the demands of clinical laboratories. Consequently, the potential of medical technologists as an alternative manpower resource for criminalistics laboratories is enhanced. The following paragraph describes the traditional function of the medical technologist in the clinical laboratory [2]: MEDICAL TECHNOLOGIST. Medical technologists perform complex analyses, fine line discrimination of several items, and correction of errors. They are able to recognize interdependency of tests and have knowledge of physiological conditions affecting test results in order to confirm these results and to develop data which may be used by a physician in determining the presence, the extent and, as far as possible, the cause of disease. They establish and monitor quality control programs and design or modify procedures as necessary. Tests and procedures performed or supervised by medical technologists in the clinical laboratory center about the major areas of hematology, bacteriology, serology, immunology, clinical chemistry, blood banking, urinalysis, mycology and parasitology. In order to prepare the technologist to perform these tasks, accredited medical technology programs have very specific course requirements in both the chemical and biological sciences. These minimum requirements include
PI: CHEMISTRY 16 semester hours or 24 quarter hours credit. Organic and/or biological chemistry must be included. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE 16 semester hours or 24 quarter hours credit. Microbiology (including bacteriology) is required; immunology must be included either as a part of microbiology or as a separate course. The content of chemistry and biological science courses must be acceptable toward a major in those fields or in medical technology, or be certified by the college/university as equivalent. Survey courses do not qualify as fulfillment of chemistry and biological science prerequisites. MATHEMATICS A minimum of one course in college level mathematics is required. Remedial mathematics courses will not satisfy the mathematics requirement. Table 2 lists some of the major science courses included in the medical technology programs at the Ohio State University. Course descriptions indicate the breadth and level of rigor required of this program. In addition to the science courses described in Table 2, students are required to complete a statistics course, and a course in computer application is highly recommended. To highlight how the medical technologist's academic background and skills match those of the forensic scientist, selective components of Professor Hooker's course content areas have been italicized in Table 3. Clearly, the forensic serology area is the most comprehensive match. Skills with a vast
array of laboratory irlstrumentation are the strengths for other content areas. It is appropriate to note that there are approximately 640 Medical Technology programs in the United States today. Many of these are termed "hospital-based", since a full twelve months are spent in the clinical setting
TABLE 2 Prerequisite science courses and predominant options included in the Medical Technology programs at the Ohio State University Biological Sciences General Biology: An introduction to the biological sciences, emphasizing the important concepts and principles which tend to unify the study of life at various levels of organization. Introductory Physiology: A survey of human nerves and nervous systems, sense organs, muscle function, circulation, respiration, digestion, metabolism, kidney function, and reproduction. Microbiology in Relation to Man: Designed to give the student an understanding of micro-organisms which have a bearing on the physical and economic well-being of man. Principles of Infection and Resistance: A study of host-parasite relationships, with emphasis on pathogenicity and immunity. Chemical Sciences General Chemistry (I): A general course in fundamental chemical principles General Chemistry (11): The chemistry of the most important non-metals and of chemical reactions in solutions. General Chemistry ( I l l ): The chemistry of the metals including introductory quantitative analysis. Quantitative Analysis: A general course in quantitative analysis: gravimetric, volumetric and instrumental analysis, primarily for those students with interest in biological and medical science. Physiological Che;nistry: Human biochemistry with emphasis on metabolism and applications to clinical chemistry and human nutrition; pertinent organic chemistry will be included. Predominant Options Organic Chemistry: A two-quarter course in fundamental organic chemistry designed for non-majors in chemistry or students in preparation for high school teaching. Introduction to Biological Chemistry: An introductory course in biochemistry dealing with the molecular basis of structure and metabolism of plants, animals, and micro-organisms. introduction to Genetics: An introductory course emphasizing applied aspects of genetics, primarily for students outside the College of Biological Sciences. General Genetics: The principles of genetics, including molecular genetics, transmission genetics of prokaryotes and eukaryotes, developmental and non-chromosomal genetics, and the genetics and evolution of populations. General Physics: Mechanics and heat. General Physics: Electricity, magnetism and light.
TABLE 3 Content areas of Forensic Science course at Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond Scientific Research and Crime Analysis Role of Forensic Laboratory Crime Scenes Overview of Suspect Profiles History of Forensic Science Laboratory Instrumentation Current Research
Forensic Science: Serology Identification of Blood Specie Origin ABO and Rh Antigen System Secretor Status & the Lewis System Semen /Vaginal Fluid Electrophoresis Other Biological Samples
Forensic Science: Drug Analysis Drug Groups Pharmacology of Drugs Micro Chemical Tests Thin Layer Chromatography Liquid Chromatography Gas Chromatography Isolation and Extraction Microcrystal Tests and Optical Crystallography Spectroscopy in Drug Analysis
Forensic Sciences: Trace Evidence Physical Evidence as a Class Basic Microscopy Hairs and Fibers Soil and Botanical Evidence Glass Polymer Chemistry Synthetic Fibers Paint, Plastics, and Other Related Materials Arson and Explosive Residues
For details of selective italicizing, see text.
with an emphasis on the practical aspects of laboratory analyses. This applied focus also adds to the appeal of technologists for forensic science laboratories. At the completion of the baccalaureate degree program, Medical Technology graduates sit for one of several voluntary, national certification examinations. These written examinations are offered twice each year. The longest standing examination, offered by the Board of Registry, seats approximately 7,000 candidates each year. Of these, approximately 80% are successful. Of the approximately 260,000 medical technologists certified by the Board of Registry through 1985, approximately 140,000 have maintained their Registry status. This represents a sizeable pool of potentially highly skilled practitioners for employment in the forensic sciences. There remains a need for a survey of crime laboratories to determine the number of medical technologists currently practicing as forensic scientists, and the degree of success or failure experienced in selecting medical technologists. Summary In summation, the cogent arguments for considering Medical Technology graduates as potential beginning forensic scientists are three-fold. They are individuals with an understanding of, and in-depth training in, both the physical and biological sciences. They are in possession of a disciplined work attitude by virtue of many hours in the clinical laboratory responding to medical emergencies, and they come to the profession already in 204
possession of a great number of skills which are utilized daily in various and sundry work stations in a full-service forensic sciences laboratory.
References 1. Hooker JE. Graduate education in forensic science: the state of the art. The Police Chief, October 1984; 28. 2. Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation. Allied Health Education Directory, 9th ed. Chicago: American Medical Association, 1980. 3. National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences. Essentials of an Accredited Educational Program for the Medical Technologist. Chicago: National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences, 1977.
COMMENTARY
1987
Medical technology: a viable source of criminalists R PFAU Forensic Sciences Bureau, Division of Police, 520 King Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43201, USA
Abstract A presentation is given of the preprofessional curriculum requirements necessary to earn the degree Bachelor of Science in Allied Health Professions, coupled with an in-depth look into the pre-requisite skills of an entry-level forensic scientist. A strong case can be made for the consideration of Medical Technology as highly desirable education and work experience in the employment requirements of the general forensic laboratory. The results of a 5-year teaching program comprised of upper-classmen from vastly dissimilar major-course backgrounds to include Forensic Chemistry, Criminology, Criminal Justice and Medical Technology are presented. Key Words: Criminalistics; Medical technologists; Education; Utilization; Careers. Journal of the Forensic Science Society 1987; 27: 199-205 Received 14 January 1987
Introduction Developing manpower for any highly specialized field in expansion is difficult and costly. Developing manpower for the field of criminalistics is no exception. Professor James Hooker of Virginia Commonwealth University called attention to this problem in 1984 when he noted, "that as far back as 1977 at the 28th Annual Meeting of this Academy, emphasis was placed, by Joe Peterson and Pete DeForest, on the fact that Forensic Science faces no problem more pressing than the education and training of the scientists who staff the nation's forensic science laboratories" [I]. The lack of adequate numbers of criminalists is compounded by the fact that the number of crime laboratories in the United States has increased from about 100 in 1968 to well over 250 by the beginning of this decade. This expansion has been fueled by at least three major forces. First, creation of the Law Enforcement Assistance administration, funded at the multi-million dollar level, contributed to either the creation or expansion of crime laboratories in every state in the union. The tremendous increase in drug
evidence and drug-related crime was a second major driving force in the increasing number of criminalistics laboratories. Finally, police officers have demonstrated an increased interest in the forensic sciences. This latter increase is no doubt due to United States Supreme Court decisions which have forced police officers to abandon interrogation type methods and rely more heavily on physical evidence and the analysis thereof. In the face of this continued expansion, manpower needs have become critical. Various studies indicate nationwide vacancies in the USA annually ranging from 50 to 300. There exists a very real need for a reliable source of competent forensic scientists both now and in the foreseeable future.
Current Manpower Resources At present, there are a small number of universities graduating individuals at the baccalaureate, master's, and doctoral levels with an emphasis in criminalistics. Crime laboratory professionals seem to agree that graduates of these forensic sciences programs are clearly superior to graduates of general science programs. Career-entry forensic scientists must enter the field with a strong background in the physical and biological sciences, a demonstrated knowledge of organic chemistry, instrumental analyses, and microscopy. In general, the bachelor's degree level includes the basic scientific skills which can then be expanded to the diverse and specialized investigations required by the nature of physical evidence. Skills development for baccalaureate-predisposed individuals from either the physical sciences or biological sciences areas is not without difficulty, however. Among the physical scientists, there appears an inherent reluctance to place credence in what the eye beholds; and among the biological scientists, an equivalent distrust of charts and graphs produced by somewhat impersonal analytical instruments. Consequently, these individuals most often gravitate to the area of the forensic sciences laboratory in which they feel most comfortable. This tendency would not be disadvantageous if all laboratories were of sufficient size to warrant assigned specialists in each area. The tendency is counter-productive, however, for the full-service crime laboratories which must employ criminalists who are generalists. Over the last ten years, the author's laboratory has participated in both the didactic course-work and field-work preparation of future criminalists. (See Table 1 for types of educational experience provided and number of students.) An introductory course in forensic sciences has been taught and internships coordinated for students from a variety of backgrounds and at different academic levels. The undergraduate students were mainly Criminology/Criminal Justice or Medical Technology majors. The graduate students were all from either Forensic Science, Toxicology, or Medical Technology. The undergraduate students majoring in Criminology/Criminal 200
Justice, while having the best intentions and great interest in forensic science, were hampered by the absence of an adequate scientific background. With the possible exception of handwriting or firearms analyses, the impression is that these individuals have limited career potential in forensic science. By contrast, through the educational experiences offered, it became readily apparent that the Medical Technology majors already had in their possession numerous viable assets and investigative skills.
TABLE 1 Educational experiences provided for future criminalists by the author's laboratory 10 week internship (Summer quarter, 20 hr/wk training-20 hr/wk research) At Northeastern University: 2 Master's candidates, majoring in Forensic Science (research provided Master's theses). At Ohio University: 6 Bachelor's candidates, majoring in Forensic Chemistry (research provided paper for which 12 hours credit was awarded). 30 week internship (Autumn, Winter and Spring quarters, 8 hr/wk training) At The Ohio State University: 2 Bachelor's candidates, majoring in Criminology/Criminal Justice; 1 Bachelor's candidate, majoring in Analytical Chemistry; 1 Bachelor's candidate, majoring in Medical Technology. Formal course (through 1985) At The Ohio State University: 67 candidates, majoring in Criminology/Criminal Justice; 32 candidates, majoring in School of Allied Medical Professions; 9 candidates, in Continuing Education; 4 candidates, in Graduate School; 4 candidates, major area undeclared; 2 candidates, in Law School.
Medical technologists: an alternative manpower resource Developing the manpower resources needed to meet expansion of criminalistics laboratories is contingent upon finding students whose academic backgrounds include strengths in both the physical and biological sciences. The baccalaureate-degree medical technologist appears to have this unique, balanced blend of scientific and analytical skills. The following information details both the academic background and nature of medical technologists' education. * While the training and education of medical technologists is not new (a certification examination has existed since 1929), their services have been largely cloistered in hospital and commercial clinical laboratories. Prior to 1962, the medical technologist in the USA entered the workforce with 2 years of college and one year of a hospital internship. Today, medical technologists enter their careers with a baccalaureate degree and clinical practicum. Like most of the health care professions, the academic preparation is highly structured and career-entry quality is controlled by national 20 1
certification. It has only been in the last five years that the supply of medical technologists has begun to meet the demands of clinical laboratories. Consequently, the potential of medical technologists as an alternative manpower resource for criminalistics laboratories is enhanced. The following paragraph describes the traditional function of the medical technologist in the clinical laboratory [2]: MEDICAL TECHNOLOGIST. Medical technologists perform complex analyses, fine line discrimination of several items, and correction of errors. They are able to recognize interdependency of tests and have knowledge of physiological conditions affecting test results in order to confirm these results and to develop data which may be used by a physician in determining the presence, the extent and, as far as possible, the cause of disease. They establish and monitor quality control programs and design or modify procedures as necessary. Tests and procedures performed or supervised by medical technologists in the clinical laboratory center about the major areas of hematology, bacteriology, serology, immunology, clinical chemistry, blood banking, urinalysis, mycology and parasitology. In order to prepare the technologist to perform these tasks, accredited medical technology programs have very specific course requirements in both the chemical and biological sciences. These minimum requirements include
PI: CHEMISTRY 16 semester hours or 24 quarter hours credit. Organic and/or biological chemistry must be included. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE 16 semester hours or 24 quarter hours credit. Microbiology (including bacteriology) is required; immunology must be included either as a part of microbiology or as a separate course. The content of chemistry and biological science courses must be acceptable toward a major in those fields or in medical technology, or be certified by the college/university as equivalent. Survey courses do not qualify as fulfillment of chemistry and biological science prerequisites. MATHEMATICS A minimum of one course in college level mathematics is required. Remedial mathematics courses will not satisfy the mathematics requirement. Table 2 lists some of the major science courses included in the medical technology programs at the Ohio State University. Course descriptions indicate the breadth and level of rigor required of this program. In addition to the science courses described in Table 2, students are required to complete a statistics course, and a course in computer application is highly recommended. To highlight how the medical technologist's academic background and skills match those of the forensic scientist, selective components of Professor Hooker's course content areas have been italicized in Table 3. Clearly, the forensic serology area is the most comprehensive match. Skills with a vast
array of laboratory irlstrumentation are the strengths for other content areas. It is appropriate to note that there are approximately 640 Medical Technology programs in the United States today. Many of these are termed "hospital-based", since a full twelve months are spent in the clinical setting
TABLE 2 Prerequisite science courses and predominant options included in the Medical Technology programs at the Ohio State University Biological Sciences General Biology: An introduction to the biological sciences, emphasizing the important concepts and principles which tend to unify the study of life at various levels of organization. Introductory Physiology: A survey of human nerves and nervous systems, sense organs, muscle function, circulation, respiration, digestion, metabolism, kidney function, and reproduction. Microbiology in Relation to Man: Designed to give the student an understanding of micro-organisms which have a bearing on the physical and economic well-being of man. Principles of Infection and Resistance: A study of host-parasite relationships, with emphasis on pathogenicity and immunity. Chemical Sciences General Chemistry (I): A general course in fundamental chemical principles General Chemistry (11): The chemistry of the most important non-metals and of chemical reactions in solutions. General Chemistry ( I l l ): The chemistry of the metals including introductory quantitative analysis. Quantitative Analysis: A general course in quantitative analysis: gravimetric, volumetric and instrumental analysis, primarily for those students with interest in biological and medical science. Physiological Che;nistry: Human biochemistry with emphasis on metabolism and applications to clinical chemistry and human nutrition; pertinent organic chemistry will be included. Predominant Options Organic Chemistry: A two-quarter course in fundamental organic chemistry designed for non-majors in chemistry or students in preparation for high school teaching. Introduction to Biological Chemistry: An introductory course in biochemistry dealing with the molecular basis of structure and metabolism of plants, animals, and micro-organisms. introduction to Genetics: An introductory course emphasizing applied aspects of genetics, primarily for students outside the College of Biological Sciences. General Genetics: The principles of genetics, including molecular genetics, transmission genetics of prokaryotes and eukaryotes, developmental and non-chromosomal genetics, and the genetics and evolution of populations. General Physics: Mechanics and heat. General Physics: Electricity, magnetism and light.
TABLE 3 Content areas of Forensic Science course at Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond Scientific Research and Crime Analysis Role of Forensic Laboratory Crime Scenes Overview of Suspect Profiles History of Forensic Science Laboratory Instrumentation Current Research
Forensic Science: Serology Identification of Blood Specie Origin ABO and Rh Antigen System Secretor Status & the Lewis System Semen /Vaginal Fluid Electrophoresis Other Biological Samples
Forensic Science: Drug Analysis Drug Groups Pharmacology of Drugs Micro Chemical Tests Thin Layer Chromatography Liquid Chromatography Gas Chromatography Isolation and Extraction Microcrystal Tests and Optical Crystallography Spectroscopy in Drug Analysis
Forensic Sciences: Trace Evidence Physical Evidence as a Class Basic Microscopy Hairs and Fibers Soil and Botanical Evidence Glass Polymer Chemistry Synthetic Fibers Paint, Plastics, and Other Related Materials Arson and Explosive Residues
For details of selective italicizing, see text.
with an emphasis on the practical aspects of laboratory analyses. This applied focus also adds to the appeal of technologists for forensic science laboratories. At the completion of the baccalaureate degree program, Medical Technology graduates sit for one of several voluntary, national certification examinations. These written examinations are offered twice each year. The longest standing examination, offered by the Board of Registry, seats approximately 7,000 candidates each year. Of these, approximately 80% are successful. Of the approximately 260,000 medical technologists certified by the Board of Registry through 1985, approximately 140,000 have maintained their Registry status. This represents a sizeable pool of potentially highly skilled practitioners for employment in the forensic sciences. There remains a need for a survey of crime laboratories to determine the number of medical technologists currently practicing as forensic scientists, and the degree of success or failure experienced in selecting medical technologists. Summary In summation, the cogent arguments for considering Medical Technology graduates as potential beginning forensic scientists are three-fold. They are individuals with an understanding of, and in-depth training in, both the physical and biological sciences. They are in possession of a disciplined work attitude by virtue of many hours in the clinical laboratory responding to medical emergencies, and they come to the profession already in 204
possession of a great number of skills which are utilized daily in various and sundry work stations in a full-service forensic sciences laboratory.
References 1. Hooker JE. Graduate education in forensic science: the state of the art. The Police Chief, October 1984; 28. 2. Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation. Allied Health Education Directory, 9th ed. Chicago: American Medical Association, 1980. 3. National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences. Essentials of an Accredited Educational Program for the Medical Technologist. Chicago: National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences, 1977.